CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition of Ferrocement/Ferrogrout As the material ferrocement was used for a long time in boat building and similar allied structures rather than in structural applications, a rigorous engineering definition of ferrocement was not followed. Within ACI Committee 549, a considerable discussion on its definition evolved and it was agreed to group together various available definitions from many sources to come up with a concise and accurate definition that may be acceptable to the engineering profession. Some definitions considered by the committee are presented here. Bigg (1968) has discussed the problem of definition in detail. He pointed out that according to the American Bureau of Shipping it is: A thin, highly reinforced shell of concrete in which the steel reinforcement is distributed widely throughout the concrete, so that the material under stress acts approximately as a homogenous material. The strength properties of the material are to be determined by testing a significant number of samples.... Although at first glance, the above definition seems an acceptable one, it brought about a number of questions on the words italicised therein, which may have

6 different meanings of ferrocement to different people. Bigg went on to discuss various aspects of ferrocement, suggests various ways of defining it, such as a composite material and points out how the available engineering approach for composites of fiber reinforced concrete may be used to come up with a definition of ferrocement. As a two-component composite, made up of reinforcement and mortar (matrix), Bezukladov (1968) defined it in terms of the ratio of the surface area of reinforcement to the volume of, the composite. In this manner, ferrocement is separated from the conventional reinforced concrete. Somewhat arbitrarily, he assigned the specific surface greater than 2cm2/cm3 to ferrocement which then behaves more or less as a homogenous material. Less than 2cm2/cm3 is considered reinforced concrete. Shah (1974) in discussing different materials of construction, defined ferrocement in a manner similar to Bezukladov. He called it a composite made with mortar and a fine diameter continuous mesh as reinforcement, with which has higher bond due to its smaller size and a larger surface area per unit volume of mortar. Accordingly, this ratio may be as mush as ten times that which is observed in conventional reinforced concrete; this results in failure of ferrocement in tension by the actual breaking of wire mesh and a much higher cracking strength in the matrix. As a composite, certain characteristics of ferrocement may thus be summarised as follows: a. Since the wire mesh (reinforcement) is much stronger in tension compared to the matrix (mortar), the role of the matrix is to properly hold the mesh in place, to give a proper protection and to transfer stresses by means of adequate bond. b. Compression strength of this composite is generally a function of the matrix (mortar) compressive strength, while the tensile strength is a function of the mesh content and its properties. c. It follows from (b) above that the stress-strain relationship of ferrocement in tension may show either a complete elastic behaviour (up to fracture of reinforcing mesh) or some inelasticity depending upon the yielding properties of the mesh.

7 d. Since the properties of this composite are very much a function of orientation of the reinforcement, the material is generally anisotropic and may be treated as such in the theoretical analysis. The above discussion indicates the variety of approaches that have been made in a structural definition of ferrocement. It became apparent to the ACI Committee 549 that the first task should be to define Ferrocement as a construction material. Accordingly, the following definition was adopted: "Ferrocement is a type of thin wall reinforced concrete commonly constructed of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced closely spaced layers of continuous and relatively small wire diameter mesh. Mesh may be made of metallic or other suitable materials." The above definition implies that although ferrocement is a form of reinforced concrete, it is also a composite material. Hence the basic concepts underlying the behaviour and mechanics of composites materials should be applicable to ferrocement.

History of Ferrocement/Ferrogrout The use of ferrocement was first started as early as in 1848. It took the form of a rowing boat constructed by Jean Louis Lambot. The boat, still in a remarkably good condition, is on display in a museum at Brigholes, France. Since then, ferrocement was mainly used in the marine environment. In the early 1940s, Pier Luigi Nervi resurrected the original ferrocement concept when he observed that reinforcing concrete with layers of wire mesh produced a material possessing the mechanical characteristics of an approximately homogeneous material and capable of resisting impact. After the Second World War, Nervi demonstrated the utility of ferrocement as a boat-building material. His firm built the 165-ton motor sailor Irene with a ferrocement hull about 36mm thick.

8 Ferrocement gained wide acceptance only in the early 1960s in United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia. In 1965, an American-owned ferrocement yacht built in New Zealand, the 16m Awahnee, circumnavigated the world twice without serious problems, although it encountered several mishaps. Nervi built a small storehouse of ferrocement in 1947 which was approximately 10.7m 21.3m. This was the first time ferrocement concept in the applications to building. Later he covered the swimming pool at the Italian Naval Academy with a 15m-diameter dome and then the famous Turin Exhibition Hall a roof system spanning 91m. In both cases, ferrocement served as permanent forms for the structural system including the main support ribs. In 1958, the technology then spread to Russia with the construction of a number of structures. Examples of these were a ferrocement vault of 17.0m spans in one of the metro stations in Leningrad and the interior of a hall covered with ferrocement elements. The more recent ferrocement structures include the Sydney Opera House, built in 1973. Ferrocement tiles were used as surfacing on the vaults of the Opera House, a major arts centre in Sydney. Similar beautiful buildings and mosque were built in India and Indonesia using ferrocement.

Advantages of Ferrocement/Ferrogrout Ferrocement is particularly suited to developing countries for the following reasons: Its basic raw materials are available in most countries. It can be fabricated into almost any shape to meet the needs of the user; traditional designs can be reproduced and often improved.

9 For properly fabricated, it is more durable than most woods and cheaper than imported steel, and it can be used as a substitute for these materials in many applications. The skills required for ferrocement construction are quickly acquired, and include many skills traditional in developing countries. Ferrocement construction does not need heavy plant or machinery; it is labour intensive. Being labour intensive, it is relatively inexpensive in developing countries. Except for sophisticated and highly stressed designs, as those for deepwater vessels, a trained supervisor can achieve the requisite amount of quality control using fairly unskilled labour for fabrication. In case of damage, it can be repaired easily. The beauty of ferrocement was that it could appear in any shapes. Only imagination could limit the forms and shapes of this beautiful and cheap material. Further unskilled labour could be employed to construct the structure. The material and labour required are plentiful in the developing countries, especially in rural areas. These factors make it a very appropriate material for national developments.

Constituent Materials Ferrocement can be divided into two main components: the matrix and the reinforcement.

Matrix The matrix is a hydraulic cement binder, which may contain fine aggregates and admixtures to control shrinkage and set time, and increase its corrosion resistance. The binder is itself a composite material consisting of a hydrated cement paste and an inert filler material.

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Cement The cement commonly used is Portland cement possibly blended with pozzolan. The cement should comply with ASTM C 150-85a, ASTM C 595-85, or an equivalent standard. The cement should be fresh, of uniform consistency and free of lumps and foreign matter. It should be stored under dry conditions and for a short duration as possible. Cement factors are normally higher in ferrocement than in reinforced concrete. Mineral admixtures, such as fly ash, silica fumes or blast furnace slag may be used to maintain a high volume fraction of fine filler material. Filler material is usually well-graded sand and this classifies the binder material as a mortar. Since the matrix represents approximately over 95% of the resulting ferrocement volume, its physical properties and microstructure, which depend upon the chemical composition of the cement, the nature of the inert filler, the water-cement ratio and the curing regime, have a great influence on the final properties of the product. Rice Husk Ash (RHA) cement can be economically used as partial replacement of cement in mortar mixes. When RHA does not exceed 35% by weight of the blended cement, the compressive strength at 28 days is similar to that of Type I Portland Cement Mortar. The reaction of Portland cement and water results in formation of hardened cement paste. The ranges of mix proportions recommended for common ferrocement applications are sand-cement ratio by weight, 1.5 to 2.5, and water-cement ratio by weight, 0.35 to 0.5. Fineness modulus of sand, water-cement ratio and sand-cement ratio should be determined from trial batches to insure a mix that can infiltrate (encapsulate) the mesh and develop a strong and dense matrix. Water reducing admixtures may be used to enhance mix plasticity and retard initial set, as with conventional concretes. The behaviour of mortar is similar to that of plain concrete. The major distinction is the size of the aggregate used. In general a good quality mortar is stronger and more durable than good quality concrete; however, their basic response to the environment is essentially the same.

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Fine Aggregates Normal weight fine aggregate (sand) is the most common aggregate used in ferrocement. It should be clean, hard, strong, and free of organic impurities and deleterious substances and relatively free of silt and clay. It should be inert with respect to other materials used and of suitable type with respect to strength, density, shrinkage and durability of the mortar made with it. Grading of the sand is to be such that a mortar of specified proportions is produced with a uniform distribution of the aggregate, which will have a high density and good workability and which will work into position without segregation and without use of a high water content. The fineness of the sand should be such that 100% of it passes standard sieve No. 8. Table 2.1 gives some guideline on desirable grading. Table 2.1: Guideline on desirable sand grading Sieve Size No. 8 No. 16 No. 30 No. 50 No. 100 Admixture Chemical admixtures used in ferrocement serve one of the following four purposes: water reduction, which increases strength and reduces permeability; air entrainment, which increases resistance to freezing and thawing; and suppression of reaction between galvanised reinforcement and cement. Percent Passing 80-100 50-85 25-60 10-30 2-10

Reinforcement

12 The reinforcement of ferrocement is commonly in the form of layers of continuous mesh fabricated from an assembly of continuous single strands filaments. Specific mesh types include woven and welded mesh, expanded metal lath and perforated sheet products. There is a wide variety in mesh dimensions, as well as in the amounts, sizes and properties of the materials used. Wire Mesh Wire mesh is one of the essential components of ferrocement. Different types of wire meshes are available almost everywhere. These generally consist of thin wires, either woven or welded into a mesh, but the main requirement is that it must be easily handled and, if necessary, flexible enough to be bent around sharp corners. The function of the wire mesh and reinforcing rod in the first instance is to act as a lath providing the form and to support the mortar in its green state. In the hardened state its function is to absorb the tensile stresses on the structure, which the mortar on its own would not be able to withstand. A structure is subjected to great deal of pounding, twisting and bending during its lifetime resulting in cracks and fractures unless sufficient steel reinforcement is introduced to absorb these stresses. The degree to which this fracturing of the structure is reduced depends on the concentration and dimensions of the embedded reinforcement. The mechanical behaviour of ferrocement is highly dependent upon the type, quantity, orientation and strength properties of the mesh and reinforcing rod. Figure 2.1 shows the common type of wire mesh used in ferrocement industry. The ACI committee 549 on Ferrocement concluded that the definition of ferrocement could not be limited to steel reinforcing only. The ACI definition of ferrocement included the statement Mesh may be made of metallic material or other suitable materials. This definition allows bamboo mesh and mesh made of other materials to be used for ferrocement structures.

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Figure 2.1: Mesh types commonly used in ferrocement. Skeletal Steel Skeletal steel as the name implied is generally used for making the framework of the structure upon which layers of mesh are laid. Both the longitudinal and transverse rods are evenly distributed and shaped to form. The rods are spaced as widely as possible up to 300mm apart where they are not treated as a structural reinforcement and are often considered to serve as spacer rods to the mesh reinforcements. In some cases skeletal steel is spaced as near as 75mm centre-to-

14 centre thus acting as a main reinforcing component wire mesh in highly stressed structures, for example boat, barges, tubular sections, and others. Steel rods of different kinds are used in ferrocement construction. Their strength, surface finish, protective coating and size affect their performance as reinforcing members of the composite. In general, mild steel rods are used for both longitudinal and transverse directions. In some cases high tensile rods and prestressed wires and strands are used. Rod size varies from 4.20mm to 9.5mm whereas 6.35mm is the most common. Ferrocement panels with longitudinal and transverse rods of this size are about 25mm. A combination of different rod sizes can be used with smaller diameter rod in the transverse direction. Substitute Materials Some of the substitute materials include bamboo mesh and bamboo skeletal reinforcement. Chembi and Nimityongskul (1989) investigated the use of bamboo mesh to replace steel wire mesh in ferrocement water tank. A bamboo cement tank of 6m3 capacities was constructed in 1983. The tank was kept alternatively full and empty of water to simulate actual field condition and was monitored regularly. After 5 years, they found that the tank has not shown structural defects. Bamboo reinforcement 0.3 m from the top of the tank was investigated and found in good condition. Meanwhile, Venkateshwarlu and Raj (1989) investigated the use of bamboo to replace skeletal steel in ferrocement roofing elements. Slabs reinforced with bamboo strips as skeletal reinforcement and chicken wire mesh were subjected to monotonically increasing uniformly distributed load to study the load deflection behaviour and to determine its serviceability limit (span/deflection). The investigation showed that by using bamboo, the cost of roofing elements comes to about 50% of reinforced concrete and 70% of ferrocement elements. The slabs can be prefabricated in the factory or can be produced at the site manually. The serviceability limit was suggested as 150 and it was observed, that at deflections up to 10mm, no cracking occurred. Hence, roofing elements can be produced up to a maximum span of 1.5m and can be used in multiples to cover longer span.

15 Other Materials Water Water used in the mixing is to be fresh and free from any organic and harmful solution, which will lead to deterioration in the properties of the mortar. Salt water is not acceptable but chlorinated drinking water can be used. Potable water is fit for use as mixing water as well as for curing ferrocement structures. Coating In general, ferrocement structures need no protection unless they are subjected to strong chemical attack that might damage the structural integrity of their components. A plastered surface can take a good paint coating. In terrestrial structures, ordinary paint is applied on the surface to enhance the appearance. Marine structures need protection against corrosion and vinyl and epoxy coatings were found to be the most successful organic coatings.

Properties Ferrocement, often regarded as just another form of reinforced concrete, is quite unique with respect to material behaviour and suitability for structural applications. Ferrocement possesses a degree of toughness, ductility, durability, strength and crack resistance that it is considerably greater than that found in other forms of concrete construction. These properties are achieved in structures with a thickness that is generally less than 25mm, a dimension that is nearly unthinkable in other forms of concrete construction, and a clear improvement over conventional reinforced concrete. Some of the properties of ferrocement such as tension, compression, flexure, shear, fatigue, impact and fire resistance, durability, corrosion, and water retaining capacity had been investigated and are listed as below.

16 Tensile Behaviour Unlike reinforced concrete, tensile behaviour of ferrocement is considerably different. This is mainly because the reinforcement is spaced closer and uniformly than in reinforced concrete and its smaller diameter results in a larger specific surface area. This in turn affects cracking behaviour (finer and more number of cracks) in ferrocement. Naaman and Shahs (1974) work indicated that the stress level at which the first crack appeared and the crack spacing were a function of the specific surface of reinforcement. The ultimate load of the ferrocement specimen was the same as the load carrying capacity of the reinforcement in that direction. This should be expected since the load is carried by the reinforcement itself after the mortar is cracked. Al-Noury and Huq (1988) had proposed expressions for predicting the first crack strength and modulus of elasticity of ferrocement in the uncracked and cracked range. It was found that the first crack strength of ferrocement in tension might be predicted on the basis of the strain at the limit of proportionality of mortar and the uncracked modulus of ferrocement. The modulus of elasticity of ferrocement in the cracked range could be predicted on the basis of the behaviour of an equivalent composite model aligned wires. Beyond first crack, the crack formation mechanism in ferrocement in the cracked range is related to the matrix-wire interfacial bond.

Compression Strength The high compressive strength of mortar contributes primarily to the compressive strength of the ferrocement composite. Although the reinforcement may have some influence on the compressive strength, but this is limited to certain types of reinforcement. For example, the use of welded wire mesh would increase compressive strength due to the lateral restraint provided by the welded transverse wires, while the hexagonal mesh or expanded metal may weaken the composite due to longitudinal splitting.

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Kameswara Rao and Kamasundra (1986) investigated the stress-strain curve and Poissons ratio of ferrocement in axial compression. It was found that the specific surface is the only factor, which controls the behaviour of ferrocement in axial compression. Equations developed for predicting the increase in strength, strain and modulus of elasticity by regression analysis were used to generate the stress-strain curve of ferrocement under axial compression. They have found that ferrocement behaves linearly up to 50-60% of the ultimate strength in compression; beyond this limit the behaviour becomes non-linear. The value of ultimate strength, strain at ultimate strength and Youngs modulus increase with increasing of specific surface area.

Flexural Strength In some application, ferrocement may be subjected to flexural stress. In such cases, one must consider the method and manner in which its behaviour in flexure may be predicted. Needless to say that compared an average reinforced concrete beam (which is generally under-reinforced), the ferrocement beams due to several layers of wire mesh tend to be over reinforced. It is therefore important to insure that indeed ferrocement will not fail similarly to an over-reinforced concrete beam. Analytical and experimental evaluations were reported by Johnston and Mowat (1974), Logan and Shah (1973), Balaguru et al (1976) and Pama et al (1978). Mansur and Paramasivam (1986) proposed a method to predict the ultimate strength of ferrocement in flexure based on the concept of plastic analysis where ferrocement is considered as a homogenous perfectly elastic-plastic material. Simple equations are derived for direct design of a cross-section. An experimental investigation was also conducted to study the behaviour and strength of ferrocement in flexure. It was found that the ultimate moment increase with increasing matrix grade (decreasing water cement ratio) and increasing volume fraction of reinforcement.

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Shear Venkata Krishna and Basa Gouda (1988) performed testing on ferrocement beams with different volume fraction of reinforcement in transverse shear. It was found that the shear strength depends upon mortar, strength of wire mesh, volume fraction and shear span. Theoretical expressions were developed for predicting the shear strength at first crack and collapse of ferrocement beams with different type of wire meshes namely hexagonal, woven and welded.

Fatigue Resistance Fatigue strength plays an important role in restricting the use of ferrocement in structures subjected to such a loading as in bridges. The fatigue strength of the wire, as tested in air, is the primary factor affecting fatigue of the composite. Balaguru et al (1977) investigated the flexural fatigue properties of ferrocement beams reinforced with square woven and welded meshes. Their finding is the relationship between the stress range in the outermost layer of steel mesh and the number of cycles to failure. Singh et al. (1986) investigated the influence of the reinforcement on the fatigue behaviour of ferrocement. They conducted fatigue tests on ferrocement slabs with different types of mesh reinforcement, studying the effect of the size of wire, galvanising of the wire and placing of wire mesh in layers to the fatigue strength of ferrocement. Samples of the wires were also fatigue-tested in air and a relationship is developed between the fatigue strength of each type in air and in the composite. It was found that the fatigues of the wire in air and in ferrocement are related. Most fatigue failures occurred by fracture of the wires and the range of repeated stress in the wires gave the greatest on the fatigue strength of ferrocement.

19 Impact Resistance Impact strength is a useful parameter in applications related to offshore structures and boats. Reports attesting the favourable characteristics of ferrocement in collisions involving boats with each other or with rocks are numerous. The main attributes include resistance to disintegration, localisation of damage, and ease of repair. However, due to experimental complexity associated with measurement of impact resistance, little quantitative or comparative data exist. Impact strength was defined as the energy absorbed by the specimens when struck by a swinging pendulum dropped from a constant height. The damage was measured by the relative flow of water through the specimen surface for a fixed energy absorbed which is 600lb-in (66.7kN-mm). Shah and Key (1972) tested 9in2 (5625mm2) and in (12mm) thick ferrocement slabs using an impact tester. From the test, it indicated that the higher the specific surface of the meshes and the higher the strength of the mesh, the lower the damage due to impact loading.

Fire Resistance A problem unique to ferrocement is potentially poor fire resistance because of the inherent thinness of its structural form and the abnormally low cover given to the reinforcement. Basanbul et al. (1989) studied the fire resistance of ferrocement load bearing sandwich panels. The fire resistance of the ferrocement wall was found to be encouraging for designers of ferrocement buildings. Though the thin shell nature of ferrocement has raised questions about its fire resistance, it was found that ferrocement retains much of the load bearing qualities of reinforced concrete. Its heat transmission qualities are not as good as those of reinforced concrete, which would be just under four hours, but this latter consideration is more dependent on the mass of the wall.

20 Limited problems of spalling of the front face sheets occurred during the early portion of the test but this spalling was not severe enough to cause serious structural damage during the period in which the wall satisfied the ASTM E-119 performance criteria.

Durability When ferrocement is exposed to aggressive environment, its successful performance depends to a great extent on its durability against the environment than on its strength properties. The external causes may be physical, chemical or mechanical. They may be due to weathering, occurrence of extreme temperatures, abrasion, electrolytic action, and attack by natural and industrial liquids and gases. The extent of damage produced by these agents depends largely on the quality of the mortar, although under extreme conditions any unprotected mortar will deteriorate. The internal causes are alkali-aggregate reaction, volume changes due to the differences in thermal properties of aggregate and cement paste, and above all the permeability of mortar. The permeability of mortar largely determines the vulnerability of the mortar to external agencies, so that in order to be durable the mortar must be relatively impervious. Although the measures required to insure durability in reinforced concrete also apply to ferrocement, three other factors which affect durability are unique to ferrocement. First, the cover is small and consequently it is relatively easy for corrosive liquids to reach the reinforcement. Second, the surface area of the reinforcement is unusually high, so the area of contact over which corrosion reactions can take place, and the resulting rate of corrosion, are potentially high. Third, although many forms of reinforcement used in ferrocement are galvanized to prevent corrosion, the zinc coating can have certain adverse effects bubble generation. All three factors have varying importance depending on the nature of the exposure condition. However, in spite of these unique effects, there is no report of serious corrosion of ferrocement not associated with poor plastering or poor matrix compaction. To insure adequate durability in most applications, a fully compacted matrix is necessary. A protective coating may also be desirable.

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Corrosion Corrosion is the deterioration of metals or alloy due to interaction with its surroundings. The most common example of corrosion is the rusting of steel. Corrosion is normally a fairly slow but complex process; however, due to presence of certain conditions, it may occur very rapidly. Many of these can occur in ferrocement and avoiding them is one of the biggest problems. All ferrocement marine structures, by virtue of their marine environment are liable to corrosion attack. The danger of corrosion is enhanced in ferrocement by the extreme thinness of the cover of mortar over the steel reinforcement. The corrosion process is often difficult to recognise until extensive deterioration has occurred. The severity of the attack on structure will depend basically on how well it has been designed and built, the materials used and what happens to it when in and out of use.

Water (or Liquid) Retaining Capacity Another special property to be noted is that of water retention when application of ferrocement is considered in liquid storage tanks. The important aspect here is small crack widths so that leakage may be minimal. Shah and Naaman (1977) indicated that crack widths in ferrocement for the same steel stress are smaller than in reinforced concrete by order of magnitude. This making it a better choice on material for water retaining structures. Tests were conducted on cylindrical vessels with internal water pressure to investigate this impact. The results showed that the crack width in ferrocement is much smaller than allowable. Naaman and Sabins (1978) also provided some recommendations on using ferrocement for water tanks.

22 Construction Procedure Ferrocement construction unlike other sophisticated engineering construction requires minimum of skilled labour, utilises readily available materials and most of the tools for construction are intended for conventional concrete construction. The skills for ferrocement construction techniques are easily acquired and requisite quality control can be achieved using fairly unskilled labour for the fabrication under the supervision of a skilled foreman. There are several means of producing ferrocement. All methods require highlevel quality control criteria to achieve the complete encapsulation of several layers of reinforcing mesh by a well-compacted mortar of concrete matrix with a minimum of entrapped air. The most appropriate fabrication technique depends on the nature of the particular ferrocement application; the availability of mixing, handling and placing machinery; and skill and cost of available labour. The four major steps in ferrocement construction are: Placement of wire mesh in proper position, Mortar mixing, Mortar application, and Curing. The objective of all construction methods is to thoroughly encapsulate a layered mesh system with a plastic Portland cement matrix. The mortar must be thoroughly compacted during placing to ensure the absence of voids around reinforcement and in the corners of any framework. Ferrocement structures are to be properly cured once the mortar has taken its first set (which occur 3 to 4 hours after mortar application). The set mortar or concrete is to be kept wet for a period dependent on the type of cement used and the ambient conditions. 2.7 Applications

23 Housing Applications Ferrocement has found widespread applications in housing particularly in roofs, floors, slabs and walls. Ferrocement is considered as a suitable housing technology for developing countries attested by the increasing number of easily built and comfortable ferrocement houses. Ferrocement houses utilising local materials such as wood, bamboo or bush sticks as equivalent steel replacement have been constructed in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Precast ferrocement elements have been used in India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Venezuela and the Pacific for roofs, wall panels and fences. In Sri Lanka, a ferrocement house resistant to cyclones has also been developed and constructed. A pyramidal dome over a temple in India and numerous spherical domes for mosques in Indonesia have been constructed with ferrocement. The choice was dictated by low self-weight, avoidance of formwork and availability of unskilled labour. Figure 2.2 shows one of the examples of the houses built using ferrocement structures.

Figure 2.2: A typical ferrocement house Marine Applications Ferrocement has been adapted to traditional boat designs in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia and Thailand due to timber shortages. In China, 600 ferrocement

24 boat-manufacturing units produce annual capacity of 600,000 to 700,000 tonnages. Ferrocement boats are divided into four categories according to usage: farming boats, fishing boats, transport boats and working boats. In countries like Hong Kong, Korea, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, ferrocement boats generally conform to western standards. In Hong Kong, India and Sri Lanka, most of the ferrocement crafts constructed are used as mechanised fishing trawlers while in Korea, as fishing boats. In addition, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Philippines, has used ferrocement tanks for prawn brood stock and ferrocement buoys for a floatation system in the culture of green mussels. This is the first large-scale use of ferrocement for these purposes. In Africa, ferrocement boatyards have been successfully established in Kenya, Sudan and Malawi. The boatyards are now self-supporting under the management of local staff trained by the consultants. The objective of these boatyards is to provide rural fisherman opportunities to explore the fishable grounds to increase their income. Figure 2.3 shows a ferrocement boat under constructions; meanwhile Figure 2.4 shows a typical ferrocement boat.

Figure 2.3: A ferrocement boat under constructions

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Figure 2.4: A typical ferrocement boat

Agriculture Applications Agriculture provides the necessary resource for economic growth in developing countries. The use of ferrocement technology can contribute towards solving some of the production and storage problems of agricultural produce. Ferrocement has been used for grain storage bins in Thailand, India and Bangladesh to reduce losses from attack by birds, insects, rodents and moulds. Thailo, a conical ferrocement bin; was designed and first constructed at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand. Storage capacities range from 1 to 10 tons. This bin has proved to be structurally sound and construction has provided adequate protection to the produce against rodent, insect and bird attacks. The bin costs well within the means of the farmers. Besides, this type of silo also can hold up to 5000 gallons (22.7m3) of drinking water. In Ethiopia, underground pits are the traditional method of grain storage. It has been found that when the traditional pit is lined with ferrocement and provided with an improved airtight lid, a hermetic and waterproof storage chamber can be achieved. Water and Sanitation Applications

26 Ferrocement can be effectively used for various water supply structures like well casings for shallow wells, water tanks, sedimentation tanks, slow sand filters and for sanitation facilities like septic tanks, service modules and sanitary bowls. Some findings indicated that ferrocement tanks are less expensive than steel or fibreglass tanks. The reasons why ferrocement is cheaper are: Ferrocement is an feasible material for the construction of water storage Flexibility of shape, freedom from corrosion, possibility of hot storage, relative lack of maintenance, and ductile mode of failure are important advantages of ferrocement over other materials Ferrocement tanks require less energy to produce than steel tanks. Ferrocement water tanks of 20 to 2000 gallons (0.09 to 9m3) capacity are massproduced in India. Bamboo-cement well casings have been built in Indonesia to prevent contamination of the water.

Miscellaneous Applications Ferrocement is proving to be a technology that can respond to the diverse economic, social and cultural needs of man. Ferrocement has been used to strengthen older structures, a medium for sculpture and for many other types of structures. Ferrocement as a medium for sculpture proves its versatility and the unlimited dimension to which it can be used. Ferrocement in art is an exciting development and it open new horizons. Figure 2.5 shows a typical sculpture made from ferrocement.

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Figure 2.5: A typical ferrocement sculpture Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai, Malaysia also gained some experiences in constructing the prefabricated and landscaping objects. The objects done by Mohd. Warid Hussin, Abdul Rahman Mohd. Sam, and the staff from Structural and Material Laboratory, Faculty of Civil Engineering are: Garden and outdoor furniture Decorative mushroom Fascia Sidewalk slab Sun Screen/shade Ferrocement canoe Some of these objects are still well in condition and can be found within the area of the laboratory. Figure 2.6 shows the ferrocement objects in UTM.

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a: Sunshade and irrigation canal lining

b: Canoe

c: Chairs and table d: Mushroom Figure 2.6: Some of ferrocement objects that can be found in UTM

Conclusion Ferrocement has gained widespread use and acceptance, particularly in developing countries and has already attained worldwide popularity in almost all kinds of applications: marine, housing, water resources and sanitation, grain and water storage, biogas structures, and for repair and strengthening of structures. Widespread use of ferrocement is evident in countries like China, Russia, India, Cuba, South East Asia and others. There are several reasons for its widespread use. On the construction side, it can be fabricated into almost any shape, skill needed for the construction can be easily acquired, heavy plant and machinery is not required and easy to repair. Meanwhile, on the material side, ferrocement possesses a degree of toughness, ductility, durability,

29 strength and crack resistance that is considerably greater than that found in other forms of concrete construction. However, there are still areas of applications where ferrocement is not widely used, such as structural components, like main beam, column, etc. This may be due to insufficient understanding on the behaviour of ferrocement. Hence, more researches still have to be done. This present research will contribute to the enrichment of information and understanding on this subject.