BMA1901 Page 1-11 THREE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS The complementarity of structure and functions, the hierarchy of structural organization

n and homeostasis Anatomy structure of body parts and relationships to one another Physiology the function of the body and their activities Levels of structural organization Chemical level (simplest) atoms, building blocks of matter combine to form molecules such as water, proteins and organelles Cellular level Cells are the smallest units of living things Tissue level tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function. The four basic tissue types in the human body are: epithelium, connective (supports and protects body organs, muscle (movement) , and nervous tissue (provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical pulses) Organ level An organ is a discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function for the body. Organ system level Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose. Organismal level sum total of all structural levels. The human body is interdependent. Page 5. Maintaining Boundaries The reason why organisms need to maintain their boundaries is because its internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it. This system protects our internal organs from drying out, bacteria, damaging the organism by either heat and sunlight. Movement Activities promoted by the muscular system. The skeletal stem provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on. Movement also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs and urine are propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive and urinary systems. The muscle cells ability to move by shortening is more precisely called contractility. Responsiveness Responsiveness is also known as irritability, is the ability to sense changed (which serve as stimuli) in the environment and then responds to them. Most involved with the nervous system.

Digestive Digestive is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. This nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system. Metabolism Includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. These include breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks, synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances, and using nutrient and oxygen available to the blood and on the cardiovascular system to distribute them throughout the body. Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones secreted by the endocrine system glands. Excretion Excretion is the process of removing wastes or excreta from the body. Reproductive Reproduction occurs at the cellular and the organismal level. In cellular reproduction the original cell divides producing identical daughter cells. Reproduction of the human organism is the major task of the reproductive system. Growth Growth is an increase in size of a body part or the organism. Usually accomplished by the increase of cells however individual cells also increase in size when not dividing. Cell survival Survival Needs Nutrients Nutrients take via the diet, contain he chemical substance used for energy and cell building. Oxygen Chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen. Water Water is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body, which provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and fluid base for body secretions and excretions. Normal body temperature Chemical reactions need to be maintained as if the temperature drops below 37 degrees, metabolic reactions become slower or if the temperature rises , chemical reactions occur at a rapid pace and body proteins lose their characteristic shape and stop functioning. Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure.

HOMEOSTASIS The ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously. Communication is chiefly accomplished by the nervous and endocrine systems, which use neural electrical impulses or bloodborne hormones respectively, as information carriers. To regulate the variable homeostatic control mechanisms, at least three components are used. 1. receptor- type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes called stimuli, by sending information to the: 2. the control center via the afferent pathway. the center determines the set point, which is the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained and also determines the appropriate response of course of action. 3. The information from the control center flows to the effector along the efferent pathway. this provides the means for the control centers response to the stimulus and takes action either reducing it (negative feedback) so that the whole process is shut off or enhancing it (positive feedback) so that the whole process continues at an even faster rate. Negative Feedback Mechanisms Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. This is where the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, thus returning to its ideal value. The goal is to prevent sudden severe changes within the body. Reflex arc is a type of negative feedback Positive Feedback Mechanisms In positive feedback mechanisms, the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated. This feedback is positive because the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change. (often referred as cascades) Homeostatic imbalance Homeostatic imbalance can be regarded as a condition by the disturbance of diseases. There are two types of communication systems, the nature of the message may be: 1. Chemical (hormones) 2. nervous (impulses/electrochemical) The nervous system: Has two main structural divisions: Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system (impulse nerves) Afferent nerves > CNS > Efferent nerves A nerve is a bundle of many axons

Endocrine system: Controls metabolic activities that require duration through the action of hormones. It undergoes digestion, metabolism (in the thyroid gland), growth, stress response, internal defenses, blood pressure. Nerves versus Hormones: Similarities: both means of cellular communication and involve stimulus response mechanisms Difference: nature of the message, speed and duration of the responses and their targets. Systems in the body: cardiovascular, integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive.

Blood Page 634-638, 643-644, 648-649 Composition: A fluid connective tissue composed of Plasma (90% water), Proteins, Formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets) Blood exits the heart via arteries, which branch repeatedly until they become tiny capillaries. Components: Blood is a specialized type of connective tissue in which living blood cells, called the formed elements are suspended by the nonliving fluid matrix called the plasma. White blood cells: Act in various ways to protect the body, the platelets, cell fragments that help stop bleeding. Physical characteristics and volume: Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid which a characteristic metallic taste. Blood is slightly alkaline, with a pH between 7.35 and 7.45 and it temperature (38 ot 100) is always slightly higher than body temperature. Distribution: Delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to all body cells Transporting metabolic waste products from cells to elimination sites Transporting hormones from the endocrine organs to their target organs Maintaining appropriate body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat throughout the body and to the skin surface to encourage heat loss Maintaining normal pH in body tissues and adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system Protection: Protection functions of blood include: Preventing blood loss by initiating clot formation and halting blood loss by platelets and plasma proteins Preventing infection- drifting along in blood are antibodies, complement proteins and white blood cells, all of which help defend the body against foreign invaders. Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a straw coloured sticky fluid, which contains over 100 different dissolved solutes, including nutrients, gases, hormones, waste and products of cell activity, ions and proteins. They are most abundant which most plasma proteins are produced in the liver.

Albumin is 60% of plasma proteins which acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through circulation, an important blood bugger and is a major blood protein contributing to the plasma osmotic pressure (the pressure that helps keep water in the bloodstream). Formed Elements Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets have unusual features; (1) leukocytes are complete cells where erythrocytes have no nuclei or organelles and platelets are cell fragments. (2) most of the formed elements only survive up to three days. (3) most blood cells do not divide. Erythrocytes Erythrocytes or RBCs are small cells shaped like biconcave discs, which mature erythrocytes are bound by a plasma membrane but lack a nucleus and have essentially no organelles. Proteins are present such as antioxidant enzymes that rid the body of harmful oxygen radicals, but most function mainly to maintain the plasma membrane or promote changes in RBC shape. It picks up oxygen in the capillary beds of the lungs and releases it to the tissue cells across other capillaries throughout the body. It also transports 20% of carbon dioxide released by tissue cells back to the lungs. Three structural characteristics contribute to erythrocyte gas transport functions: 1. its small size and biconcave shape provide a huge surface area to volume which ideally suited for gas exchange because no point within the cytoplasm is far from surface. 2. Discounting water content 3. Lack mitochondria and generate ATP by anaerobic mechanisms and they do not consume any of the oxygen they are transporting. Function Erythrocytes transport respiratory gases. Hemoglobin, the protein that makes red blood cells red, binds easily and reversibly with oxygen. Hemoglobin is made up of the protein globin bound to the red heme pigment. Each heme group bears an iron set like jewl in its centre, which thus can transport four molecules of oxygen because of the bond between iron and oxygen. Production of Erythrocytes Blood cell formation is referred to as hematopoiesis, which occurs in the red bone marrow, composed largely of a soft network of reticular connective tissue bordering on the wide blood capillaries called blood sinusoids. Within this network are immature blood cells, macrophages, fat cells and reticular cells (secrete the fibers) Erythrocyte production begins with a hemocytoblast descendant called a myeloid stem cell that is transformed into a proerythroblast. Where in turn give rise to the early basophilic erythroblasts that produce huge numbers of ribosomes. These cells divide many times and hemoglobin is synthesized and

iron accumulates as the early erythroblasts transform into late erythroblasts and finally into a normoblast (colour change of cell cytoplasm ribosomes). When a normoblast has accumulated almost all of its hemoglobin it ejects all of its organelles causing it to degenerate and thus develop the biconcave shape. This results in reticulocytes and still contains a scan reticulum (network) of clumped ribosomes. They enter the blood stream and within two days become fully mature erythrocytes as intracellular enzymes degrade the ribosomes. Red bone barrow > stem cell hemocytoblasts (myeloid stem cell) > proerythroblasts >basophilic early erythroblasts > late erythroblasts > normoblasts > reticulocyte > erythrocrytes Regulation and requirements A constant level of erythrocytes is needed as too little may cause tissue hypoxia (oxygen deprivation) and too many makes the blood undesirably viscous. The direct stimulus for erythrocyte formation is provided by erythropoietin (EPO), a glycoprotein hormone (produced majorly from the kidney and some from liver). EPO circulates the blood at all times. When the kidney cells become hypoxic, oxygen sensitive enzymes are unable to carry out their normal functions of degrading an intracellular signaling molecule called hypoxia inducible factor (HIF). As HIF accumulates, it increases the synthesis and release of erythropoietin. Increase of EPO may be from: Reduced numbers of red blood cells due to hemorrhage, insufficient hemoglobin per RBC (iron deficiency) and reduced availability of oxygen. However, too many erythrocytes or excessive oxygen in the bloodstream depresses erythropoietin production. Dietary requirements: For erythropoiesis, raw materials like the usual nutrients and structural materials amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates. Iron is essential for hemoglobin synthesis. Fate and Destruction of Erythrocytes Red blood cells have a life span of 100 to 120 days and are unable to synthesize new proteins, grow or divide. They are engulfed by macrophages and the heme is split off from the globin. Its core of iron is salvaged, bound to protein and sored for reuse.

Leukocytes Leukocytes or also known as white blood cells are the only formed elements that are complete cells with nuclei and usual organelles. Leukocytes are crucial to our defense against diseases as they form a mobile army that helps protect the body. White blood cells are able to sleep out of the capillary blood vessels called diapedesis and the circulatory system is simply their means of transport to areas of the body where they are needed to mount inflammatory or immune responses. Cell adhesion molecules displayed by endothelial cells forming the capillary walls of the sites prompts the WBCs which the leukocytes move through the tissue spaces by amoeboid motion. By following the chemical trail of the molecules released by the damaged cells or other leukocytes, positive chemotaxis can pinpoint the areas of tissue damage and infection and thus gather there and destroy the foreign chemicals. Whenever the WBCs are mobilized, the body speeds up their production and twice the normal number may appear within eyes. Leukocytosis occurs when the condition of normal homeostatic response of over 11k WBCs are produced to an infection in the body. Types of leukocytes: Neutrophils - most common of the white blood cells (50-70%) of the WBC population. - Twice as large as erythrocytes - Their granules make up both basic and acidic dyes (to produce a lilac colour) - Our bodys bacteria slayers and their number increases explosively during acute bacterial infections. - Chemically attracted to sites of inflammation and are active phagocytes Eosinophil - Are accounted for (2-4%) of the population - Leads the counterattack against parasitic worms that are too large to be phagocytized. - Reside in the loose connective tissues - Attack prey by releasing the enzymes from their cytoplastic granules Basophils - Rarest type of white cells - Their granules contain histamine Lymphocytes - 25% of WBC population - large amounts exist in body but small amounts in blood stream - are used for immunity - t lymphocytes (t cells) function the immune rseponse by acting direct against virus-infected cells and tumor cells - B lymphocytes (B cells) give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies released in the blood.

Monocytes - (3-8%) of WBC population - circulating monocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the tissues to differentiate into highly mobile macrophages. - Macrophages are actively phagocytic.

Production of Leukocytes - stimulated by chemical messengers, which can either act as paracrines or hormones are glycoproteins that fall into the families of hematopoietic factors, interleukins and clony-stimulating factors.

Platelets Platelets are not cells, but are cytoplasmic fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes. Platelets contain granules which act in the clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels are ruptured or their lining it injured. Platelets form a temporary plug. They are regulated by the hormone thrombopoietin.