Inequalities and Diophantine Equation

Khor Shi-Jie May 15, 2012

Contents
1 Algebraic Inequalities 1.1 General Tips in Solving Simple Inequalities 1.2 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The AM-GM Inequality . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Completing the Squares . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Problem Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Diophantine Equations 2.1 Considering Residues . . . . . . . . 2.2 Factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Discriminant of Quadratic Equation 2.4 Bounding and Squeeze Principle . . 2.5 Method of Innite Descent . . . . . 2.6 Problem Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 3 3 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 11

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Chapter 1 Algebraic Inequalities

Looking back after studying MO for several years, the algebraic inequalities involved in junior section is relatively easy to grasp and students who prepare for this topic will be rewarded. There are two likely problems which may come out for algebraic inequalities: questions which ask for extreme values or questions which ask to prove an algebraic inequality. In my opinion, the latter type of problem is easier to solve because at gives you a clearer direction to proceed. Still, both kinds of problems can be solved with some practice. The possible problems which can come out in this topic are limited by the syllabus tested in junior section. The relevant topics are quadratic equations, AM-GM inequality and algebraic manipulation skills such as factorisation and completing the square. Advanced topics in beyond junior section can be helpful too because some problems may be directly derived from these topics (although these problems may still be solved with basic theories).

1.1

General Tips in Solving Simple Inequalities

A 1. B

1. To prove that A B, consider proving that A B 0 or

2. Squares are your friend. Consider completing the square. Factorisation can be useful too if one side of the inequality is zero. 3. Consider the equality case of the inequality. If the equality case occurs when all the variables are equal, it is a hint to use AM GM inequality. Note that it is necessary to state the equality case when proving inequalities as the failure to do so will lead to omission of marks. 4. For symmetric equations, we can assume that the variables are ordered in some manner i.e. x y z. This can help us in bounding the values of the variables. 5. Always try and reduce the number of variables in the equation. This can be done through substitution or clever use of the condition of the problem. Inequalities in one variable can be solved much easily. 2

CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES

6. Consider using substitution strategy in solving inequalities. Some substitutions can simplify the expression in the inequality while some substitutions can take away the condition in the problem. 7. Working backwards is a very powerful tool in proving inequalities.

1.2

Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are useful in two ways when it comes to extreme values. Firstly, questions can ask about the minimum or maximum value of a given quadratic function. This can often be solved through completing the square. Secondly, we can use the discriminant of the quadratic equation and the properties of its roots to set up an inequality. Let us consider the following two examples in evaluating extreme values: Example 1. If the real numbers x, y satisfy the condition 2x2 6x+y 2 = 0, nd the maximal value of x2 + y 2 + 2x. When there are two variables involved, it is often wise to reduce the number of variables to one. Based on the condition, we can make the substitution y 2 = 6x 2x2 into the expression that we want to maximise. Now, x2 + y 2 2x = x2 + 8x = (x 4)2 + 16 16, which is achieved when x is 4. However, from 2x2 6x = y 2 0 we must have x 3. This means that maximal value of 16 is not achievable and hence the maximum value occurs when x = 3 instead, giving us a value of 15. Given the number of real roots that a quadratic equation has, we can use the discriminant to construct an inequality based on the coecients of the quadratic equation. Heres an alternative approach to a problem in SMO(J) last year. Example 2. (SMO(J) 2011 P1) Suppose a, b, c, d > 0 and x = a2 + b2 , y = c2 + d2 . Prove that xy ac + bd. Consider the quadratic equation (a2 + b2 )x 2(ac + bd)x + (c2 + d2 ) = 0. The quadratic equation can also be rewritten as (ax c)2 + (bx d)2 = 0, which suggests that the quadratic equation either has two equal roots or no real roots. The discriminant of the equation is less than or equals to 0. Hence, 4(ac + bd)2 4(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) 0 xy ac + bd.

1.3

The AM-GM Inequality

Theorem 1 (AM-GM Inequality). For n positive real numbers x1 , x2 , xn , the arithmetic mean of these numbers is larger or equal to the geometric mean of these numbers, that is x1 + x2 + + xn n x1 x2 xn . n Equality occurs if and only if x1 = x2 = = xn .

CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES

The AM-GM inequality plays a pivotal role in junior section inequalities. It often appears in the following forms: Corollary 1. For two positive real numbers a and b, we have a + b 2 ab where equality holds if and only if a = b. Corollary 2. For positive real numbers a and b, we have if and only if a = b. The equality case of the inequality is very important. This is because if the equality case cannot be achieved, the inequality will be a strict inequality. To illustrate this concept, 1 consider the expression x2 + 8x3 + x for positive x. We cannot conclude that the minimum 3 1 value of this inequality is 2 because the equality case x2 = 8x3 = x cannot be achieved. We need to concept of calculus to nd the minimum point of the above function. Heres an example of AM-GM inequality at work: Example 3. (SMO(J) 2011 P1) Suppose a, b, c, d > 0 and x = Prove that xy ac + bd. a2 + b 2 , y = c2 + d 2 . 4 1 where equality holds ab (a + b)2

This same example can be solved using AM GM inequality too. It suces to prove that (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) (ac + bd)2 . We have: (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ac)2 + (bd)2 + a2 d2 + b2 c2 (ac)2 + (bd)2 + 2(ac)(bd) (ac + bd)2 where the second last step is derived using the AM-GM inequality. The technique of duplication terms to eliminate variables is very handy. A variable can be duplicated several times in order to eliminate the variables in the denominator, as long as the equality case can be achieved. Consider the following problem: Example 4. Of x > y > 0, nd the minimum value of x + First, we use Corollary 2 to derive that 1 . y(x y)

1 4 2 . The term in the denominator is y(x y) x of degree 2. To eliminate this term, we need to duplicate the term x in the expression that we want to minimise. We have: x+ 1 1 1 4 x+ x+ 2 3 y(x y) 2 2 x

by AM-GM inequality. We note that equality is achieved when x = 2 and y = 1. Hence the minimum value is 3.

CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES

1.4

Completing the Squares

The technique of completing the squares is a fundamental technique in proving inequalities. This is based on the property that no square numbers are positive. Let us take a look at the following problem proposed by Titu Andreescu: Example 5. Let a, b, c be real numbers. Prove that the numbers a b2 , b c2 , c d2 , d a2 1 cannot be all larger than . 4 The solution comes intuitively if you are used to solving inequalities using the method of completing the squares. Let us suppose that it is possible for all for expressions to be larger 1 than at the same time, i.e. 4 1 a b2 > , 4 1 b c2 > , 4 1 c d2 > , 4 d a2 > 1 4

By adding the four expressions above together, we obtain a + b + c + d (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ) < 1 Moving all terms to the right and completing the squares, we have 1 1 1 1 ( a)2 + ( b)2 + ( c)2 + ( d)2 < 0 2 2 2 2 which is obviously a contradiction.

CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES

1.5

Problem Set

1. Find the maximal value of the function y = x|x| 2x + 1 when |x + 1| 6. 2. (SMO(O) 2009 P8) It is given that a b = 20, where a and b are real numbers. Find the maximum possible value of a 5b. 3. (SMO(J) 2010 P35) Suppose the three sides of a triangular eld are all integers, and its area equals the perimeter (in numbers). What is the largest possible area of the eld? 4. For positive real numbers a1 , a2 , , an , b1 , b2 , , bn , prove that (a2 +a2 + +a2 )(b2 + 1 2 n 1 b2 + + b2 ) (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 . n 2 5. For n positive real numbers x1 , x2 , xn that satisfy x1 x2 xn = 1, prove that (2 + x1 )(2 + x2 ) (2 + xn ) 3n . 6. Given that (1 + a)(1 + b)(1 + c) = 8 where a, b, c are positive real numbers, prove that abc 1. 7. Show that (a2 b + b2 c + c2 a)(ab2 + bc2 + ca2 ) 9a2 b2 c2 for all positive real numbers a, b, c. x2 x2 x2 x2 8. Let x1 , x2 , , xn be positive real numbers. Prove that 1 + 2 + + n1 + n x2 x3 xn x1 x1 + x2 + + xn . 9. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers that satisfy abc = 1. Prove that a+b+c a2 +b2 +c2 . 10. (SMO(J)2009 P5) Let a, b be positive real numbers satisfying a + b = 1. Show that if x1 , x2 , , x5 are positive real numbers such that x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 = 1, then (ax1 + b)(ax2 + b) (ax5 + b) 1. x1 11. (SMO(O)2004 P4) If 0 < x1 , x2 , , xn 1 where n 1, show that + 1 + (n 1)x1 xn x2 + + 1. 1 + (n 1)x2 1 + (n 1)xn x2 12. (SMO(S)1997 P1) Let x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 be positive real numbers. Show that ( )5 + x1 x4 5 x6 5 x1 5 x3 5 x5 5 x1 x2 x 3 x4 x4 x5 x6 ( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) + + + + + + . x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x2 x4 x 6 x1 x1 x3 x5 13. Suppose x, y, z are real numbers that satisfy xy + yz + xz = 1. Prove that x2 + 5y 2 + 8z 2 4 14. Given that real numbers x, y and z satisfy xy + yz = 10, nd the minimum value of x2 + 5y 2 + 4z 2 . 15. (Canada 2012 P1) Let x, y and z be positive real numbers. Show that x2 +xy 2 +xyz 2 4xyz 4.

Chapter 2 Diophantine Equations

A diophantine equation is a equation or a system of equations with multiple variables subjected to the condition that the variables are integers. It contributes to a large bulk of number theory questions in MO competitions. The techniques involved in solving diophantine equations are fairly standard. However, diophantine equation questions can be very creative and students usually have to exhibit creativity to solve these questions. I have listed several techniques that I know of in solving diophantine equations.

2.1

Considering Residues

This is one of the most common technique and should be the rst technique that students should use to examine a diophantine equation problem. By checking certain common modulos on each term of the equation, one can either arrive at a contradiction to prove that theres no solution, or to nd the unique solutions that satisfy the equation. Heres a list of common modulos to take and the possible residues in each scenario: 1. x2 1 (mod 4) when x is odd and x2 0 (mod 4) when x is even. 2. x2 0, 1, 4 (mod 8) 3. x2 0, 1, 4, 9 (mod 16) 4. x2 0, 1 (mod 3) 5. x2 0, 1, 4 (mod 5) 6. x2 0, 1, 2, 4 (mod 7) 7. x3 0, 1 (mod 7) 8. x3 0, 1 (mod 9) 9. x4 0, 1 (mod 5) 10. x4 0, 1 (mod 16)

CHAPTER 2. DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS 11. p 1 (mod 6) for prime p > 3. The following problem can be solved using congruence relations: Example 6. Prove that x4 + x4 + + x4 = 1983 has no integer solutions. 14 2 1

It is common to assess the residue mod 16 if the equation contains terms of degree 4. By taking mod 16, we realise that 1983 gives a residue of 15 when divided by 16, but the fact that x4 0, 1 (mod 16) shows that it is impossible for the left hand side of the equation to be equal to 15 mod 16.

2.2

Factorisation

This is another common technique especially when exponential terms such as ax are given. We place the exponential term on one side of the equation and factorise the other terms on the other side of the equations. Then we write the exponential term ax as am+n where s > t. Upon splitting the exponents, we compare it with the factors on the other side of the equation. Heres a problem to illustrate this strategy: Example 7. Find all non-negative integer solutions to the equation 3x y 3 = 1. We rewrite the equation as 1 + y 3 = 3x and factorise the left hand side of the equation into (1 + y)(1 y + y 2 ) = 3x . We can set up the following system of equations: y + 1 = 3m y 2 y + 1 = 3n where m + n = x and n m. It does not seem like we can proceed further. If we take a step back, we might notice that y cannot be divisible by 3. At this point, we need to introduce another common technique which complements the factorisation technique: Euclidean algorithm. Finding the greatest common divisor of the two factors is of tremendous help because the greatest common divisor must be 3m . We have: gcd(y + 1, y 2 y + 1) = gcd(y 2 + 2y + 1, y 2 y + 1) = gcd(3y, y 2 y + 1) which suggests that 3m |3y. Based on our previous observation that y is not divisible by 3, we can conclude that either m = 0 or m = 1. When m = 0, we obtain the solution (x, y) = (0, 0) and when m = 1, we obtain the solution (x, y) = (2, 2). These are the only 2 solutions.

2.3

Discriminant of Quadratic Equation

If the diophantine equation given is a quadratic equation with 2 variables, the discriminant can come in handy to determine the bounds of the variables. If the variables are stated to be positive integer, it suggests that the discriminant must be a perfect square (or in rare cases, the square of a rational number). Heres an old problem from Putnam, an undergraduate competition for students in American universities:

CHAPTER 2. DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS

Example 8. (Putnam 1954) Prove that there are no integers x and y such that x2 + 3xy 2y 2 = 122. We have to arrange the equation to appear as a quadratic equation in terms of x. Upon rearrangement we have x2 + 3xy 2y 2 122 = 0. By taking discriminant, we obtain = 17y 2 + 488. Now that you have been drilled with the idea of taking modulo, it should appear intuitive to take modulo 17 and check if it is possible to be a perfect square. It turns out that 17y 2 + 488 12 (mod 17). However, 12 is not a quadratic residue of 17 (can be determined either by listing). Hence the discriminant can never be a perfect square and there will be no integer solutions for (x, y).

2.4

Bounding and Squeeze Principle

Bounding refers to the technique which seeks to nd the minimum and maximum bound of a variable and test the feasibility of the integers within the bound individually. Algebraic manipulation skills and knowledge of inequalities are very useful in establishing bounds. It is common to make assumptions such as x y if the diophantine equation is symmetric in order to nd the bounds for the variables. Heres an example of this technique: Example 9. Find all integer solutions to the equation 1 1 1 + 2+ = 1. 2 x y xy 1 1 1 + 2+ 2 x y xy

First, we can assume that x y without loss of generality. We then have

3 which implies that y 2 3. As such, y = 1 and hence the solutions are (x, y) = y2 (1, 1), (1, 1). There are many ways in which we can use the squeeze principle, which is a technique whereby the bounds are too tight for an integer solution to exist. Firstly, if we are able to prove that x > a and x < a + 1 for some integer a, then there will denitely be no integer solutions for x. This simple principle can take many forms. For example, there will be no integer solutions for m2 if it is given that m2 > n2 and m2 < (n + 1)2 . Let us take a look at the following problem from APMO 2011. Example 10. (APMO 2011 P1) Suppose that a, b, c are positive integers. Can the numbers a2 + b + c, a + b2 + c and a + b + c2 be perfect squares at the same time? Let us suppose that the three numbers can be perfect squares at the same time. If that is the case, since a2 + b + c > a2 , we must have a2 + b + c (a + 1)2 i.e. b + c 2a + 1. Similarly we have a + b 2c + 1 and a + c 2b + 1. If we were to add the three inequalities together, we obtain 0 3, which is obviously ridiculous. Hence a contradiction arises and the three numbers cannot be perfect squares at the same time.

CHAPTER 2. DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS

10

2.5

Method of Innite Descent

Method of innite descent is a method devised by Fermat in solving certain Diophantine equation. We suppose that the equation has non-trivial solutions. Then, we construct smaller solutions from the non-trivial solutions and repeat this process ad innitum. Since the set of natural numbers cannot have innitely small natural numbers, there will be a contradiction which completes the proof. Example 11. Find all integers solutions to the equation x4 + y 4 = z 2 This is a special case of Fermats Last Theorem. To prove this, it suces to show that x + y 4 = z 2 has no positive integer solutions. We assume the contrary, that is, a set of integers (x0 , y0 , z0 ) satises the equation. By taking modulo 16, we observe that x0 , y0 , z0 are all even numbers and z0 is divisible by 4. We denote x0 = 2x1 , y0 = 2y1 , z0 = 4z1 . This 2 4 2 4 suggests that 16x4 + 16y1 = 16z1 which means that x4 + y1 = z1 . Hence, x1 , y1 , z1 is also 1 1 another smaller set of solutions. This process can still be repeated ad innitum. However, there cannot be innitely small natural numbers. As such, a contradiction arises and hence then can be no positive integer solutions.
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CHAPTER 2. DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS

11

2.6

Problem Set

1. Prove that there are no positive integers such that a2 3b2 = 8. 2. Prove that there are not positive integers such that x3 + y 3 + 4 = z 3 . 3. Final all positive integers k, n such that 1! + 2! + + n! = k 2 . 4. (Canada 1969) Show that there are no integers a, b, c for which a2 + b2 8c = 6. 5. (SMO(O) 1998 P3) Do there exist integers x and y such that 1919 = x3 + y 4 ? Justify your answer. 6. (USAJMO 2011 P1) Find, with proof, all positive integers n for which 2n + 12n + 2011n is a perfect square. 7. Find all positive integers such that 2x + 1 = y 2 . 8. (Canada 1972) Prove that the equation x3 +113 = y 3 has no solution in positive integers x and y. 9. (SMO(J) 2008 P5) Determine all primes p such that 5p + 4 p4 is a perfect square. 10. (SMO(S) 2011 P32) It is given that p is a prime number such that x3 + y 3 3xy = p 1 for some positive integers x and y. Determine the largest possible value of p. 11. (Centroamerican 2005) Show that the equation a2 b2 + b2 c2 + 3b2 c2 a2 = 2005 has no integer solutions. 12. (SMO(J) 2006 P1) Find all integers x, y that satisfy the equation x + y = x2 xy + y 2 . 13. Prove that x2 2xy 2 + 5z + 3 = 0 has no integer solutions. 14. Find all rectangles with integral sides such that the value of the area is equal to the value of the perimeter. 15. (GDR 1973) Find all integer solutions to the equation x(x + 1)(x + 7)(x + 8) = y 2 . 16. (USAMO 1976 P3) Determine all integral solutions of a2 + b2 + c2 = a2 b2 . 17. (Macedonia 2012) Solve the equation x4 + 2y 4 + 4z 4 + 8t4 = 16xyzt in the set of integer numbers.