James Testo Capstone Final Project

INT 503

Thesis: The assignment that I am asked to complete is to dig deeper and explore a component of my curriculum that I am not familiar with or that I would like to learn more about. In my analysis of this assignment, I began to recollect about my experiences as a learner in the curriculum of Social Studies in the public school system, as well as, the content from the courses I took in college. Students in all cognitive levels seem to struggle with certain components of the curriculum. Students receive the curriculum and are expected to process and apply the content across other curriculums and prove comprehension on high stakes testing. My focus for this project is to make a change. I have the rest of my teaching career to become an expert in the field; however, my students only have 40 weeks to learn the curriculum and be able to process and apply this information to high stakes tests and other related curriculums. Through research and personal experiences, I will attempt to prove the thesis that some students struggle with the English Language Arts component related to Social Studies and provide documented reasoning for the struggles faced from students. My experiences with public school exposure to Social Studies, is that you read text books, took tests, and wrote chapter summaries. It was drill and kill with terms and dates. You either got it or you didnt. Most of my classmates hated Social Studies and thought it was boring. When other students or I struggled, there were no tools or cross curricular coverage of ELA to help out. Where I struggled and many students struggle is with the ELA component. This is how much of the information is obtained processed and applied. When I was teaching in Malone, New York the high school had a hybrid type class. It was two periods each day and was team taught by a Social Studies Teacher and an English Language Arts Teacher. The class varied between two periods of ELA with Social Studies components or vice versa. Some days were broken up into one period ELA and one period Social Studies. Both teachers were in the room for the two periods. The classroom composed of students of all cognitive levels. The success rate was very high for the team taught class. Several students had IEPs and 504s and were able to achieve above expectations on high stakes tests. While developing my thesis I collaborated with colleagues who are teaching social studies and a department chair. I asked if I were to

focus on how to help my students, where do they struggle the most. The consensus was with essay writing, vocabulary descriptors related to essay writing, and analyzing political cartoons. When I was teaching the GED program at Plattsburgh High School, I found that

students also struggled with interpreting political cartoons. I think that a lot of students do not read the paper and/or watch the news, as much as students did in the past. I remember in U.S. Government in high school every Friday was current events. We had to bring in an article and summarize it in front of the class. The skill of interpreting a message from a cartoon or photo is important. It gives us an awareness of what is going on in the world around us and in our communities. When I spoke to an English Language Arts department chair the essay writing and vocabulary challenge was elaborated upon and supported. The difficulty with vocabulary in relation to students learning is processing the information and then applying the terms. It was suggested that activities where students get to engage and interact with other students the information will be retained much more effectively. The curriculum map that I developed in Curriculum and Instruction 502 focused on Global History. I will now use that same curriculum map to develop effective tools, strategies and lessons that tie in Social Studies and English Language Arts activities together. This piece will include more research since this is a new curriculum for me and I want to approach this in the most effective way. For many English learners learning to write fluently in English is much more challenging than learning to speak fluently. Even for advanced level learners, written communication can come much more slowly in English than spoken communications. There are a number of reasons for this.
*Written communication is more formal *Spoken communication allows for more mistakes *Less reflection goes into spoken English than written English *Expectations are much higher for formal written English

It is important when teaching written English skills especially for business English to be aware of the challenges that learners will face when learning to function in a written English environment.

The following points can be helpful when considering how to teach English writing skills: *Acquiring speech is an unconscious act, whereas learning to write takes a conscious effort on
the part of the learner. One reason why many individuals find it difficult or impossible to write is because of the necessity of learning a mapping skill in order to use written language. *Written language must be filtered through some sort of system; this system can be phonemic, structural or representative. The individual must not only learn to recognize the meaning of words orally, but also go through a process of transcribing these sounds. The process of transcribing sounds requires the learning of other rules and structures thereby cognizing a previously unconscious process. Another reason some individuals might find it difficult or impossible to write, is that written language takes on many different registers depending on the function of the written word. Often these functions are totally foreign to spoken language and thus can be considered artificial to the speaker. The layers of abstraction, beginning with that transcription of oral sounds into a written alphabet and advancing solely abstracted functions of written language, are daunting to many individuals who then understandably become frightened of the process. In the worst cases, where individuals so not possess or do not have the opportunity to learn certain cognitive skills, an individual might become fully or functionally illiterate. htt://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachingtechnique/a/difference_speaking_writing.htm

Research has show the increased effectiveness of classroom models in which students are active learners and faculty members are facilitators rather than transmitters of knowledge. (Sarasin 1999). The classroom is seen as a more valuable and satisfying student experience, one that creates a learning bridge of practical application to the life situations (Sarasin 1999). Yet because most professors are not experts in pedagogy, they tend to emulate the traditional transmission model in which they themselves were trained, where the instructor is the center of attention (Jones, Palincsar, Ogle, and Carr

1987). This dilemma is particularly acute in the content-laden college classroom. Students must acquire subject-specific knowledge, and instructors increasingly try to foster an environment that develops thinking skills and process (Ruggiero 1988). For faculty members, inexperience with pedagogical techniques or resources limits the effectiveness of their attempt to move from the transmission model of teaching to more interactive facilitation models. In addition, the lack of student support, especially outside traditional education departments, often complicates the challenges. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 83) As a student enrolled in Dean Hills Single subject research course I experienced what student centered learning is all about. We got to decide what we learned and the topics we researched. What we were expected to do is prove that we learned and what we learned. It was extremely enriching. It was a bit foreign to all of the students at first however many students who kept an open mind benefited from the new experience. The students who only knew direct instruction and lecture format, and very structured lessons

struggled the most with this new way of learning. Since taking the course I constant analyze myself through the school day and ask am I doing things the old way or the new way. The shift in emphasis from faculty teaching to student learning requires students to think more, participate more in class, and take more control of their learning experience. In a community of inquiry, the approach to learning is that of cooperative inquiry, investigation, and dialogue (Sharpe 1991) The community simulates a real-life approach to solving a problem in the particular field, rather than the evaluation of individual work in the classroom setting. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 85) In developing learner- centered teaching, Douglas Robertson (2003) suggests that a variety of tensions arise, including teacher as facilitator versus teacher as evaluator; expertise in subject matter versus expertise in pedagogy; and serving as group learning leader versus mentoring individual students. It is in grappling with conflicts such as these that the instructor is challenged and becomes increasingly comfortable with the role of facilitator-rather than transmitter- of knowledge in the more student-friendly classroom. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 85) By making students stakeholders in the learning process, regardless of the particular field they participate and learn in ways that are far more enduring in

their application to life situations than would be the case in the transmission of factual knowledge. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 86) Going back to my introduction I discussed the issue that students struggle in processing and application. The need for the learner to interact with the content for comprehension is vital for success. With learner centered instruction that students would have many more opportunities to interact with peers and cover content in many different and enriching ways. If students have gaps in relation to ELA processing skills or tools that are necessary for completing tasks associated to Social Studies content failure and frustration are often the outcome. By having students working together they will be able to rebound questions and material back and forth with peers. This is often a less threatening environment than the fear of asking a question for a teacher to answer, and being embarrassed in front of the whole class. My mother is a retired English teacher and most of my life I have had a processing gap with commas and possession. I am a graduate student and I still have to catch myself sometimes when writing and ask does this look right or sound right. The English language has so many rules and exceptions to the rules that it is very difficult to master even if it is a first language. Students need the proper tools to be effective when literacy and ELA skills need to be applied to a given task. Broadly defined, information literacy consists of a set of abilities requiring

individuals to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information (ACRL 2000). Based on the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Information Literacy Standards, an information literate individual is able to:
*Recognize a need for information *Determine the extent of information needed *Identify and locate appropriate information sources effectively and efficiently *Apply research skills to scholarly, professional, and personal information needed *Critically evaluate the quality and usefulness of information in a variety of formats *Incorporate selected information into ones knowledge base *Apply technology appropriately and competently *Use information ethically effectively to accomplish a specific purpose, including communicating information knowledgeably and persuasively to others.

*Understand the economic, legal and social issues, surrounding the use of information, such as plagiarism, citation styles, copyright, intellectual property, and the research and publishing process.

(M. Williams, K. Goodson, W. Howard P. 515)

The old axiom knowledge is power could easily be a motto of information literacy-based learning. An information literate student has the power to ask the right questions, find appropriate information, perform focused analysis, and derive reasonable answers. (M. Williams, K. Goodson, W. Howard P. 518) If this statement is correct, knowledge is power what I need to ask myself what knowledge, skills and tools do I need to bring to my students to give them this power? How do I prepare them to ask the right questions, convey their thoughts and ideas effectively and literately? How do I prepare instruction, classroom environment and lessons to overcome the barriers? I am sure that this will be an ongoing process as long as I am an educator. Because of recent legislation, many students with mild disabilities enroll in high school social studies courses in general education settings. Therefore, teachers may have students with learning disabilities, behavioral disorders, communication disorders, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in their history, geography, economics, and political science courses. Typical characteristics of these students include low-level reading and writing skills, processing problems, memory disorders, language problems, organizational deficits, and behavioral problems. (M. Steele p. 59)

The passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act amendments in 1997 and 2004 and No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 increased the number of students with disabilities that are served in general education high school classes rather than in separate special education settings. (M. Steele p. 59) Communication disorders could involve problems in either the production of speech or the meaningful aspect of language (Hallahan and Kauffman 2006). (M. Steele p.59). This factor needs to be considered as a direct impact with vocabulary meaning and purpose as well as writing as a form of assessment. Many of these students have reading skills that are significantly below grade level, particularly students with learning disabilities (Smith et al. 2004). As a result, the high school textbooks in history and other social studies areas will present difficulties. Abstract and technical vocabulary such as enlightened despotism, preclearance, and supply side economics can make reading confusing for students with disabilities (M. Steele p. 60).

Students with learning disabilities frequently exhibit written language deficits such as poor organization, flow of writing, sentence structure, and spelling (Salend 2005). There are often numerous writing assignments in social studies appropriate to clarify chapter readings and lectures and synthesize and analyze topics (M. Stele p. 60). Processing or perceptual deficits are characteristic of students with learning disabilities (Mercer and Mercer 2005). If students have visual processing deficits (i.e., difficulty interpreting what they see), they might have problems with timelines, maps, graphs, charts, and other visual displays that are often used to clarify information in social studies (M. Stele p. 60). Organizational deficits are also common characteristics for students with learning disabilities. These problems can lead to late assignments and penalties so hat their grades are below potential in social studies and other subjects (M. Stele p. 60). The organization of social studies textbooks is generally more complicated than other types of textbooks and therefore can negatively affect comprehension (Churton, Cranston-Gingras, and Blair 1998). (M. Stele p. 61) The evidence of difficulty can be found in several textbooks. The books need to be analyzed by the instructor. I believe that a lesson should be devoted at the beginning of each course on how to comprehend content and use the textbook correctly for maximum comprehension. I remember taking an undergraduate reading class at SUNY Plattsburgh in reading with Dr. Peg Snowden. In the class we learned a technique where we count the amount of syllables in a given number of words. This tool gives us an idea of the grade level of the content in the textbook. After analyzing my textbook that was used for

Eighth grade students I found out that the textbook was at the level of 10th and 11th grade. Many of my students had IEPs and struggled with the text content. Subsequently every time we used the text thereafter we used guided notes and other comprehension strategies. Teachers can instruct students on the directions and vocabulary typically used in essay tests, such as explain, compare, analyze, and evaluate. Teachers can also provide practice with essay writing. Modeling the construction of outlines,

charts, and other prewriting formats can be helpful, as can demonstrating how to paraphrase important content (Berkowitz and Serim 2002). (M. Stele p. 61) Activities that involve student engagement and relevance to students lives can provide clarification for high school social studies topics. Simulations, role plays, and group projects contribute to student understanding of complex issues and the development of high-level thinking skills. These activities also help connect the past with the present and future (Fickel 2000). (M. Stele p. 62) In the curriculum I teach we have had local law enforcement come into the classroom to teach the D.A.R.E. program. Additionally I teach lessons on resisting peer pressure. The end assessment is that students are broken up into groups and have to develop their own role plays relating to the content we cover. All the students in the group have a part, show enthusiasm, and interest. Although these ideas are recommended for students with learning problems, they are also beneficial for other students in the class who may need modifications for a particular topic in the curriculum. The modifications are critical for the success of some students, but they can also make learning easier and more enjoyable for the whole class. Sometimes the awareness of these types of learning differences and characteristics of students with disabilities can help focus instruction for individual differences that often make the class more relevant, meaningful and motivating for all students. (M. Stele p. 62) Although peer evaluation and interaction can be beneficial it also has a flip side and certain challenges. The challenges that educators find with peerevaluated assignments include the reticence of some students to interact with others in a peer setting, the difficulty of getting students to respond constructively to their peers, and the issue of using class time for peer evaluation. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 84) For small-group learning practices, assignments are completed by a group of students, with each student taking a unique role in the group. A number of survey participants underscored the need to take into account learning styles in formulating small groups, because an awareness of different student learning styles contributes to the effectiveness of the learning activity. In some cases, students with similar learning styles may work more comfortably

together. In other situations in which students are exposed to the differing cognitive learning styles of classmates, they are better prepared to work in real-life multidisciplinary groups where individuals do not necessarily share common approaches (Dunn 2001). (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 84) Vocabulary comprehension skills need to be practiced and tools for comprehension are vital for mastery. Although I have already discussed the necessity of vocabulary in my research it wanted to reemphasize the importance with the following:
*Vocabulary assists students in expanding their knowledge to raise achievement. *Vocabulary development increases when students have visual images of word meaning and when words are categorized into groups. *In order to understand spoken or written words a student must know 95% of the words. *The creation of labels is a tool for fostering new perceptions and increasing learning. *It takes a minimum of 15 encounters with a new word for a student to understand and apply the word independently.

Highly effective schools use the following strategies:

*Awareness of words *Wide reading and extensive writing *Strategies for independently inferring word meaning from context *Direct instruction of vocabulary and vocabulary related skills

At this point in my research, I feel that I have included a strong foundation of personal experiences, and documented research to support my thesis and Curriculum Map Content. I will now begin to describe tools for success. I will also include lesson content summaries and add English Language Arts focused activities to the Global History Curriculum map I have previously developed.

TOOLS AND LESSON PLAN MATERIALS:

Tools: Log Exchange: Students prepare logs of their readings. They then exchange the logs with their peers. This provides different views of the same reading. They do not evaluate each others work but, rather, respond through dialogue. Students feel greater responsibility to respond in a critical manner to the reading, as they know that another peer will be learning from their ideas. Web-based discussion: Students explore the effect of the latest technologies. They collaborate in learning through threaded Web-based discussion forums. They are required to read electronic work of others. This process allows students to think critically, engage in self-reflection, and try to teach others in class. Group Essay: Students are divided into groups of three and are assigned to write an essay in response to one topic from a list. Through this project, students feel a responsibility to themselves and others. Peer editing and selfediting are embedded in the activity. The activity teaches groups process, which will be important later in life in the workplace. (Quinn C. Vega, Marilyn R. Tayler P. 84) Search Term Triangulation: With this tool you use it to research a topic like a country. A triangle grid can be made for students to use on power-point or prezi. At the top of the triangle a text box is added for the topic. Below the topic students list three synonyms. Below the synonyms another text box is added where students will enter a research question. In the bottom of each corner of the triangle the students will list another 3 synonyms relating to the research question. Below the left corner of the triangle a text box will be inserted for an issue related to the topic. Below the right hand corner of the triangle a text box will be inserted for a clarifying aspect related to the topic. This will give a foundation for learners to write an enhanced summary of a topic. Concept Mapping: This tool I find is very effective for organizing ideas, facts and details. I have personally used Venn diagrams, outlines, KWLs, and other tools for organizing ideas. Using concept maps is a great visual tool to connect the main idea to other concepts and information. The students follow along with the teacher or connect the information to each other on their own. Thus they are able to formulate and organize material before it is processed and transferred in written or oral form.

Word Walls: Word walls give students a constant reminder of terms and meaning. Many activities can be spring boarded from word walls.

www.Time4Lerning.com

Essay Writing components: Topics to be covered would include introduction, body and conclusion of an essay as well as how to develop a thesis and support through essay. Class instruction time will be spent on using techniques to succeed in essay writing, and different common instructional vocabulary related to essay writing. Emphasis and time would also be spent on the following topics, essay types, stages of writing, formatting styles, writing tips, common mistakes and plagiarism. Additional consideration and focus would be on making careful observations, ordering paragraphs logically, and creating a strong voice. Process Writing Journals: Students will use a notebook to free write at least twice a week. The aim is to leave margin for error and encouraging learners to communicate through writing. Vocabulary: Pre-teaching/ Repeated exposure/ Keyword word clue/ Word Maps/ Root Analysis/ Restructuring Reading Material/ Incidental Learning/ Context Skills. Pre-teaching Vocabulary Words/ Repeated exposure to words Keyword Method / Word Maps / Root Analysis / Restructuring Reading Material Context Skills/ Clues-- / Types of Essays: Features/ Common Mistakes/ Common Problems Group Biography Writing (Process involves coming up with good interview questions to ask partners and reporting) Paragraph Writing / Story Boxes / Pop Up Cards / Concept Maps

Lessons: Expository Writing: The Five Paragraph Essay Lesson Plan www.technologytoday.glencoe.com/lessonplans/expository-writting-the-fiveparagraph-essayConcept: Pre-writing and writing a five-paragraph essay (This lesson would be used as a starting point and modified to content related to Global History and individual learning needs of students) Who is the real Roman? www.teachingtoday.glencoe.com/lessonplans/who-is-the-real-roman Concept: Experience life in ancient Rome (This lesson would be used as a starting point and modified to content related to Global History and individual learning needs of students) Write a Good Five Paragraph Essay: www.brighthubeducation.com/help-with-writing/2999-how-to-write-a-good-fivepar... Writing a good essay is key to success in school period. However, some students never get the hang of it. The following lesson will be used to help develop success in writing. Essay Conclusions: A Kinesthetic Approach www.lessonplanspage.com/lakinestheticapproachtowritingessayconclusions58htm/ Students will have the opportunity to write a strong conclusion of an essay. Students will use essays with and without summaries as a tool to develop their own summaries. New Lives: Coming to America www.THEBREMAN.ORG

Thru the use of the museums online tools and lesson plans students conduct online research to enhance ELA skills. Activities and lesson could be modified to individual learners needs or specific content.

Making Global Connections: www.facingthefuture.org This lesson uses several ELA components to kinesthetically experience the interconnectedness of global issues. To Fight or Not to Fight? www.facingthefuture.org Students will examine a variety of international and intra-national conflicts through a role-playing activity. They learn to identify the roots of conflict, how to separate positions from interests in a conflict, and experience mediating a conflict. (This lesson is easily adapted to several content and subject areas. The benefit to this lesson is that it covers many areas of the ELA content standards. The students are processing and actually part of the learning activity. The learning is hands on and active.) Building Vocabulary Using Analogies: www.teachervision.fen.com/lesson-plan/teaching-methods/48609.html? for_printing=1 The lesson is used to help students build their vocabulary by using analogies to help them learn the meanings of grade-appropriate words. Students determine meanings of new words through the use of analogies. Students will create analogies to build their skills for learning new words. Developing Character Analysis: www.esl.about.com/od/writinglessonplans/al_wwshop1.htm

The lesson is used to help learners analyze text and summarize in an essay.

Vocabulary Posters: Students will either use power point or prezi to make a poster of a term. The poster must be colorful and instructional. The poster must include definition and a synonym and antonym for the term. As well the poster has to have visuals depicting the phonetic sound and pronunciation of the word. Students will then present poster to class with all information. When presentation is complete students will then be given note cards with information related to posters and match note cards to posters. This will aid in the processing of the terms to learners. (Sample will be provided)

Form Plan

Noun OUTLINE Rough Draft Summary

opposite Draft

Expand

Use your notes and the test questions and answers to write a brief outline for the writingpiece.

At Leas 3 Body Paragraphs

*Y must have an introduction and conclusion ou *They must have at least 3 body paragraphs *One point per paragraph

Essay Fact and Detail Writing: Activity can be adapted to meet goals and objectives to individual class instructor or learner. The goal is to have writer focus on facts and details. Choose passages that have very few details and readings that are full of facts and details. Read along with students and have them highlight or underline. Go back and review with students the underlined or highlighted items. You

may let students practice and give examples of telling a story of their own. One filled with facts and details, the same story again without facts and details. Students would then began to write a 300 word essay on any topic of there choosing. It could be a personal story, a current event or a topic of research. After the essay is completed they would be asked to eliminate 25 of the words in the essay and re-write without eliminating facts and details. The students then would be asked to eliminate another 25 words. Students need to be informed and made aware that the structure and comprehension may change however the goal is to have facts and details and eliminate the unnecessary information in their essays. When writing is assessed facts and details are extremely important. Current Events Students will be given many DBQs and political cartoons to analyze and discuss. At the point of assessment where students are processing information and can formulate well thought out responses self application can begin. Students must take a global issue and create their own political cartoon. The students must provide documentation and research from a reliable source to support cartoon content. The cartoon must be presented to the class and students must interpret and respond to the class. Students struggle with interpreting DBQs and political cartoons and this activity may help with processing.

BELL RINGERS / REVIEW/ TICKETS OUT THE DOOR Spiral Puzzle Top 100 Social Studies Vocabulary List Fill in the Blanks Top 100 Social Studies Vocabulary List

Multiple Choice Top 100 Social Studies Vocabulary List Flash Cards Network Cards (Answer and Term on separate cards and student has to find matcher) Jeopardy Games Crossword Puzzles Cloze Passage Vocabulary Cheer (Students cheer letters in term and one student gives meaning) 15 times term (research supports that students learn a term 15 times before being remembered). Students go over terms 15 times. Wild Words - Students make own dictionaries with word and term. Students also draw picture explaining the term. Board Game Students roll dice and give answer to term when they land on space. Students continue to move with each correct answer. White / Chalkboard Throw- Students throw sponge at board. Terms are put on board and whatever term the student hits with the sponge they must give the answer to. Character Acting-Student must act out the term.

REFERENCES

Thomas Brush, John Saye. (2000). Implementation ad Evaluation of a Student-Centered Learning Unit: A Case Study. Retrieved April 3, 2012, from JSTOR http://www.jstor.org George D. Catalano, Karen Catalano. (January 1999). Transformation: From Teacher- Centered to Student Centered Engineering Education. Retrieved March, 28, 2012, from JSTOR http://www.jstor.org Kellie Hayden, (January 8, 2011). Write a Good Five Paragraph Essay. Retrieved March 25, 2012, from http://brighthubeducation.com/help-withwriting/2999-how-to-write-a-good-five-par... Marcee M. Steel. (March/April 2007). Teaching Social Studies to High School Students with Learning Problems. Retrieved April 3, 2012 from JSTOR http://www.jstor.org Quinn C. Vega and Marilyn R. Tayler. (Spring 2005) Incorporating Course Content While Fostering a More Learner-Centered Environment. Retrieved April 3, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27559227 Michelle Hale Williams, Kymberly Anne Goodson, W. Gary Howard. (July 2006). Weighing the Research Paper Option: The Difference that Information Literacy Skills Can Make. Retrieved April 3, 2012 from ProquestPSOnlinewww.apsanet.org Marcy Winograd, (n.d.) Another Kinesthetic Approach lesson, this one for Writing Essay Conclusion. http://lessonplanspage.com/lakinestheticapproachtowritingessayconclusions58 -htm/ Building Vocabulary Using Analogies. (n.d.). Retrieved March, 24, 2012, from http://teachervision.fen.com/lesson-plan/teaching-methods/48609.html? for_printing=l ESL Writing Lesson Focusing On Developing Character Analysis for Writing Essays. (n.d.). Retrieved March 24, 2012, from http://esl.about.com/od/writinglessonplans/a/l_wwshopl.htm Expository Writing: The Five Paragraph Essay Lesson Plan 2 (of 2) (n.d.) Retrieved March 25, 2012, from http://teachingtoday.glencoe.com/lessonplans/expository-writing-the-fiveparagraph-essay-...

New Lives: Coming to America. (n.d.) Retrieved April 12, 2012, from www.THEBREMAN.ORG To Fight or Not to Fight? (2006). Retrieved April 10, 2012, from www.facingthefuture.org Making Global Connections (2006). Retrieved April 9, 2012, from www.facingthefuture.org Who is the real Roman?. (n.d.) Retrieved March 25, 2012, from http://teachingtoday.glencoe.com/lessonplans/who-is-the-real-roman Why Is Writing More Difficult Than Speaking? Difference Between Learning Speaking (n.d.) Retrieved March 24, 2012 from JSTORhttp://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachingtechnique/a/difference_speaking_writing. htm English Language Arts Learning Standards and Core Curriculum:CI&IT:NYSED. (n.d.) Retrieved May 9, 2012, from http://www.p12.nysed.gov/ciai/ela/elastandards/elamap.html Reading Skills Pyramid http://Time4Learning.com Vocabulary Activities. (n.d.) Retrieved March 25, 2012, from http://www.cobbk12.org/cheathamhill/lfs%20update/vocabulary%20and %20word%20wall...