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Chapter 3
In this chapter you will learn about:

The impact of ICE on society 1

o online services such as online transactions o online shopping o online banking The effects of the use of online services on society in terms of: o o o o o employment issues increased leisure time changing working patterns security and privacy of data health and safety issues.

Online services
We can use the Internet in many ways. It is very useful for finding out information about a number of different topics its also be used by companies to provide services for users of the Internet. There are different types of online services, but these can be broken down into main three areas: 1. People can pay online for services provided by particular organizations. 2. People can do their shopping online 3. Bank customers can use online banking. In order to carry out these activities, Internet users need some basic hardware and software. In terms of hardware they need to have a personal computer with a modem. The only software they need is an Internet browser.

Online transactions and other services:

There are now available in many ways. For example, at local government level in the UK, people can pay their council tax, parking fines and many more items. There are other services which can be paid for at national level, such as car tax. Some of these services require payment online, such as: applying online for a first provisional driving licence applying for a tax disc online booking a theory or practical test online ordering official learn-to-drive books, DVDs, etc. online.

arpan jha Many banking services called card payment gateway systems are now available. These make it possible for companies and businesses to accept credit card payments online. Electronic payment also known as e-payment is very convenient. Modern businesses and companies find it essential to accept electronic payments. Other services are just for information and are not, therefore, transactions, for example: finding the location of disabled parking bays checking a certificate of roadworthiness record using an online calculator to calculate CO2 emissions and vehicle excise duty finding a personalized registration plate. There are many other examples of online services that would not be called transactions, such as: Customers arranging for packages to be picked up and delivered to a destination of their choice- for a fee People filling in their tax returns and making tax payments Reserving and renewing library books.

Online shopping
It is important at this stage to explain the distinction between the Internet and the worldwide web. The Internet is often defined as being a network of computer networks connected together by routers, and can be thought of as the cabling and connectors as well as the computers themselves. The worldwide web is just one aspect of the Internet, along with e-mail, file transfer and so on. It is a collection of hypertext documents; menus etc., often in HTML format. It is an information retrieval system that needs a web browser to access it. The worldwide web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee, an Englishman, in 1989 while he was working at CERN, a scientific research centre in Switzerland. The first website built was at http:\\info.cern.ch/ and was put online on 6 August 1991. The first instance of companies allowing their customers to purchase products using the Internet happened in 1994, when Pizza Hut offered customers the opportunity to order pizzas on its web page. Amazon was founded as an online bookshop in 1995 and now operates separate online shopping sites in Canada, China, France Germany, Japan, the UK and the USA. According to a recent Amazon statement, the company currently ships items to 217 countries. An online shop can be called by other names such as Internet shop, web shop or online store. It is an electronic commerce (c-commerce) application that businesses can use with each other or they can offer services or goods directly to the customer. Online shopping has become very popular for many reasons: Items are usually cheaper online because warehouse and staff costs are lower, and because shops that only operate online want to attract and keep customers. Some shops allow customers to get products at the cheaper online price by ordering online, reserving the product and then collecting and paying at the shop. Customers can compare products and prices at their leisure. Customers can shop at a convenient time for them. Customers can shop at their favourite shop even when they are miles away.

arpan jha Food shops can remember the customers shopping list and favourite brands, and deliver at a time to suit them. Customers can shop around without having to spend time and money travelling around different shops. The Internet allows customers to look at a wide range of shops all around the world. There is a greater choice of manufacturers. Many main street shops can only stock items from a few manufacturers because of space and cost constraints. Although it saves customers the cost of travelling to the shops, online shops tend to charge delivery or postage costs, which reduce, or even remove, the advantages of not having any travelling costs. The purchase of goods from a foreign country can also be problematic. The monetary exchange rate between two countries can rise, so what may appear to be a good bargain when the goods were purchased may turn out to be more expensive when the payment is actually made. Another problem is that the country where the customer lives may impose some sort of tax on the goods when they are shipped into the country, resulting in the customer paying even more. Let us now look at how au online shop operates. Purchasing goods There are a number of steps which customers may go through when buying online. 1.Deciding which online shop to use It is possible to use price comparison services. These are sites that show you the cheapest price for a particular item. These are sites generally do not accept liability for any transaction resulting from the use of their sites. 2. Browsing product categories Most online shops have a number of categories on their home page. These can be represented by icons which are clicked on to go to a category of products that they sell. Frequently, such sites use tabs at the top of the page which link to a different web page on the site for each category. Customers are invited to choose the category they require by clicking on it and then they can look through (or browse) the individual products to get to the one they want. 3. Using the virtual shopping basket Having decided which product the customer wants, they place it in their shopping basket. As in a real shop, the contents of the basket can be added to, removed or changed. When the customer has decided that they have finished shopping and they want to pay, they go to the checkout. 4 Going to the checkout Here is an example of the sequence of events leading up to payment. Note, however, that the actual sequence of events may differ from site to site. If the customer has never used this shops site before they may need to register by choosing a username and a password. Customers then enter their personal data, which usually includes the following:

arpan jha The billing address where the bill will be sent A shipping address where the goods will be sent to; this might be different to the billing address The customers phone number an e-mail address this is nearly always needed, as most sites want to be able to send the customer notification that they have received the order; using e-mail, shops can tell the customer when the order has been dispatched. However, customers who have already registered with the shop on a previous visit just need to log on using their username and password, rather than entering the above data. Another step is to choose the method of payment. There are several alternatives, but the most popular is to pay by credit card or debit card. Cheques can be used but this usually means that the delivery time will be longer, as the shop has to wait for the cheque to clear. It is sometimes also possible to pay on delivery, but this is not so common as the other methods. Another step is for the customer to choose how quickly the goods should be delivered as well as the method of delivery. Whatever method is used, the customer usually has to pay a delivery charge in addition to the price of the goods. The final steps are to confirm the order and to log off. All online shops will ask you to confirm the order you want to place. This will be the last opportunity for the customer to change their mind and not go through with the order. Finally, after confirming the order, or not, the customer must log off from the system.

Security issues
If the customers personal data and payment details were intercepted by a hacker they could be used by the hacker to defraud both the shop and the customer. The data could be used to log on to the shops computer system and order a large number of products which can be dispatched to another address other than the credit owners. For this reason, some online shops will only dispatch to the billing address. The hacker now has possession of these goods which they can sell on and the shop and the customer are left to dispute who is responsible and who should pay the bill. Once the hacker has the credit card details, they can also be used to make purchases at a number of other shops. This is just a small part of identity fraud. In order to protect customers, personal data and payment details are encrypted when they are transferred over the Internet. This means that data is encoded so that anybody who intercepts the data, such as a hacker, is unable to decipher the meaning of the data. The data can only be decoded if the receiving network server has the correct encryption key. Customers should be aware that: if their credit or debit card is used fraudulently, in many countries the card company must refund them They should keep a copy (printout) of what theyve ordered, in addition to a copy of the suppliers confirmation message Their consumer rights (e.g. refunds for faulty goods) apply online They should only use reputable sites.

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Selling goods There are many reasons why companies sell their goods online. They can save a lot of money; for example, they do not need to pay shop assistants or rent buildings on expensive main streets, nor do they need to answer a lot customer questions before the sale of goods. They can compete with larger businesses by reaching a much wider audience, possibly worldwide, and being open 24 hours a day, seven days a week, giving them the opportunity to increase sales. Costs associated with processing orders are lower due to customer orders automatically coming straight into the companys orders database from the website. Companies also receive payments more quickly because payment is made online. Finally, companies can keep track of purchases and see which are the most or least popular products. Before a shop goes online, it has to have a website with an easy-to-remember domain name that is related to the business. The domain name or website address will also be used for e-mail. The company needs a high-specification web server that will operate 24 hours per day. To operate online, the shop needs to have a method of accepting payments. It will also need a secure server, shopping cart software and software to keep track of stock and orders. The shop will need to incorporate into its website a database of product names, descriptions, pricing and photos. The online shopping system must allow the administration staff to add, edit and delete categories, products, manufacturers, customers and reviews. Usernames and passwords are essential to make the system secure. These staff must be able to contact customers directly via email. They must also be able to back up and restore the database easily. They will need to have access to statistics for products and customers, as well as being able to select what to display, and in what order, in the product list page. The online shopping system must allow customers to make use of the orders stored in a database, finding them quickly and easily as well as seeing their order history and being able to maintain their own accounts. Prospective customers should be able to use a temporary shopping basket if they are a guest or a permanent shopping basket if they are returning customers. There will need to be a friendly user interface so that searches and advanced searches can be carried out easily and allow customers to progress smoothly to the checkout. Finally, customers should be confident that all transactions are secure. Online banking Opening and maintaining bank accounts many customers are using online banking because of the convenience of banking at any time of day (or night) and the reduced amount of time and fuel costs incurred when travelling to and from the bank. Security and fraud are issues that are considered in some detail in Section 3.5. Online banking usually offers such features as: Up-to-date bank statements Bill payment Transfer of funds between the customers different accounts Loan applications Higher interest rates for savers because of lower costs.

arpan jha There are a number of steps that customers go through when banking online. The details of different banks websites differ, but they all use a similar procedure. 1. Customers have to log on In order to log on to some banks, customers go to the websites online banking page. They are asked to type in their user ID, or username. After they have done this they may be taken to another page before being asked for security information. 2. Security information All sites require customers to type in a password. Some will ask for additional information such as a favourite place or their mother name or their date of birth. 3 Account information and services available The next page will have a list of the customers accounts and account numbers, together with links to the customers personal details. There is also a list of the different services that the customer can apply for. 4 Account details When the customer selects a particular account, all the recent transactions are listed. A number of services are now available, although these differ from bank to bank. Main transactions which the customer can do online: order a bank statement go to a summary of the customers bank charges pay a bill transfer money between accounts get account details change or create standing orders and direct debits stop a cheque get a new PIN sent to them. Security issues An example of possible identity fraud runs like this. Sadiq gets a loan from the bank by pretending to be somebody else, say Rajvinder. Sadiq uses personal information about Rajvinder, such as address, birth date and bank account number that he has obtained by hacking into a database. He manages to convince the bank that he is Rajvinder. Sadiq does not pay back the loan and the bank thinks it is Rajvinder who has taken out the loan. They expect Rajvinder to pay the loan back. When he cant or wont, this causes him to have a poor credit rating so that he cannot borrow money himself. Advantages to banks using online banking They dont have to rent so many main street premises, which can be very expensive. They can employ fewer staff, which means that they pay less in staff wages. They also have lower costs, as they dont have to pay running costs of the branches for electricity, heating and lighting. Because of their lower costs, they can offer higher rates of interest for savers and lower rates of interest for borrowers, thus attracting more customers. There is less likelihood of the bank being robbed. Less money is spent on security staff.

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Disadvantages to banks using online banking There is a less personal touch and so it is harder to sell other services that may be available. There is potential for fraud and interception of account information by hackers, resulting in the banks losing money. There are still costs involved in running the business, such as having to pay website developers. There are initial costs, such as buying the hardware when starting up. They need to retrain staff, which is costly. Disadvantages to customers using online banking They may lose contact with their friends as they may not go out of the house as much. Customers must have a computer, Internet access, basic computer skills and a reliable electricity supply. There is a small risk that hackers may intercept data and take money from the customers account. Customers may not like the fact that the bank is not providing the personal touch Customers may mismanage accounts now that it is so easy to transfer money from one account to another. Because customers must use the phone line to carry out online banking, their phone bills can increase. If customers dont have broadband, other family members will not be able to use the phone at the same time as one person is using online banking. Customers are unable to make cash deposits or withdraw cash without physically going to the bank or to an ATM. Customers may receive e-mails that claim to be from the bank but are fraudulent, asking them to give out bank details, including passwords. This is called phishing. 3.2 Online services and employment The introduction of online services has had two effects on employment. Some staff have lost their jobs because the use of ICT has replaced the need for some types of worker, for example shop assistants and bank clerks. However, the other effect has been an increase in the need for workers in more technical aspects of work. General unemployment Before looking at the specific effect of offline services on unemployment, it is useful to consider a few examples of how other aspects of ICT have affected unemployment. There are many areas where the use of ICT in the fields of business and commerce has generally caused unemployment. Many car workers have lost their jobs when car manufacturing companies have introduced the use of robots into factories. Jobs that used to be done by clerical workers have been replaced by computers; for example, the calculation of payroll, the issuing of invoices and requests for payment and receipts of payment. The main reason for these changes has been cost, although there have been other factors. These are discussed below: Repetitiveness and accuracy Robots are used because certain tasks must be performed in the same way and with the same degree of accuracy every time. Many jobs such as car assembly have little need for feedback and so do not require human judgment and reactions.

arpan jha Time and automation Office jobs have been replaced or have changed due to the introduction of computers in the work place. One such office application is the production of the workers payroll. Many payroll systems required a great deal of paperwork. The number of hour's people worked and their rate of pay used to be written down manually and their wages would be worked out using calculators. The results of the calculations would then be typed out manually. Now, computers are used to carry out the whole process. The only need for any manual input is to have somebody type in details of the workers. Even here, the manual entry of weekly data such as hours worked tends to have been replaced by computers using direct data entry methods (e.g. magnetic cards). In the same way, online services can use many automated services to reduce the amount of time and paperwork required for each transaction. Bank workers The introduction of online banking has seen a reduction in the need for certain types of worker. Bank cashiers are now no longer needed in the numbers that used to be required. Both the use of ATM machines by many customers and the increase in online banking have led to fewer cashiers being needed. Shop workers The use of online shopping has also led to fewer workers being required, so the number of shop assistants has fallen dramatically. For example, in Europe the number of shop workers who are unemployed form the second highest group of unemployed workers in the region. In addition, fewer staff are required to organize stock control, due to the introduction of electronic point of sales (EPOS) terminals. These use barcode readers to input product data and are often linked to automated stock control systems. New employment opportunities With the introduction of online services and the use of ICT in the business sector generally, there have been new jobs created. Furthermore, most jobs in any aspect of industry, business and commerce now require some ICT skills, leading to an increase in the need for skilled workers. As new ICT systems are introduced and updated, systems analysts are in great demand. Systems analysts analyze existing systems and recommend the design and implementation of new systems. In addition to systems analysts, computer programmers are needed to write code for the new systems. Many new systems require the creation of a website for the organization concerned, which involves the services of website designers and authors. Computer technicians are required to install and service the computer hardware. All these people are needed by online service providers to create and maintain systems. The need for help desk or support staff has developed. When people have problems with the system, be it online shopping or banking, they need to be able to contact somebody for help. In addition, call centres have created fresh opportunities, particularly for women in developed countries and for men and women in developing countries. 3.3 Online services and leisure time The effect of the use of online services is to allow the possibility of workers working fewer hours. As has been mentioned above, the use of online services has caused an increase in the unemployment rate in many work areas. The alternative for companies who do not wish to make too many of their workers unemployed is to reduce the number of hours employees work; rather than reducing the number of workers. Many people think that the increased use of online services has caused a reduction in the number of hours employees are required to work. However, there is evidence to suggest that the use of

arpan jha ICT has not provided more leisure time. People who have studied the worklife balance of many workers are suggesting that for many people new technology has had the opposite effect. Rather than decreasing the average employees workload, the expectation by employers is that people should take work home. Often employees are phoned at weekends or after hours to do something. Most people have computers at home. This means that, instead of reducing the number of hours they work, they just take the work home with them and do it there. Another factor to take into consideration is the level of pay of many workers. It is possible, and many governments have passed laws to make sure it happens, for workers to reduce the number of hours they work. However, fewer hours worked means less money. Most workers want to earn as much money as they did before this cut in hours. Many workers, therefore, volunteer to work longer hours than the government says they have to. This is legal provided the employer agrees. Employers cannot make them work this long but workers may choose to do so. The effect of this is that the number of hours a worker actually works has not changed, despite the introduction of online services. It can be argued that the introduction of online services has affected more people than just the employees. Because so many activities, such as shopping and banking, can be performed online, most people now have more leisure time as they dont spend so much time going to shops or banks. 3.4 Online services and working patterns: ICT developments, including the increased use of online services, has increased the amount of flexible working that organizations can offer their workers. Flexible working is any working pattern that can be decided by the employee and is not the normal 9 to 5 In this section we will be looking at different types of flexible working such as: Part-time working Job sharing Flexible working hours (sometimes referred to as flexitime) working from home Compressed hours moving from branch to branch. Part-time working This is when people only work a limited number of hours. The use of online services means that there are fewer jobs available but an advantage is that workers can work less than the normal full-time hours. The number of hours worked can vary from a few hours a week to just less than full time. One of the benefits to employers is that these workers can be used at the busier times or a business. Another is that it can help to retain and attract staff. Also, where fully trained staffs are retained, this means that the company or business will not have to spend money on training new people how to do the work. Online services also need call centres or help lines at need to be available in the evening. Most full-time employees do not like working at these times, so shops and banks have to employ part-time workers. One of the benefits for workers is that they can organize their life outside work more easily. Another is that workers can continue in the job they have been used to doing. If they had to change jobs they might lose their skills and self-confidence. There are some problems for workers, however. Part-time workers are less likely to receive inwork training than their full-time colleagues. Those working part time earn considerably less per hour than full-time workers. The difference is greatest for women working part time, who earn

arpan jha just over half the rate per hour that male full-time workers earn. Part-time jobs are still more common in the lower paid occupations. Job sharing Job sharing is where two people share a job that would normally be done by one person. Each person is paid on a part-time basis but together they do a full-time job. This can be achieved by one person working specific days, mornings or afternoons and the other person working the days, mornings and afternoons when the other doesnt, although there may be times when the employer wants them to work certain times together. There are benefits for employers. The two workers can have different skills, knowledge and experience. the employer can be said to be getting the skills of two workers for the price of one. As with any part-time worker, they are working fewer hours they may be fresher and more creative. When the business is particularly busy the employer can get the two workers to work together. For particular types of job, it doesnt matter that at less busy times neither is working. Obviously, this does not apply to jobs like customer help, where somebody must always be available. If one worker is ill or on holiday, part of the job still gets done. Using a job-share arrangement may mean that workers stay with the business, whereas they might leave if they had to work full time. As with part-time working, there is no need to spend money on training a new person. A possible problem for employers is that money may need to be spent on providing an extra desk or additional equipment. As when employing part-time workers, there may be extra training costs associated with training both workers and trying to arrange training times to suit all workers may be difficult. The benefits for workers are much the same as with part-time working. Additionally, job sharing can give greater enjoyment at work as problems can be shared with someone else. However, there are some problems for employees. Managers may not want certain jobs to be shared. Workers may not get as much job satisfaction if what was considered to be their job now has to be shared with someone else. A further issue is that those who job share have to be extremely organized in terms of the handover between them; it can also help if they think in a similar way. Flexible working hours Flexible working hours, or flexitime as it is sometimes called, give workers some choice about what times of day they work. They can vary them from day to day. They work the same number of hours each week, but they can choose when to do these hours, providing it fits in with other workers requirements and also the employers needs. One benefit for employers is that it can enable businesses to be open for longer during the day. This is very useful when the business has call centres and wants the phones to operate from say, eight in the morning until ten at night. There are a number of benefits for workers. Flexitime allows workers to organize their working lives to suit their personal needs. Travelling to work can be easier and cheaper if it happens outside peak times. If workers stay late to finish a job, they can take time off at a later date. If the job requires great concentration, it can be done at quiet times of day. There are, however, some problems for employees. It can put extra pressure on some workers if they are required to work when other workers are not prepared to work.

arpan jha Working from home Working from home, sometimes called teleworking, involves employees spending all or some of their working week at home, using their home as an office. More and more employees are being allowed to work at home from time to time in order to work without interruption. One benefit for employers is that less money has to be spent on renting or buying offices. Some workers have commitments which make it difficult for them to leave their home, for example having young families, looking after elderly relatives or having disabilities. When employers allow these people to work from home it means that the company doesnt lose the services of staff who might otherwise leave. One problem for employers is that they must make sure that workers are on task and not wasting time. In general, it is a case of employing strategies that are effective in an office-based situation, such as setting and monitoring targets and being available to answer any questions and to provide support. Advantages to workers There are obviously benefits for workers. o They can manage their work and home life more easily. o It is no longer essential for them to live close to their work. o They save on transport costs and travelling time. o They can work hours which suit them. o There are also disadvantages: Some people find it difficult to work without having contact with other people. They do not see their manager as regularly. This means that they are less able to impress him or her, and this can affect career prospects. It is not always easy to find an office space in the home. Sometimes it is difficult to concentrate on work when distracted by what is going on at home: O Friends or relatives may drop in for a chat, making it difficult to work. O Young children at pre-school age demand attention. O Pets can cause distractions, such as dogs needing to be taken for a walk. Keeping work documents confidential and secure while travelling from work to home and vice versa can be hard. Compressed hours Compressed hours working involves employees working the same number of hours but over a shorter number of days. It usually involves working four or four and a half days in a week, or nine days out often in a period of two weeks. One benefit for employers is that by giving extra time off it helps to keep employees who might otherwise leave for the same reasons as with flexitime. Because some workers work longer it means that the company can operate longer hours. Also, absenteeism is less of a problem because employees have more time off. Workers benefit because they earn the same amount of money but work fewer days. They can also have long weekends if they complete all their working hours by early Friday. A problem for workers is that by working longer days they can get very tired and not be able to joy their extra free time.

arpan jha Ability to move from branch to branch With many companies having centralized computer systems, it is not as important which office workers operate from. They will still be able to access their work. This means that employers can organize it so that they can move employees from a branch that is less busy to one that is busier at certain times of the week.

3.5 Online services and security and privacy of data

Need to protect confidentiality of data When we talk about the confidentiality of personal data we mean that information should only be seen by those people who are authorized to see it. Keeping data confidential is an essential part of information security. Encryption is the main ICT technique used to ensure the confidentiality of data in online systems. Ordinary data is converted into a secret code, so anybody illegally accessing data will not be able to understand it. They can still do malicious things like deleting the data but they cannot gain any information from it. To read an encrypt file requires a secret key or password that enables the person to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text encrypted data is referred to as cipher text. Shop security User and payment data are encrypted when they are transferred using the Internet. You will not need to go into much detail for the AS part of the course but you need to understand that there are public encryption key and private encryption keys. Encryption is explained in more detail in Chapter 7 for A2 students. Individuals have a public key which they can tell everybody about. They also have a private key which only they know. Provided you know an individuals public key, you can use it to encrypt a message to send to them. Only that individual, however, is able to decrypt it using their private key. Public-key systems are used to encrypt information that is transmitted using the Internet for payment purposes. Online banking Many banking systems do not consider that the use of a single password provides sufficient protection against the interception of data by hackers. Online banking uses secure sites and all data transferred using the internet including the password, are encrypted. This makes it very difficult for an unauthorized person to get any meaningful information after it has been sent. However, encryption alone does not prevent hackers or fraudsters from gaining access to your PC at home. Using key-logging software, they can detect the keys you are pressing on the keyboard. There is also the slight possibility that they can discover your password or even somebody could steal your password if you are careless enough to write it down. Many online banking services therefore use additional methods of security. One method is to use what are called transaction numbers (TANs). These are basically passwords which are used once only. They are sent to you by your bank either through the post or a more recent development is you request one on the Internet and the bank sends the TAN to your mobile phone. It is only valid for a few minutes, thereby reducing the time available for a hacker to intercept and use it. Another method is to ask the user to type in only part of their password, such as the second, third and fifth characters. Every time the user logs in they are asked for a different combination. This way, a hacker can only get to know part of the password, which is not very useful to them.

arpan jha What is the point of knowing the second, third and fifth characters if when they log on the system asks them for the first, fourth and sixth? A third method Involves providing customers with a handheld chip and PIN device which is capable of generating single-use passwords (this is called two-factor authentication or 2FA).

To access their account a customer would need their debit card, its PIN number, their online security number and the chip and PIN device itself. Once the customer has inserted their card into the device and entered their PIN number, they will be issued with an Eight-digit code. This is the password they use to log in to pay somebody and it changes each time the information is entered. Online shopping The same encryption techniques are used for data transmission as are used by banks. In addition most sites use the https secure prefix to their URL rather than the more common 'http' The bonus is, however, on the customer to ensure that they are using a reputable, secure online store. In addition, to show that data is being transmitted using either the secure socket layer (SSL) or transport layer security (TLS) protocols, there should be a padlock at the bottom of the site. Both are protocols used in the encryption of messages between a client computer and a server, although TLS is now taking over from SSL. You will not need to know about these in detail for your final AS exam, just that they exist. They are explained more in Chapter 7 for A2 students. It is important that the customer checks the contact details and details of the company to make sure of its reliability. It is equally important that the store has a privacy policy and that the customer reads this. If there isnt one or it is too difficult to understand, the customer should go to another store. It is important to know what exactly they are agreeing to buy. Both the description and what to do in the event that they are not satisfied should be clear. Most transactions, if paid for by credit card, are protected by bank legislation so they should always use a credit card. Customers should always print out details of the transaction in case of future disputes:

arpan jha Data protection legislation Data protection acts exist in most countries. These set down rules for keeping data private as well as confidential. Most countries have similar sets of data protection rules. As an example, here is a summary of what the UK Data Protection Act states: Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully. Personal data shall be obtained only for a lawful purpose (or purposes), and shall not be used for anything other than that purpose (or purposes). Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose (or purposes) for which they are processed. Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date. Personal data processed for any purpose (or purposes) shall not be kept for longer than is necessary for that purpose (or purposes). Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects. Appropriate measures shall be taken against unauthorized or unlawful processing of personal data and against accidental loss or destruction of, or damage to, personal data. Personal data shall not be transferred to a country outside the European Economic Area unless that country guarantees the same level of data protection. The Act also allows you to find out, on payment of a nominal fee, what information is being held about you by an organization. Punishment for breaking any of the above principles is a very large fine. Social and ethical implications of access to personal information A number of employees in large organizations have to look at the personal data of other individuals. They are trusted to keep the nature of their work confidential and not share any of this data with people outside (and some inside) that organization. It is important that they are aware of their duties in this work. Duty of confidence Employees who handle confidential information about individuals have a personal duty of confidence both to the individuals and to their employer. This means that they must not tell anybody or use the information for any reason except with the permission of the person who told them, Should they attempt to do so the person who told them can take out a legal injunction preventing them. Examples of confidential information are trade secrets, business secrets, personal information such as diaries and photographs and professional information. In order for a duty of confidence to exist, the employee must be asked to treat the information as confidential or it must be obvious to them that the information is given in confidence. The best way to do that is for the employer to ask the employee to sign a confidentiality agreement. Duty of fidelity A duty of confidence is often confused with an employees duty of fidelity. An employee must be loyal to their employer for so long as they work for them. That means that they must not tell any rival companies about their work. Responsibility for passing on information Organisations are accountable for their decisions to pass on information. When they pass on information about an individual they have to make sure that only the least amount of information that could identify the individual should be used. Online services, particularly online banking

arpan jha and shopping, allow organizations to have access to the most private of data such as names, addresses, phone numbers, financial situation etc. It is essential that such information is not passed on from organisation to organisation without authorization from the individual. Anonymised information Information about individuals without mentioning the person by name is called anonymised information. Where anonymised information would be sufficient for a particular purpose, organizations should always omit personal details wherever possible. Aggregated information Aggregated information is where personal details of individuals are combined to provide information without naming those individuals. However, this may not always safeguard details adequately. An example could be a hospital which statistically analyses all of its patients (without using their names) who suffer from a particular illness or disease and produces information about those patients, for example the number of patients who suffer from a specific disease whose income is below a certain level. As this covers all the patients, no one patient is identifiable. The problem is that there may be only one patient suffering from a particular disease and so it is obvious who the hospital is referring to. Breaches of confidence As was mentioned above, organizations should include a duty of confidence clause in employment contracts. Individuals who feel that their confidential data has been made public (i.e. their confidentiality has been breached) should complain to the organisation. Need for security Under the Data Protection Act, security measures must be in place within an organisation to protect computerized information. As has been explained earlier in this section, under Online banking many methods are used and are being developed to ensure security of personal information. Some customers do not use online banking because they think that they could be open to somebody defrauding them. Identity theft Credit card fraud and identity theft occur more often with conventional banking than with online banking. Many people today are concerned about identity theft, which usually occurs in the form of stolen credit card data. When a purchase is made in some restaurants, shops or petrol stations some customers let the waiter or cashier take the credit card out of their sight. The waiter might use the excuse that the card reader is in the back of the building. The card is then skimmed on a special reader and all the details are copied from the card. Sometimes, to try and avoid suspicion, the skimming machine can be just below the cash till and the customer hardly notices that it has been skimmed as well as swiped for the transaction. With all these details, numerous Internet transactions can be carried out. A rarer method, but it still happens, is when retail outlets databases are hacked into and all customer data is copied for illegal use. Call-line centres for banks have had employees copy data to pass on to criminals, who then use the data to make illegal transactions. Online transactions tend to be more secure. However, even though the data is encrypted, at some point it has to be decrypted in order to process it. At this point, it becomes vulnerable to theft.

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Phishing Phishing is when details of credit cards, debit cards or bank accounts are given out by customers to people they think are representatives of banking organizations. It can be as simple as an e-mail that might ask for a customers details and appear to be from the bank they normally use. The email may say that the bank needs the information so that its systems can be updated or that it is checking that it has the correct e-mail address. It asks the customer for their password, card or account number and other security details. Most banks overcome this by making it clear that they would never ask for the full password, just a number of characters from it (usually three). Phishes often include a website address for the customer to go to which, looks just like the actual banks website. It is actually a fake website they have set up purely to get customer details. Pharming is a variation of phishing. The fraudster can redirect a genuine websites traffic to their own website. The customer thinks they are dealing with their bank (the site is the normal site they would log on to) but are actually sending their details to the fraudster website. Spyware Spyware is software which customers unwillingly download. This usually happens when computer users download certain software. They do not realize that the fraudster or hacker has attached spy-ware to it to gather personal details of the user, often by means of detecting key presses on the keyboard when the user logs on to their bank account or goes online shopping. Online auction or shopping fraud This is when somebody uses a genuine site such as an auction site, puts expensive items up for sale and either just does not deliver them or sends cheap imitations in their place. Some people set up complete online shopping sites which seem to be genuine, but then they take the money arid never deliver the goods. 3.6 Online services and health and safety Health Increase in repetitive strain injury It is felt that the increased use of online services may have an effect on the degree of repetitive strain injury (RSI) that computer users will experience. This is more likely to be the case with telephone operators at call centres than with other users. The two most common RST ailments experienced by computer users are: Carpal tunnel syndrome, the name given to a condition causing pain in the forearm and wrist. The number of cases has increased since the 1980s, due to the increased use of computers in offices. It affects women more than men. Cubital tunnel syndrome, a similar condition which affects the elbow. It is sometimes referred to as cell phone elbow, caused by keeping the elbow bent in order to make and take calls on a mobile phone. RSI is often caused by computer users having their arms and wrists at awkward angles when working at the computer. This picture illustrates the ideal arm and hand positions for computer work. RSI is often caused by computer users having their arms and wrists at awkward angles when working at the computer.

arpan jha This picture illustrates the ideal arm and hand positions for computer work.

Vision and posture problems: Upper back and neck problems are often caused by bad positioning of a computer screen or bad lighting. Typical symptoms include neck pain, shoulder pain, weakness of the arm and hand muscles and headaches. Lower back pain can be caused by prolonged sitting or standing. Visual problems such as eye irritation and eye strain are also quite common among long-term computer users. This can be caused by glare from the screen, poor positioning of the screen and poor lighting. Most call centres are designed to reduce these and times should be set aside for the operators to be able to get up and walk around. To prevent these problems, companies and workers must follow health and safety guidance regarding the height, position and distance of monitors and keyboards from operators when working. If operators are going to be seated for extended periods, they must be provided with good-quality seating that supports the back. Seating should be height adjustable, so that monitors and keyboards are correctly positioned and operators do not have to look up or down at the monitor for prolonged periods. This picture illustrates the ideal sitting position for computer work.

arpan jha Safety Many safety problems are caused by the use of a large number of computers close to each other, as is particularly the case at online centres. This leads to a need for increased safety measures, against electrocution, fire and other dangers. Electrocution This is a rare occurrence but can occur wherever there are lots of computers, electrical cables and sockets. Safety measures include the following: Electrical sockets should not be overloaded. The use of automatic fuse trips means that when there is an overload the circuit trips out. All electrical installations must be carried out by a qualified electrician. All equipment must be of a reliable standard and should be checked annually by qualified electricians. All electrical equipment must be located away from water supplies and workers must have a sound knowledge of electrical safety. Workers must not take drinks to tables where they are working with electrical equipment Fire When computers overheat or wires fray, this can lead to fire. Safety measures include the following: There must always be plenty of CO2 fire extinguishers. Fire exits must be kept clear at all times and not blocked by equipment. All electrical equipment must be located away from water supplies and operators must have a sound knowledge of electrical safety. Tripping hazards When electricity or computer wires, cables or leads are left lying around, people can easily trip over them. Safety measures include the following: Cabling must not trail on the floor. Additional equipment must be situated where it will not result in trailing cables. Danger caused by heavy equipment falling All sorts of personal injuries can be caused by computer equipment falling off a workstation or by a workstation collapsing. Safety measures include the following: Benching must be sturdy enough to withstand the weight of the hardware and additional equipment stored on it. No equipment, no matter how small, must overhang the workstation. Even something as small as a mouse is connected to the computer and if the computer or monitor is not stable it may topple over if the mouse is pulled away.