1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electronics

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electronics 1.1 Signals 1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals 1.3 Analog and Digital Signals 1.4 Amplifiers 1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers 1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors 1.8 Doped Semiconductors 1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors 1.10 The pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals 1.11 The pn Junction with Applied Voltage 1.12 Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction

1.1 Signals

Signals Signal contain information about a variety of things and activities in our physical world.
e.g.: air temperature, pressure, wind speed, voice, etc

Signal processing is usually most conveniently performed by electronic systems.

Transducers (sensor/actuator) convert various signals into electronic signal (voltage and current) forth and back.
signal Sensor from physical world electronic signal

Actuator signal Electronic Signal Processor

electronic signal to physical world

(electronic) Signal Source Output of transducers (sensors) can be modeled as

(a) the Thvenin source : voltages source (o.c) in series with a resistor (ideal voltage source when Rs= 0) (b) the Norton source : current source (s.c) in shunt with a resistor (ideal current source when Rs= 0) vs(t) = Rsis(t)

vo.c. = ?

is.c. = ?

Arbitrary Time-varying Waveform Arbitrary voltage signal vs(t)

t1

t2

1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Non-periodical signal Any time domain arbitrary functions of time can be converted in terms of its frequency spectrum in frequency domain with Fourier transform. Frequency band:
Audio band: 20Hz ~20KHz UHF band: 470 MHz ~ 806 MHz (Ch. 14~69)

Frequency band
Designation ELF extremely low frequency SLF superlow frequency ULF ultralow frequency VLF very low frequency LF low frequency MF medium frequency HF high frequency VHF very high frequency UHF ultrahigh frequency SHF superhigh frequency EHF extremely high frequency Frequency 3Hz to 30Hz 30Hz to 300Hz 300Hz to 3000Hz 3kHz to 30kHz 30kHz to 300kHz 300kHz to 3000kHz 3MHz to 30MHz 30MHz to 300MHz 300MHz to 3GHz 3GHz to 30GHz 30GHz to 300GHz Wavelength 100'000km to 10'000 km 10'000km to 1'000km 1'000km to 100km 100km to 10km 10km to 1km 1km to 100m 100m to 10m 10m to 1m 1m to 10cm 10cm to 1cm 1cm to 1mm

Sinusoidal Signal A since-wave voltage signal va(t) = Vasin t

Amplitude: Va (or r.m.s value: Va/ 2 ) Frequency f = 1/T (Hz) ; Angular frequency = 2f Phase (absolute or relative)

10

Periodical Signal Fourier series allows us to convert periodic function of time as the sum of an infinite number of sinusoids whose frequencies are harmonically related.
e.q. square wave: v(t ) = 4V (sin 0t + 1 sin 30t + 1 sin 50t + ...) 5 3 Fundamental frequency0 =2/T

11

12

1.3 Analog and Digital Signals

Analog Signal In macroscopic view, the physical world is an analog world. The voltage signal directly converted from sensors are analog signal, and the processing circuits are analog circuits.
The value (magnitude) of analog signal can be of any value at specific time. Analog signal is continuous-time signal, which is continuous in time.

13

Digital Signal Analog signal can be sampled, quantized, discretized, or digitized into digital signal.

14

The value (magnitude) of digital signal at specific time can only be in certain value limited by the resolution in sampling process. (e.g. 8bit => 256 levels, 12 bits => 4096 levels) Digital signal is discrete-time signal, which is not continuous in time. The sampled value is only present in given sampling period.

Analog Digital
Binary number system is the simplest possible digital signal.
Each digit in the number can only be 0 or 1 corresponding to high voltage level (5V in usual) and low voltage level (0V in usual). N binary digits (bits) can represent a decimal number D = bo20 + b121+ b222+ bo20+ + bN-12N1

15

ADC (analog to digital converter) and DAC (digital to analog converter) convert signals between analog and digital.

16

1.4 Amplifiers

Amplifiers Signal Amplifiers (pre-amplifier)

Voltage gain (Av) vO / vI

17

Power Amplifiers (post-amplifier)

Current gain (Ai) iO / iI Power gain (Ap) load power( PL) / input power(PI) = vOiO / vIiI Ap = A v Ai

Amplifier circuit symbols.

Gain in Decibels Voltage gain in decibels = 20 log|Av| dB Current gain in decibels = 20 log|Ai| dB Power gain in decibels = 10 log|Ap| dB
why 10?; 10dB drop in power? 20dB drop in voltage/current?

18

Gain > 0 : output in-phase with input ; Gain > 0 dB : amplification. Gain < 0 : output out-of-phase with input (180); Gain < 0 dB : attenuation.

The Amplifier Power Supplies Energy conservation => amplifiers need dc power supplies for their operation. Pdc = V1 I1 + V2 I2 Pdc+ PI = PL + Pdissipated
Pdc: Power draws from dc power supplies PI: Power draws from input source PL: Power delivers to load Pdissipated: Power dissipated by amplifiers.

19

PL / Pdc x 100%

20

Amplifier Saturation
Practically speaking, the amplifier transfer characteristic remains linear over only a limited range of input and output voltages. Output swing of amplifiers is limited by supplied voltage in positive and negative saturation levels denoted L+ and L-, and output swing exceed the range will be truncated. To avoid distorting the output signal waveform, the input swing must keep in linear range: L- / Av vI L+ / Av

21

Nonlinear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing

In practical, the amplifier transfer characteristics may exhibit nonlinearities of various magnitudes in prescribed linear region, and caused nonlinear distortion on output. To avoid distortion in single supply amplifiers.

22

Moving the quiescent point (point Q) with adding bias dc voltage on input. Keeps the amplitude of vi(t) sufficiently small. (assume linear on small signal swing around Q) vI (t) = VI + vi(t) vO (t) = VO + vo(t) vo(t) = Avvi (t) dv
Av =
O

dvI

at Q

Symbol Convention
Direct-current (dc) quantities will be denoted by an uppercase symbol with an uppercase subscript, e.g. iA(t), vC(t) Incremental signal (ac) quantities will be denoted by a lowercase symbol with a lowercase subscript, e.g. ia(t), vc(t) Power-supply (dc) voltages will be denoted an uppercase with a double-letter uppercase subscript, e.g. VDD, IDD

23

24

1.5 Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Voltage Amplifier vo = Avovi RL / (RL+Ro) Av vo / vi = AvoRL / (RL+Ro) (Avo: open-circuit voltage gain) vi = vs Ri / (Rs+Ri) vo / vs = Avo [Ri /(Ri+Rs)] [ RL / (RL+Ro)] For ideal case (Ri , Ro 0): Avo = vo / vs Buffer amplifier: Ri high, Ro low

25

Four Amplifier Models

Type Voltage Amplifier Current Amplifier Transconductanc e Amplifier Transresistance Amplifier Circuit Model Gain Parameter
v A vo o vi i A is o ii (V/V)

26
Ideal Characteristics
Ri = R0 = 0 Ri = 0 R0 = Ri = R0 = Ri = 0 R0 = 0

Open - Circuit Voltage Gain

io = 0

Short - Circuit Current Gain

vo = 0

(A/A)

Short - Circuit Transconductance Gm io v = 0 ( A/V) vi o Open - Circuit Transresistance v R m o io =0 (V/A) ii

27

1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response

28

Feed the input of a voltage amplifier a sine-wave signal of amplitude Vi and frequency and measure the output also in sinusoidal with exactly the same frequency (network analyzer) Transfer function or amplifier response can be measure by varying the of input frequency and measure the magnitude and phase of output respect to input signal.
Magnitude (amplitude) response: |T()|= Vo / Vi Phase response : T()

Amplifier Bandwidth

29

The band of frequencies over which the gain of the amplifier is almost constant, to within a certain number of decibels (usually 3dB half-power point). Amplifiers would distort the frequency spectrum of the input signal outside the bandwidth.

Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers Analyze the amplifier equivalent circuit model.

30

Replace inductance L with jL, and capacitance C with 1/jC. The analysis of the amplifier transfer function T()=Vo()/Vi() |T()| givens the magnitude response, while T() gives phase response.

With complex frequency variable s replace j, then the transfer function is T(s)=Vo(s)/Vi(s) With physical frequencies j, the transfer function is T(j)=Vo(j)/Vi(j)

Single-Time-Constant Networks

31

An STC (single-time-constant) network is one that is composed of, or can be reduced to, one reactive component (inductance or capacitance) and one resistance. Most STC network can be classified into two categories of (a) low-pass (LP) network (b) high-pass (HP) network

Low-Pass STC Network

K Trasfer function : T ( j ) = 1 + j ( / 0 ) |K| Magnitude Response : | T ( j ) | = 1 + ( / 0 ) 2 1 Phase Response : T ( j ) = tan ( / 0 ) Transmission at = 0 (dc) : K Transmission at = : 0 3 dB Frequency : 0 = 1 / ;

32

Bode plots

(Corner frequency, break freuqnecy)

time constant = CR or L/R

High-Pass STC Network

Trasfer function : T ( j ) = K 1 j (0 / )

33

|K| Magnitude Response : | T ( j ) | = 1 + (0 / ) 2 1 Phase Response : T ( j ) = tan (0 / ) Transmission at = 0 (dc) : 0 Transmission at = : K 3 dB Frequency : 0 = 1 / ;

time constant = CR or L/R

Example of Low-Pass STC Network (Ex. 1.5)

34

VO/VS ? dc gain? 3-dB frequency?

Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response35 (a) Capacitively coupled amplifier (ac amplifier)
Internal capacitance in the device (a transistor) cause the falloff of gain at high frequencies. Coupling capacitors used to connect 2 amplifier stage block dc path and cause falloff of gain on low frequencies.

Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response36 (b) directly coupled (dc) amplifier
Without coupling capacitors or with small coupling capacitors (such as being used in IC), the amplifier maintain gain at low frequencies.

(c) tuned amplifiers, bandpass amplifiers, or bandpass filters.

Only selected frequency pass the amplifiers (filters). e.g. select channel on tuners, radio, TV receivers