ME 306 Fluid Mechanics II Part 4

Compressible Flow
These presentations are prepared by Dr. Cneyt Sert Department of Mechanical Engineering Middle East Technical University

Ankara, Turkey
csert@metu.edu.tr

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them. 4-1

Compressibility and Mach Number

Compressibility affects become important when a fluid moves with speeds comparable to the local speed of sound (). Mach number is the most important nondimensional number for compressible flows = / < 0.3 Incompressible flow (density changes are negligible)

0.3 < < 0.9

0.9 < < 1.1 1.1 < < 5.0

Subsonic flow (density affects are important, but shock waves

do not develop) Transonic flow (shock waves appear and divide the flow field

into subsonic and supersonic regions)

Supersonic flow (shock waves are present and there are no subsonic regions)

> 5.0

Hypersonic flow (very strong shock waves and property

changes)
4-2

Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics

Ideal gas equation of state is =

where is the gas constant.

By defining specific volume as = 1/ ideal gas law becomes =

For an ideal gas internal energy () is a function of temperature only.

Ideal gas specific heat at constant volume is defined as =

is also a function of temperature, but for moderate temperature changes it can be taken as constant. In this course well take as constant. Change in internal energy between two states is (considering constant ) 2 1 = (2 1 )
4-3

Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)

Enthalpy is defined as = + = + For an ideal gas enthalpy is also a function of temperature only. Ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure is defined as = will also be taken as constant in this course. For constant change in enthalpy is 2 1 = (2 1 ) Combining the definition of and = =

4-4

Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)

For air =

1.005

0.718

0.287

Specific heat ratio is used frequently in compressible flow studies = which has a value of 1.4 for air.
Combining the above relations we can also obtain = , 1 = 1
4-5

Review of Ideal Gas Thermodynamics (contd)

Entropy change for an ideal gas are expressed with relations 1 = + , 1 =

Integrating these relations for an ideal gas 2 1 = 2 1 + , 1 2 2 1 = 2 2 1 1

For an adiabatic (no heat transfer) and frictionless flow, which is known as isentropic flow, entropy remains constant. Exercise : For isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat values, derive the following commonly used relations, known as isentropic relations

2 1

/(1)

2 = 1

2 = 1

4-6

Speed of Sound ()
Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse (wave) of infinitesimal strength through a still medium (a fluid in our case). It is a thermodynamic property of the fluid. For air at standard conditions, sound moves with a speed of = 343 /

http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/demos.html

4-7

Speed of Sound (contd)

To obtain a relation for the speed of sound consider the following experiment A duct is initially full of still gas with properties , , and = 0 = 0

Piston is pushed into the fluid with an infinitesimal velocity of A pressure wave of infinitesimal strength will form and itll travel in the gas with the speed of sound .

As it passes over the gas particles it will create infinitesimal property changes. Moving wave front
+ + + = 0
4-8

Speed of Sound (contd)

For an observer moving with the wave front with speed , wave front will be stationary and the fluid on the left and the right would move with relative speeds + + + =

Stationary wave front Consider a control volume enclosing the stationary wave front. The flow is one dimensional and steady.

out

in Cross sectional area

4-9

Speed of Sound (contd)

Continuity equation for the control volume =

= + ( )
= +
Negligibly small term

Linear momentum equation in the flow direction is (consider only pressure forces, but no viscous forces since they are negligibly small for the process of interest)
= + = ( ) = =
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Speed of Sound (contd)

Momentum equation simplifies to 1 = Combining continuity and momentum equation results =
Propagation of a sound wave is an isentropic process

Exercise : In deriving speed of sound equation, we did not make use of the energy equation. Show that it gives the same result. Exercise : What is the speed of sound for a perfectly incompressible fluid. Exercise : Show that speed of sound for an ideal gas is equal to =
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Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid

Consider a point source generating small pressure pulses (sound waves) at regular intervals. Case 1 : Stationary source Waves travel in all directions symmetrically. The same sound frequency will be heard everywhere around the source.

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Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)

Case 2 : Source moving with less than the speed of sound ( < 1) Waves are not symmetric anymore.

An observer will hear different sound frequencies depending on his/her location.

This asymmetry is the cause of the Doppler effect.

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Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)

Case 3 : Source moving the speed of sound ( = 1) The source moves with the same speed as the sound waves it generates.

All waves concentrate on a plane passing through the moving source creating a Mach wave, across which there is a significant pressure change.
Mach wave separates the filed into two as zone of silence and zone of action.
Zone of action

Zone of silence

First aircraft exceeding the speed of sound : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1

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Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)

Case 4 : Source moving with more than the speed of sound ( > 1) The source travels faster than the sound it generates.

Mach cone divides the field into zones of action and silence.
Half angle of the Mach cone is called the Mach angle .

Zone of action

Zone of silence

>

4-15

Wave Propagation in a Compressible Fluid (contd)

Exercise : For Case 4 described in the previous slide show that sin = 1/

Exercise : A supersonic airplane is traveling at an altitude of 4 . The noise generated by the plane at point A reached the observer on the ground at point B after 20 . Assuming isothermal atmosphere, determine a) Mach number of the airplane b) velocity of the airplane c) distance traveled by the airplane before the observer hears the noise d) temperature of the atmosphere
= 5 A = 4
http://en.wikipedia.org

F/A-18 breaking the sound barrier

B
4-16

One Dimensional, Isentropic, Compressible Flow

Consider an internal compressible flow, such as the one in a duct of variable cross sectional area

Flow and fluid properties inside this nozzle change due to Cross sectional area change

Frictional effects
Heat transfer effects

NOT the subject of ME 306

In ME 306 well only study these flows to be one dimensional and consider only the effect of area change, i.e. assume isentropic flow.
4-17

1D, Isentropic Flow (contd)

Energy balance between sections 1 and 2 is

2 2 1 2 1 + + 1 = 2 + + 2 + 2 2

Heat transfer and friction work is neglected for isentropic flow

For gas flows potential energy change is negligibly small compared to kinetic energy change. Energy equation reduces to
2 2 1 2 1 + = 2 + 2 2
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Stagnation Enthalpy
The sum +
2 2

is known as stagnation enthalpy and it is constant inside the duct. 2 0 = + = constant 2

stagnation enthalpy

It is called stagnation enthalpy because a stagnation point has zero velocity and the enthalpy of the gas is equal to 0 at such a point.

Fluid in this large reservoir is almost stagnant. This reservoir is said to be at stagnation state.

4-19

Stagnation State
Stgnation state is a reference state used in compressible flow calculations. It is the state achieved if a fluid at any other state is brought to rest isentropically.

For an isentropic flow there will a unique stagnation state.

State 1 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , etc. State 2 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , etc.

Isentropic deceleration

Isentropic deceleration

Unique stagnation state 0 , 0 = 0, 0 , 0 , etc.

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Stagnation State (contd)

Isentropic deceleration can be shown on a diagram as follows 0 0 2/2

Stagnation state 0 , 0 = 0, 0 , 0 , 0 , etc.

Isentropic deceleration

Any state , , , , , etc.

During isentropic deceleraion entropy remains constant. Energy conservation: 0 +

02 2

=+

2 2

= 0 =

2 2
4-21

Stagnation State (contd)

For an ideal gas this enthalpy change can be expressed as a temperature change =

2 (0 ) = 2
2 0 = + 2 During the isentropic deceleration temperature of the gas increases by
2 . 2

Exercise : An airplane is crusing at a speed of 900 / at an altitude of 10 . Atmospheric air at 60 comes to rest at the tip of its pitot tube. Determine the temperature rise of air.
Read about heating of space shuttle during its reentry to the earths atmosphere. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system
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Stagnation State (contd)

Exercise : For the flow of air as an ideal gas, express the following ratios as a function of Mach number and generate the following plot. 0 1.0 0
0

0.5

Adapted from Whites Fluid Mechanics book

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Stagnation State (contd)

Exercise : An aircraft cruises at 12 km altitude. A pitot-static tube on the nose of the aircraft measures stagnation and static pressures of 2.6 kPa and 19.4 kPa. Calculate

a) the flight Mach number of the aircraft

b) the speed of the aircraft c) the stagnation temperature that would be sensed by a probe on the aircraft. Exercise : Using Bernoullis equation, derive an expression for 0 / for incompressible flows. Compare it with the one derived in the previous exercise and determine the Mach number below which two equations agree within engineering accuracy. 2.0 1.8
Adapted from Fox, Pritchard & McDonalds book

Compressible Incompressible

0 1.6 1.4
1.2
1.0 0

0.2

0.4 0.6

0.8

1
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Simple Area Change Flows (1D Isentropic Flows)

Exercise : Consider the differential control volume shown below for 1D, isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a variable area duct. Using conservation of mass, linear momentum and energy, determine the a) Change of pressure with area b) Change of velocity with area

+ + + + +
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Simple Area Change Flows (contd)

Results of the previous exercise are 1 = 2 1 2 , 1 = 1 2 Supersonic Flow > 1

Subsonic Flow < 1

Diffuser > 0 < 0 Nozzle < 0 < 0 > 0

< 0

> 0

> 0
4-26

Simple Area Change Flows (contd)

Sonic flow is a very special case. It can occur when the cross sectional area goes through a minimum, i.e. = 0

Sonic flow may occur at the throat. or at the exit of a subsonic nozzle or a supersonic diffuser < 1 Sonic flow may occur at these exits.

> 1
4-27

Simple Area Change Flows (contd)

Exercise : The nozzle shown on the right is called a converging diverging nozzle (de Laval nozzle). Show that it is the only way to isentropically accelerate a fluid from subsonic to supersonic speed. isentropically decelerate a fluid from supersonic to subsonic speed. de Laval nozzle

Exercise : When subsonic flow is accelerated in a nozzle, supersonic flow can never be achieved. At most Mach number can be unity at the exit. What happens if we add another converging part to the exit of such a nozzle?

< 1

= 1

< 1 =?
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Critical State
Critical state is the special state where Mach number is unity. It is a useful reference state, similar to stagnation state. It is useful even if there is no actual critical state in a flow. It is shown with an asterisk, like , , etc.

Ratios derived in Slide 4-23 can be written using the critical state
/(1) /(1)

1 = 1+ 2 2

1 = 1+ 2 = 1

1 =1+ 2 2
1 = 1+ 2 2
1/(1)

1 =1+ 2
1 = 1+ 2
1/(1)

4-29

Critical State (contd)

Exercise : Similar to the ratios given in the previous slide, following area ratio is also a function of Mach number and specific heat ratio only. Derive it. 1 = 3.0 2.5 2.0 1+ 2 + 1 2
+1 1 2 2(1)

1.5
1.0 0.5
Adapted from Fox, McDonald and Pritchards textbook = 1.4

0 0.5

1 1.5 2

2.5

3
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Isentropic Flow Table

It provides the following ratios at different Mach numbers. 0 0 0

Aksels Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-31

Simple Area Change Flows (contd)

Exercise : Derive an expression for the mass flow rate term that appears in the last column of the table given in the previous slide.

Exercise : A converging duct is fed with air from a large reservoir where the temperature and pressure are 350 K and 200 kPa. At the exit of the duct, crosssectional area is 0.002 2 and Mach number is 0.5. Assuming isentropic flow

a)

Determine the pressure, temperature and velocity at the exit.

b) Find the mass flow rate.

Exercise : Air is flowing isentropically in a diverging duct. At the inlet of the duct, pressure, temperature and velocity are 40 kPa, 220 K and 500 m/s, respectively. Inlet and exit areas are 0.002 2 and 0.003 2.
a) Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit.

b) Find the mass flow rate.

4-32

Simple Area Change Flows (contd)

Exercise : Air flows isentropically in a channel. At an upstream section 1, Mach number is 0.3, area is 0.001 2 , pressure is 650 kPa and temperature is 62 . At a downstream section 2, Mach number is 0.8. a) Sketch the channel shape. Plot the process between sections 1 and 2 on a diagram.

b) Evaluate properties at section 2. c)

4-33

Shock Waves
Waves are disturbances (property changes) moving in a fluid. Sound wave is a weak wave, i.e. property changes across it are infinitesimally small.

across a sound wave is in the order of 109 103 .

Shock wave is a strong wave, i.e. property changes across it are finite.

Shock waves are very thin, in the order of 107 .

Fluid particles decelerate with tens of millions of s through a shock wave. They can be stationary or moving.

They can be normal (perpendicular to the flow direction) or oblique (inclined to the flow direction). In ME 306 well consider normal shock waves for 1D flows inside channels.
4-34

Shock Waves (contd)

Normal shock wave in a supersonic nozzle. Flow is from left to right. Extra waves are due to surface roughness Oblique shock wave ahead of a bullet moving at a supersonic speed

Whites Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-35

Formation of a Strong Wave

Strong wave are formed by the accumulation of weak compression waves. Compression waves are the ones across which pressure increase and velocity decrease in the flow direction. Sound wave is an example of weak compression waves.

Consider a piston pushed with a finite velocity in a cylinder filled with still gas.
We can decompose pistons motion into a series of infinitesimally small disturbances. Weak compression waves will emerge from the piston, one after the other.

The first two of such waves are sketched below.

Second wave front 2 First wave front 1

+ +

= 0
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Formation of a Strong Wave (contd)

First wave will cause an increase in temperature behind it. Second wave will move faster and eventually catch the first one.

2 > 1
A third one, which is not shown, will move even faster and catch the first two waves.

At the end all the waves will accumulate into a strong wave of finite strength.
Weak expansion waves thatll be generated by pulling the piston to the left will not form such a strong wave. Strong wave + + = 0
4-37

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave

Consider a stationary normal shock wave in a duct of variable cross sectional area.

Upstream and downstream states are denoted

by and .

Due to very sudden and finite property changes, the process across the wave is
considered to be non-isentropic. Therefore there are two different stagnation states, state 0 for the flow before the

shock and state 0 for the flow after the shock.

0 0 However, considering the flow to be adiabatic, stagnation temperatures of these states are identical. 0 = 0 = 0 and 0 = 0 = 0
4-38

Stagnation State of a Non-isentropic Flow

Stagnation state concept can also be used for non-isentropic flows, but there will be multiple such states. 0 , 0 and 0 will be unique but not other stagnation properties such as 0 or 0 .
State 1 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , etc. State 2 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , etc.

Non-isentropic flow Isentropic deceleration

Isentropic deceleration Stagnation state 2 0 , 0 = 0, 02 , 02 , 0 , etc.

Stagnation state 1 0 , 0 = 0, 01 , 01 , 0 , etc.

4-39

Adiabatic Stagnation State

Adiabatic stagnation is reached if the deceleration from a state is not isentropic, but only adiabatic. 0 0
Isentropic deceleration Adiabatic deceleration

0,

(Isentropic ) stagnation state

Adiabatic stagnation state

During adiabatic deceleration entropy increases. But the achieved adiabatic stagnation state will have the same stagnation enthalpy 0 and therefore same stagnation temperature 0 as isentropic stagnation state. Any state

4-40

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

Governing equations for the 1D flow inside the control volume enclosing the shock wave are

Continuity :
Momentum : Energy : Second Law :

= =
= 0 = + >
2 2 2

where

= =

= +

4-41

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

For the flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats, these equations can be simplified as follows Donwstream Mach number :
=
2 1 + 2 2 ( 1)

Temperature change :

1+

1 2 2 2 1 2 1 + 1 2 2( 1)

Pressure change :

2 1 2 = + 1 + 1
2 ( + 1) = 2 2 + ( 1)

Density change :

Velocity change :

=
4-42

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

Stagnation pressure change :
0 0 + 1 2 2 = 1 2 1 + 2
1

2 1 2 + 1 + 1

Critical area change :

0 = 0 0 = 0

Entropy change :

According to the last equation for all known values of entropy increase occurs only if > 1. Therefore a shock wave can occur only if the incoming flow is supersonic.

Exercise : Show that flow after the shock should be subsonic, i.e. < 1
4-43

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

All these relations are given as functions of and only. Usually graphical or tabulated forms of them are used.

Aksels Fluid Mechanics textbook

4-44

Property Changes Across a Shock Wave (contd)

Across a normal shock wave 6 5 4
= 0 0 0 = 0

, , 0

decreases

, , , ,
0

increases
remains the same

3
2 1 0

Kinetic energy of the fluid after the shock wave is smaller than the one that would be obtained by a reversible compression between the same pressure limits. Lost kinetic energy is the reason of

1.5

2.5

3.5

temperature increase across the shock wave.

4-45

Adapted from Whites Fluid Mechanics book

Normal Shock Wave (contd)

Exercise : Air traveling at a Mach number of 1.8 undergoes a normal shock wave. Stagnation properties before the shock are known as 0 = 150 , 0 = 350 . Determine , , , , 0 , 0 ,

Exercise : Supersonic air flow inside a diverging duct is slowed down by a normal
shock wave. Mach number at the inlet and exit of the duct are 2.0 and 0.3. Ratio of the exit to inlet cross sectional areas is 2. Pressure at the inlet of the duct is 40 kPa. Determine the pressure after the shock wave and at the exit of the duct.

4-46

Operation of a Converging Nozzle

Consider a converging nozzle. Gas is provided by a large reservoir with stagnation properties, 0 and 0.

Back pressure is adjusted using a vacuum pump and a valve to obtain different flow
conditions inside the nozzle. Well differentiate between exit pressure and back pressure . They are often

equal, but not always.

0 0

4-47

Operation of a Converging Nozzle (contd)

First set = 0 . There will be no flow. Gradually decrease . Following pressure distributions will be observed.

0 1 : No flow ( = 0) 2 : < < 0 Subcritical regime Supercritical regime

4-48

3 : Critical ( = )
4 : <

Choked Flow
Flow inside the converging nozzle always remain subsonic. For the subcritical regime as we decrease mass flow rate increases. State shown with * is the critical state. When is lowered to the critical value , exit Mach number reaches to 1 and flow is said to be choked.

If is lowered further, flow remains choked. Pressure and Mach number at the exit
does not change. Mass flow rate through the nozzle does not change. For < , gas exits the nozzle as a supercritical jet with > . It undergoes through a number of alternating expansion waves and shocks and its cross sectional area periodically becomes thinner and thicker.

4-49

Operation of a Converging Nozzle (contd)

Variation of with
0 2 4 3 1 0 1

Variation of with

3 2

Case 1 is the no flow case. From case 1 to case 3 drops and increases. Case 3 is the critical case with minimum possible and maximum possible .
4-50

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle

Similar to the case of converging nozzle, we again first set = 0 and than gradually decrease . Throat

0
1 : No flow ( = 0) 2 : Subsonic Flow 3 : Choked flow ( = 1) 4 : Flow with shock 5y : Shock at the exit

Same
6 : Overexpansion 7 : Design condition

8 : Underexpansion

4-51

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle

Flow inside the converging section is always subsonic. At the throat the flow can be subsonic or sonic. If = 1 at the throat than the flow is called choked. This corresponds to the maximum flow rate that can pass through the nozzle. Under choked conditions the flow in the diverging part can be subsonic (case 3) or supersonic (cases 6, 7 ,8). Depending on there may be a shock wave in the diverging part. Location of the shock wave is determined by . Design condition corresponds to the choked flow with supersonic exit without a shock. Overexpansion : < . Exiting jet finds itself in a higher pressure medium and contracts. Underexpansion : > . Exiting jet finds itself in a lower pressure medium and expands. For details and pictures visit http://aerorocket.com/Nozzle/Nozzle.html and http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtml
4-52

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)

0 Throat 1 2 3 4 5y 6 7 8

Variation of with 0 5y 876 4 3

Variation of with

1
2

7 5y 3 8 6 4 2 1 0

5x

4-53

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)

Exercise : Air is supplied to a C-D nozzle from a large reservoir where stagnation pressure and temperature are known. Determine a) the Mach number, pressure and temperature at the exit

b) the mass flow rate

= 0.0022 2 0 = 318

= 0.0038 2 = 30

0 = 327

4-54

Operation of a Conv-Div Nozzle (contd)

Exercise : Air flows in a Conv-Div nozzle with an exit to throat area ratio of 2.1. Properties at a section in the converging part are as shown below. a) Determine the ranges of back pressure for subsonic, non-isentropic (with shock), overexpansion and underexpansion flow regimes. b) If there is a shock wave where the area is twice of the throat area, determine the back pressure. 1 = 128 1 = 294 1 = 135 /

1
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