1. Digestion Overview Four main stages of food processing A) Ingestion- taking in food.

-mouth, teeth, tongue B) Digestion- breaking down into absorbable molecules -food comes in large polymers (proteins, fats, carbs(starch), other polysaccharides) -enzymatic hydrolysis cleaves macromolecules into monomers (used by body to make own molecules or as fuel for cellular activities. -enzymes secreted as digestive juices by glands (salivary, stomach and small intestine, pancreas) -enzymes raise rate of digestion at body temperature C) Absorption- take up small molecules (amino acids, simple sugars) from digestive compartment. -Assimilation- becomes part of tissues D) Elimination- undigested material passes out -cellulose, lignin, bacteria, cells, breakdown products of red blood cells 2. Digestive System -alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract) -mouth, pharynx (food, fluid, air), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine -Peristalsis- rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth muscle push food along -sphincters- ring-like valves at some junctions -accessory organs -assist in breakdown of food. -teeth, tongue, pancreas, liver and gallbladder, salivary organs -secrete digestive juices into the canal through ducts 3. Exocrine glands- secrete substances via a duct -secrete digestive juices through exocytosis -secretory cells -one-cell thick (the layer) -invagination and branching of cell layer -acinus- group of secretory cells clustered around end of a duct Distinctive features i)1-2 prominent nucleoli inside nucleus -produce ribosomes ii) extensive area of rough e.r. for protein synthesis iii) golgi apparatus -processing proteins iv)many secretory granules -store substances to be secreted -transport them to plasma membrane -densely stained because of great protein concentration v) mitochondria -provide ATP for protein synthesis and other activities 4.Alimentary Canal a) Saliva Contains: 1. mucin- slippery glycoprotein (carbohydrate-protein complex) -protects soft lining of mouth from abrasion -lubricates food for easier swallowing 2. pH buffers -prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid in mouth 3. antibacterial agents (lysozyme) in saliva -kill many of the bacteria that enter the mouth with food 4. salivary amylase

-starch as substrate -works at pH of 7.0 -produces maltose (glucose+glucose) -all dissolved in water b) Pharynx, "throat" -opens to both esophagus and trachea ("windpipe") -during swallowing, top of trachea moves up so that its opening, the glottis, is blocked by the epiglottis, a cartilaginous flap. -bobbing of the Adam's apple c) Esophagus -from pharynx through diaphragm to stomach -passageway for food -peristalsis moves bolus of food down esophagus to stomach d) Stomach -store food -preliminary digestion -"J" shaped -upper abdominal cavity, just below diaphragm -food is churned or mixed -takes 2-6 hours after a meal for the stomach to empty -Rugae and very elastic wall -can accommodate 2 liters of food and fluid -deep pits in epithelium lining secrete gastric juice -3 types of gastric cells 1.mucus cells- secrete mucus, lubricate and protects cell lining Mucus -defense against self-digestion -gastric mucosa protects itself from gastric acid w/ layer of mucus, its secretion stimulated by certain prostaglandins -helps, but lining constantly eroded -enough cells generated to replace lining every 3 days 2.chief cells- secrete pepsinogen, inactive form of pepsin 3.parietal cells- secrete hydrochloric acid (HCL) -HCL -gives gastric juice a pH of 2 (dissolve iron nails) -kills bacteria swallowed w/ food -denatures protein, increasing exposure of their peptide bonds to digestive enzyme pepsin -converts pepsinogen to pepsin by exposing active site by removing small portion of molecule ****pepsinogen and HCL do not mix until they enter stomach lumen -disrupts extracellular matrix that binds cells together in meat and plant material -Pepsin (activated by HCL from pepsinogen) -works best at pH of 2 -substrate=proteins -result=hydrolysis of proteins by breaking peptide bonds (smaller polypeptide chains) -is a protease -once pepsinogen activated by acid, activation occurs at increasingly rapid rate because pepsin can activate more pepsinogen. -Ulcers -antacids give temporary relief

-Causes -helicobacter pylori -acid-tolerant bacterium -treated by antibiotics -chronic inflammation -caused by toxins -60% of gastric ulcers -90% of duodenal ulcers -results in defect in regulation of gastrin production by that part of the stomach (either decreases or increases) -gastrin stimulates production of gastric acid by parietal cells. If H. pylori stimulates gastrin, the increase in acid can contribute to erosion of mucosa and therefore ulcers -releases proteases and other enzymes that damage stomach lining -NSAID use (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(aspirin)) -block the function of cyclooxygenase 1 (cox-1) -cox-1 is essential for production of prostaglandins that secrete mucus that protects gastric mucosa -Chyme (nutrient-rich broth) -splashes back from stomach to esophagus (heart burn reflex) -pyloric sphincter regulates passage of chyme into intestine -Epidemiology -Western countries prevalence roughly = age (i.e. 20% at age 20, 30% at age 30, etc.) -Third-world countries=higher prevalence -transmitted by food, contaminated groundwater, human saliva -History -1958 John Lykoudis, GP in Greece, treated patients with antibiotics -1982 H. pylori rediscovered by 2 Australian scientists, Warren and Marshall (badass) as cause of ulcers -hypothesis was poorly received, so mr. badass drinks a petri dish of organisms from a patient and developed gastritis. -he published his work in 1984 -1997 CDC launched educational campaign -2005 Nobel prize to Marshall and Warren -Stomach cancer -growth of tumors in wall of stomach e) Small intestine -diameter is smaller than large intestine. -most of enzyme hydrolysis of food macromolecules -most of nutrient absorption into blood -huge surface area of 200 sq. meters (tennis court) Three subdivisions 1. duodenum -first 25 cm -acid chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells of intestinal wall itself. 2. jejunum 3. ileum Enzymes built into membranes and extracellular matrix covering intestinal epithelium a) disaccharidases hydrolyze disaccharides (i.e. maltose (maltase), sucrose (sucrase), and lactose (lactase)) b) dipeptidases split small peptides

c) aminopeptidase splits off one amino acid at a time, starting with the free amino acid d) nucleotidases and nucleosidases that first break nucleotides down to nucleosides and then nitrogenous bases, sugars, and posphates -complete digestion process -not secreted -remain in plasma membrane of epithelium cells of villi -active sites exposed to food in small intestine -can digest substrates, then digestion products can be immediately absorbed -epithelium cells lost from tips of villi by abrasion -membrane-bound enzymes continue to work as they mix w/ food in small intestine Villus Structure 1.epithelium -1 thin layer of cells -plasma membranes linked together by tight junctions -prevent molecules from leaking 2.microvilli -1 um long and 0.1 um wide. -lipids and other foods easily pass through -hydrophobic center of epithelium cells absorbed by simple diffusion 3.protein channels in microvilli membranes -allow rapid absorption of foods by facilitated diffusion -pumps -allow rapid absorption by active transport -glucose, amino acids, mineral ions (Na+, Ca++, Fe) -fructose and other hydrophilic food substances at reduced concentration inside body are absorbed by facilitated diffusion -steep concentration gradient for absorption by diffusion, but need help to pass through membrane (channel proteins) 4. Mitochondria in epithelium cells -provide ATP for active transport 5. Pinocytotic vesicles -formed by endocytosis -many of them, especially near microvilli -each contains small droplet of fluid from lumen of ileum -membranes are formed from plasma membrane -contain channels for facilitated diffusion and pumps for active transport -digested foods can be absorbed from vesicles into cytoplasm 6.Blood capillaries inside villus -very close to epithelium so distance for diffusion of foods is very small 7.lacteal -branch of lymphatic system -center of villus -carries away fats after absorption Conclusion -digestion thanks to enzymes, mostly in duodenum -this leaves the jejunum and ileum for absorption as described before -assimilation of nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, etc.) occurs when the molecules become part of the tissues of the body, when they're converted to other macromolecules. f) large intestine or colon Structure -connected to small intestine at T-shaped junction where sphincter (muscular valve) controls movement of material -main branch of colon shaped like upside down U about 1.5 m long

-terminal portion called rectum -feces stored until they can be eliminated -between rectum and anus are 2 sphincters, one involuntary and other voluntary Function -reclaim water that entered alimentary canal as solvent of various digestive juices -reabsorb 90% -feces -cellulose, lignin, bile pigments (from breakdown of erythrocytes), salts -contain bacteria and some intestinal cells that have become detached -gut bacteria (i.e. Escherichia coli) produce gases, including methane and hydrogen sulfide -some produce vitamins (biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, several B vitamins) -absorbed into blood 5. Accessory Organs 1) Pancreas- soft triangular gland -extends from spleen to duodenum -both endocrine (ductless glands) function (produces insulin and glucagon) and an exocrine (with ducts), enzyme-producing function. -produces whole spectrum of hydrolytic enzymes which secretes in an alkaline fluid into duodenum through pancreatic duct Pancreatic juice -very alkaline -high concentration of bicarbonate ion (HCO3-1) neutralizes acidic chyme entering duodenum from stomach, enabling pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to operate at optimal pH a.Pancreatic lipase -substrate-triglycerides (fats and oils) -products = fatty acids and glycerol -optimum pH=7 b.Pancreatic amylases -substrate=hydrolyzes starch, glycogen, and small polysaccharides -products = disaccharides c.Trypsin and chymostrypsin -enzymes specific for peptide bonds adjacent to certain amino acids -break large polypeptides into shorter chains (like pepsin!) -these three enzymes are endopeptidases bc they hydrolyze bonds within a protein, breaking large polypeptides into smaller ones -carboxypeptidase splits off one amino acid at a time, starting with end of polypeptide that has free carboxyl group -both carboxypeptidase and aminopeptidase (from small intestine) are exopeptidases that pancreas links at the ends of peptide chains, releasing single amino acid d.Trypsinogen -inactive form of trypsin, a protein-digesting enzyme -enteropeptidase (aka enterkinase, found in small intestine)converts trypsinogen to trypsin -trypsin then activates other inactive protein-digesting enzymes 2) Liver -largest gland -located inferior to diaphragm -hides stomach from view -Four lobes -digestive function to produce bile, cholesterol, and plasma proteins. -plasma proteins -fibrinogen (clotting), albumin, globulins (antibodies, defense)

-bile -mixture of substances stored in gallbladder until needed -contains no digestive enzymes -does contain bile salts -act as detergents that aid in digestion and absorption of fats -coat tiny fat droplets and keep them from coalescing through emulsification -contains pigments that are by-products of red blood cell destruction in liver -eliminated from body with feces -Bile secretion sequence of events: i) fat-rich food enters the duodenum -hormonal stimulus causes gallbladder to contract -stored bile is released and made available to duodenum ii) bile continually made by hepatocytes (liver cells). -flows through tiny canals (bile canaliculi) which run between adjacent liver cells toward bile duct branches iii) when digestive activity isn't occurring, bile backs up to cystic duct and enters the gallbladder. -it's stored here until needed for the digestive process -Problem w/ fats: -lipase=enzyme that digests fat -breaks fats into triglycerides and glycerol**************** -almost all fat reaches small intestine undigested -fat hydrolysis is a problem bc fat molecules are insoluble in water -lipid molecules tend to coalesce and are only accessible to lipase at lipid-water interface -lipase is water soluble so it dissolves in pancreatic digestive juices -but has an active site to which hydrophobic substrate binds -bile molecules have a hydrophilic end and lipophobic (hydrophobic) end, preventing lipid droplets from coalescing with each other -maximum surface is exposed to lipases -so, problem is fixed w/ bile salts -Blood Flow i)TO the liver through: 1.hepatic artery- a branch of the aorta, bringing oxygenated blood from the heart and lungs 2.hepatic portal vein- brings nutrient-rich (variable amounts****), deoxygenated blood from stomach and intestines -hepatic portal vein divides up into sinusoids or vessels -wider than normal capillaries and have porous walls of a single layer of very thin cells with many pores or gaps between the cells and no basement membrane -blood flowing along the sinusoids are in close contact with surrounding hepatocytes -the sinusoids drain into wider vessels that are branches of the hepatic vein -hepatic artery supplies liver with oxygenated blood -branches of hepatic artery join with sinusoids at various points along their length, providing liver cells with oxygen that they need for aerobic cell respiration ii) FROM the liver through: 1.hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart via the inferior vena cava -Nutrient Level Regulation and Storage a)regulates levels of nutrients before the blood flows on to the rest of the body -because the blood brought by the haptic portal vein has variable levels of nutrients

depending on the amount of digested food that is being absorbed. -high levels of glucose and other nutrients could cause damage to body organs, especially the brain. b)liver cells absorb and store excess nutrients from blood, release them when levels are low -i.e. blood glucose high= insulin stimulates hepatocytes to absorb glucose and convert it to glycogen -i.e. blood glucose low= glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood. c)iron (used in hemoglobin), retinol (vitamin A) and calciferol (vitamin D) stored in the liver -Other Functions a)synthesis of plasma proteins -rough e.r. produces 90% of the proteins in blood plasma -proteins=albomins (osmotic balance-attracts water), globulins (defense) and fibrinogen (clotting) b)synthesis of cholesterol -synthesized and used in production of bile -the rest is transported by the bile for use elsewhere in the body c)breakdowns of RBCs (erythrocytes) Steps 1. RBC plasma membrane becomes fragile and ruptures, releasing hemoglobin into the blood plasma 2. Kupffer cells in the walls of the sinuoids absorb hemoglobin in the liver through phagocytosis 3. Inside Kupffer cells, hemoglobin is split into heme groups and globins 4. Globins are hydrolyzed to amino acids, then released into the blood 5.Iron is removed from the heme groups, leaving a yellow-colored substance called bile pigment or bilirubin 6. The iron and bile pigment are released into the blood. Iron goes to bone marrow where it is used in the production of hemoglobinin new red blood cells. -bile pigment is absorbed by hepatocytes and forms part of the bile -Alcohol -the liver breaks down alcohols into acetyldehyde with alcohol dehydrogenase, then into acetic acid by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase -acetate is converted into fats or carbon dioxide and water -chronic drinkers tax this metabolic pathway -fatty acids build up as plaques in the capillaries around liver cells and those begin to die, leading to cirrhosis Effects by dosage: -Euphoria (BAC= 0.03 to .12%) -Lethargy (BAC= 0.09 to 0.25%) -Confusion (BAC= 0.18 to 0.30%) -Stupor (BAC= 0.35 to 0.50%) -liver cells absorb alcohol and concert it to other substances to detoxify it -fatty deposits build up and can cause hepatitis (liver inflammation) -nausea and jaundice are symptoms -chronic-can cause cirrhosis, normal tissue replaced by scar tissue -liver cells gradually die and are not replaced. -liver function decreases, then death from liver failure Control of Digestive Juice Secretion by Nerves and Hormones Steps 1.We see, smell, taste food, causing nerves to send impulses from brain to stomach to initiate secretion of gastric juice

2.gastrin, a hormone, is released by the stomach wall into the circulatory system, stimulated by certain substances (chemoreceptors and stretch receptors) in the food 3.gastrin stimulates further secretion at mealtime as it gradually recirculates in the blood stream back to the stomach wall, followed by a sustained secretion that continues to add gastric juice to the food for some time.