Kawneer White Paper 1999

Aluminium
In the Construction Industry

Contents Why Aluminium?

Introduction Strength versus Weight Design Freedom Material Flexibility Low Maintenance Low Cost-in-Use Fabricated for The Fast Track Guaranteed Performance through Quality Control Thermal Performance Security through Design Integrating Technology Glossary

Section
1.0 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 2.0 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 3.0 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 4.0 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 5.0 5.01 6.0 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04

Page
1 2 3

Key Issues
Is aluminium sustainable Can coated or thermally broken aluminium be recycled? How is quality guaranteed? Can I afford bespoke designs?

Case Studies
Leisure Education Residential Transport Commercial/Office Industrial Retail Public Buildings Healthcare

7 8

Excavation and Production

Extraction and Manufacturing Recycling The 6000 series of Alloys Aluminum in Construction Conclusion

10

Acknowledgement
The Author

Sources of Information
Trade Associations and Research Bodies Relevant Standards Further Reading Kawneer Contact File Please Note:

11 12

1. Copyright The contents of this document are strictly copyright Kawneer UK Limited. However, provided that specific permission is granted in writing by the company in advance of publication, we will allow the reproduction of extracts from the information contained herein. 2. Standards The standards information quoted in this document is current and correct, to the best of our knowledge, as we go to press. However, standards are regularly updated and superseded, and we cannot guarantee the accuracy of standards information or its suitability for specific uses, and we recommend that readers make their won enquiries where detailed information or its suitability for specific uses, and we recommend that readers make their own enquiries where detailed information is required. All information contained herein E&OE.

1.0

Why Aluminium?

Aluminium is also used extensively in plant, ladders and scaffolding. Primary smelter aluminium is pure and, as such, has a relatively low strength. For extrusions and other manufactured components, the material is alloyed to improve its strength, although even the most heavily alloyed wrought aluminium is still 92% pure. The two series of alloys most widely used in construction are the 5000 series work-hardened magnesium alloys and the 6000 series heat-treatable magnesium silicone alloys. The latter are more extrudable and, therefore, offer greater scope for complex shapes. Silicone alloys (such as LM6) and manganese alloys (such as 3103) are also used for specific construction applications. By selecting the right alloy, the designer is offered a wide range of properties including high strength (up to 400 MPa or 26 tonnes per sq inch), low density, high thermal conductivity, and good forming and joining characteristics. The choice of the most appropriate alloy of the 6000 series for a particular extrusion depends on the nature of the task it has to perform. A balance has to be struck between strength, ease of forming and finish. The 6063 alloy, for instance, has good extrudability, corrosion resistance and surface finish; and is thus widely used in fenestration. The properties of the individual alloys are amplified by the shape of the extruding die. Careful and knowledgeable design can take advantage of the ability of the extrusion process to distribute the material across the section to exactly where it is needed for a particular performance requirement.

In its 100 year history aluminium has had an unparalleled impact on the built environment. Since the sheathing of the cupola of the San Gioacchino Church in Rome in 1897, aluminium has risen to prominence among specifiers through landmark projects, such as the curtain walling on Shreve, Lamb & Harmons iconoclastic Empire State Building, 1929. In 1945, Pietro Belushi created the first large structure totally sheathed in aluminium and glass: the Equitable Building in Portland, Oregon; followed by SOMs Lever Building; Mies van der Rohe and Phillip Johnsons Seagram Building; and the UN Secretariat in New York. But even in these pioneering years, the use of aluminium was not confined to modernist landmarks. Indeed, aluminium window frames were installed in the Bodleian Library, Oxford in 1939; and have since provided eloquent testament to the materials durability. So what has drawn successive generations of architects to aluminium? In one word: versatility. More than any other material, aluminium has the capability of being extruded into complex shapes to exact tolerances. Other metals, such as steel, can be extruded but they require enormous pressure to pass through the die, rendering all but a few simple extrusions uneconomic. Aluminium, on the other hand, has been successfully formed into literally thousands of unique profiles, each one able to meet a number of specific structural and aesthetic requirements. It is this capability to provide simple elegant solutions to extremely complex design problems that has led to aluminiums enduring appeal. This white paper will provide an overview of the use of aluminium in contemporary architecture. It will also address the key issues facing todays specifiers; including sustainability and life cycle analysis.

1.02

Strength versus Weight

1.01

Introduction

One of aluminiums primary appeals to specifiers is its exceptional strength to weight ratio. At 2.7g/cm2, aluminium is 66% lighter than steel. It is also far less susceptible to brittle fractures. Indeed, when aluminium and steel structures are compared, aluminiums greater modulus of elasticity means that weight ratios of 1:2 are easily attained. While aluminium has a relatively high co-efficient of linear expansion, at 24 X 10-6/C - in its pure form, the materials low modulus of elasticity (65,500N/mm2 for 6063 alloy) enables temperature induced stresses to be accommodated. Indeed, these are generally far lower than in a comparable steel structure (M of E = 210,000N/mm2). This is graphically illustrated by aluminiums loaddeflection curve, which is continuous, without a yield point.

Aluminium is the second most widely specified metal in buildings after steel, and is used in all construction sectors, from commercial buildings to domestic dwellings. 40% of the UK annual production of aluminium is utilised within the construction industry, which equates to roughly 150,000 tonnes of aluminium per annum, of which approximately 65,000 tonnes is extruded products, and 25,000 tonnes sheet materials. The main market sectors are windows, roofing, cladding, curtain walling and structural glazing, prefabricated buildings, architectural hardware, H&V, shopfitting and partitions.

Designated alloy 6463 6063 T4 6063 T5 6063 T6 6063A T4 6063A T5 6063A T6

0.2% proof stress tons/in2 10.4 4.5 7.1 10.4 6.0 10.4 12.6

Ultimate stress tons/in2 12.0 8.5 9.7 12.0 10.0 13.3 15.3

% change over 50m 9 14 7 7 12 7 7

Specifiers should take advantage of these opportunities - especially when one considers that an extrusion can be specifically developed for a particular situation as the cost of special dies is relatively low; from 500 to 1,500 depending on the complexity of the extrusion. Many architects now prefer to work with, or adapt, an existing system rather than start from scratch since critical factors, such as thermal movement and wind load, have been calculated already and tested in reallife situations. Over the past five years there has been considerable growth in these semi-bespoke systems, which have featured in some of the UKs most prestigious contracts, such as Five Brindleyplace, Birmingham.

Aluminium sections are generally thinner and deeper than equivalent steel sections to achieve the required strength and rigidity Since aluminium is not affected by moisture, aluminium windows do not warp, stick, or rot. In door construction, typically using hollow-section extrusions, sight lines are improved because multipoint locks and other door furniture can be fitted within the frame. This is in addition to the intrinsic lightness, strength and rigidity of aluminium frames. These are usually mitred and locked using fixed cleats or crimping, rather than welded. Two notable exceptions are Kawneer Series 190 and Series 350 doors which are welded and come with a lifetime guarantee. Careful die design can ensure that bulbs, fillets and wall thickness can be varied in order to maximise structural advantage for minimal weight gain. This is probably aluminiums greatest advantage over competitive materials.

1.04

Low Maintenance - Low Cost-in-Use

1.03

Design Freedom -Material Flexibility

While aluminium has a natural, built-in durability (it forms a protective layer of oxide as soon as it is exposed to air), most aluminium construction products are treated or coated. One way in which the oxidisation process can be enhanced is anodization; an electrolytic process which increases the thickness of the natural oxide layer from 0.00001mm to between 0.005 and 0.025mm (25 Microns). This enhances the ability of aluminium to withstand attack in aggressive environments. Natural anodising results in a similar silvery finish to oxidised aluminium, but it can also introduce a range of colours. This is because, after anodizing, the surface film remains porous, allowing it to accept colouring agents, such as organic dies, pigments, electrolytes or metallics. Attractive gold, bronze, grey, black and even blue finishes are commonly achieved in this way. For a wider choice of colours, most specifiers opt for an electrostatically-sprayed polyester powder coating. This is a common finish for curtain walling, rainwater goods and cladding panels, where the powder coating is used to provide resistance to the acidity of rainwater. In this process, charged paint particles are blown onto the extrusion (which has undergone a twelve-stage pre-treatment process) and then stoved, at between 200 and 210C, for 10 to 12 minutes. This provides a high quality surface with excellent adhesion, accurate colouration and very even film thickness. Coatings based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), such as Kynar 500, are also widely specified. They come in many standard colours, with custom colours, including metallics, readily available. Other coating options include electrophoretic coating where pre-treated pieces are made

The ductility of aluminium in its hot state means that an almost unlimited variety of shapes and extrusions can be produced. One of the main benefits of aluminium extrusions is that shapes can be produced that require little or no further fabrication or machining. Close cooperation between the architect and the manufacturer can also result in extrusions that can perform the tasks of several structural components, offering a neater, more effective solutions at lower cost; as well as simplifying on-site assembly. For example, an extrusion can have keyways and slots to provide fixings, channels for drainage, luff grooves for attaching fabric and rebates for glazing seals. These are in addition to its use as a structural member and its ability to have a durable and attractive finish - whether through anodising or powder coating. In applications where deflection is a controlling factor, the performance of an aluminium extrusion can be significantly improved by positioning the material where it offers maximum structural advantage, such as the intersections between horizontal and vertical walls.

Paint type Acrylic polyurethane Polyester PVF2 Acrylic polyester Fluoropolymers

Application Method Wet bath Electrostatic dry spray Electrostatic dry spray Electrostatic wet spray Electrostatic wet spray

Coating thickness 25 microns 60 to 80 microns 30 to 100 microns 25 microns 25 to 40 microns

anodic and then dipped into electrically-charged paint, followed by stoving for 15 minutes at 160 C. The colour choice now available to specifiers is vast. Kawneer, for instance, offers over 130 standard polyester colours and 31 metallic colours, with specials to order for large contracts at no extra cost. Whatever the specified finish, longevity is not an issue. Anodized and polyester coated finishes have an anticipated service life of 20+ years, with leading manufacturers now offering 25 year guarantees on their coatings for normal applications.

that has helped develop new markets for aluminium systems companies in the health, education, leisure and transport sectors where changes in the funding of building procurement, such as PFI and fund-holding schools has changed the emphasis from lowest capital cost to lowest cost in use. Specifiers are increasingly looking for effective systems solutions by involving system suppliers early in the design process to ensure the most elegantly engineered solution at the lowest cost.

1.07

Thermal Performance

Aluminium has a high co-efficient of conduction; 244W/m C. Without effective thermal breaks this could clearly compromise the thermal performance of window and curtain walling systems. There are two basic systems for thermally-breaking aluminium extrusions. One technique involves the insertion and mechanical fixing of a thermal web, or webs, usually nylon or polyamide, into a channel on the aluminium section. This system has advantages, notably that it allows different colours to be used on either side of the finished assembly. The alterative system, known as the pour and cut, involves pouring a special liquid resin, usually polyurethane, into a semi-closed channel in a single extrusion. Once the resin has set, the aluminium joining section is cut out, leaving the resin as the thermal break. This system has the disadvantage that sections have to be painted before the break is made, and is becoming less common.

1.05 Fabricated for The Fast Track

One of the principal reasons for aluminiums enduring and growing popularity is its compatibility with todays fast track construction techniques and just-in-time ordering. Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in curtain walling, where the accuracy of factory-finished sections allows rapid erection on site and, in him, allows internal finishing to proceed more quickly. The end result is earlier building occupancy and greater profit margins for the ultimate customer. Aluminium shopfronts, window systems and door assemblies offer comparable on-site benefits, which are now being enhanced by fabricators computer-controlled machining rigs which can drill, mitre, grind and countersink to exact tolerances enabling the easiest possible installation of ironmongery, glazing beads and other secondary components.

1.08 Security through Design

Fire is simply not an issue for aluminium. In its pure form, aluminium has a melting point of 660C, with alloys offering melting points of between 570 and 660C. Aluminium does not burn, will not ignite, does not add to fire load and will not spread surface flame. No building is entirely bomb-proof, but careful external profiling, to dissipate shock waves, coupled with the correct glazing detailing, can minimise the number of casualties and degree of damage suffered in a blast. Aluminium is also popular among designers of vulnerable buildings, because the materials modulus of elasticity allows it to absorb the shock far better than most alternative framing options. This, coupled with the correct glazing specification, can obviate the main dangers following an explosion: flying glass and falling glazing panels sucked out by the vacuum created in a blasts wake.

1.06 Guaranteed Performance through Quality Control

Although basic material costs will always be important to specifiers, they should be balanced against the cost of fabrication and subsequent service performance. This is an area where aluminium, being ideally suited to highly automated manufacturing procedures to exact tolerances, offers many benefits. Aluminium extrusions, for instance, are subjected to a rigorous quality regime, from hardness testing of the raw extrusion to conical bends, sawing, scratching, gouging, hammering and weight drops to guarantee coating performance. It is this combination of quality control, excellent cost in use and systems technology

1.09

Integrating Technology

One of the benefits of specifying a precisionengineered system, like contemporary curtain walling, is the ability to benefit from the experience gained on previous projects. Extruders have developed their own industry standards, such as glazing bars at 622mm centres to accommodate 600mm wide glazing panels. However, as bespoke systems are developed to cope with unique design challenges, so the vocabulary of systems manufacturers constantly expands. Die libraries containing several thousand proven extrusions are now held by major extruders, and many existing designs can be simply modified to facilitate the introduction of new technologies, such as photovoltaic panels or triple glazing.

Rainscreens are perhaps the best current example. Fully air-sealed at the internal junction, with special gaskets used externally, they are engineered to cope with the massive pressure differentials experienced in large structures, such as shopping malls, despite the use of individual glazing panels up to 900 by 1,200mm. The secret is transoms designed to allow thermal and structural movement, while integral drainage channels discharge into interconnected sloping glazing bars. With mullion and transom framing, thermal movement can be simply accommodated by a sleeve and spigot assembly at the head and foot of each panel, often in tandem with a compression gasket to the junctions to maintain the weather tightness of the overall assembly.

1.10
Fillet

Glossary
Concave junction between two surfaces A process used to obtain a highly reflective surface on 6000 series alloys whereby the metal is mechanically polished and chemically treated prior to electrolysis The ratio of stress to corresponding strain through the range where they are proportional The ratio of unit sheer stress, in a torsional bar, to the displacement caused by it per unit length in the elastic range Controlling rapid cooling of a metal from an elevated temperature through contact with a liquid, gas or solid. Tungsten inert gas or metal inert gas welding

Bright anodizing

Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of rigidity

Quenching

TIG/MIG welding

2.0
2.01

Key Issues
Is aluminium sustainable?

Like most primary materials, the environmental arguments for and against aluminium are complex and inter-related. Since aluminium is the third most abundant element on the earths surface one of the green building lobbys main preoccupations, sustainability of supply, is not a factor. Extraction and its environmental impact remains a consideration, although the aluminium industry worldwide takes great care in its mining operations to reinstate land after the bauxite has been dug out. The current mine rehabilitation practices aim to meet both environmental and commercial objectives which reflect the long-term interests of both the local and the national communities in the mining country.

The high embodied energy content of aluminium is the area of concern most commonly raised by architects. Aluminium production is certainly an energy intensive process, at approximately 12kW hours per kilogram. However, over 50% of the worlds smelters use hydroelectric power; a sustainable resource that clearly minimises the environmental impact. Also in aluminiums favour is the ease with which it can be recycled. It is now estimated that up to 70% of the aluminium used in building can recycled, without any significant degradation of the materials intrinsic properties. 63% of the aluminium sold to end customers in transport, engineering, building, etc., is eventually returned for

6063 Family of Alloys Chemical Composition recycling, while for the waste created during the manufacturing process, the recycling rate is virtually 100%. This is highly significant since fabrication using recycled aluminium alloys requires only 5% of the power needed for primary smelting - so when it comes to life cycle analysis, aluminiums case is much stronger than it would at first appear; especially since aluminium is one of the very few materials that can be recycled repeatedly without loss of quality. Metal Aluminium Silicone Iron Copper Manganese Magnesium Chromium Zinc Titanium Concentration (% of total by weight) 97.65 to 98.5 0.2 to 0.6 0.35 0.1 0.1 0.45 to 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1

2.02

Can coated or thermally broken aluminium be recycled?

Yes. It is a common preconception that coated aluminium cannot be recycled. This is not true since it is possible to pre-treat the sections to remove the coating prior to recycling. Organic coatings are simply vaporised when aluminium is recycled, with any toxic gases removed by flue scrubbers. With thermallybroken sections, it is necessary to remove the thermal break prior to recycling, but then the metal can be fully reclaimed. In essence, the majority of aluminium used in construction can be recycled, the only real constraint being the economic cost of any pre-treatment required.

2.04

Can l afford bespoke designs?

2.03

How is quality guaranteed?

Quality control starts at the smelter, where billets of alloy are rigorously tested before they are despatched to the manufacturer. For extruders the critical factors are the temperature of the metal before it enters the die, the accuracy of the die itself, and the precise control of the heat treatment process: 5 hours at 185C in the case of 6063 alloys. Each batch of raw extrusions is checked using a hardness gauge, since there is a close correlation between tensile strength and hardness in heat-treated extruded aluminium. This surface hardness can be tested by a variety of simple gauges, including Brinell, Vickers, Webster and Rockwell. Their speed and simplicity means that intensive quality regimes can be established to test extrusion quality prior to any machining or coating taking place.

One of the reasons for aluminiums popularity with architects is the relatively low cost of die development. This means that bespoke solutions can be costeffective even on relatively small projects, although most specifiers prefer to work with, or adapt, existing systems that have been fully tested in both the laboratory and on site. The recent development of specific CAD/CAC engineering and calculation software packages, such as Kawneers KaluCAD, has enabled designers, fabricators and installers to create complex curtain wall and rainscreen systems with authority and confidence. These systems also aid inter-office communications, unifying the estimating, design and production functions: essential if fabricators are to offer the best possible service to fast track contracts.

3.0
3.01
Project Architect Installer System Contract value Specification

Case Studies
Leisure
Oasis Forest Holiday Village, Penrith HMA Architects CAP Aluminium Systems Ltd Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system 375,000 Roof glazing to Butterfly Building consisting of 18m concrete drum with two fanned wings. Low pitch roof offers clear spans of 45m to accommodate radial plan, fitted with 24mm clear double glazing units with toughened outer pane and laminated inner pane. Kawneers new stalk version of its Series 1200 sloped curtain wall offering slimmer sight lines and reduced weight, but the same structural performance.

Detail

3.02
Project Architect Installer System Contract value Specification Detail

Education
Glamorgan University, B Block Stubbs & Rich Siac Construction Ltd Kawneer Series 190 doors, Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system and Kawneer Econ 75 Top Swing windows 250,000 Refurbishment of 1950s university building, keeping within original design aesthetic but incorporating CDM regulations. Safety and maintenance requirements met by Kawneers Econ 75 Top Swing window which can be cleaned from the inside.

3.03
Project Architect Installer System

Residential
8-13 Bird Street, London Koski Solomon & Ruthven Architects CAP Aluminium Systems Ltd. Kawneer Series Designer 53 swing doors, Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling, Kawneer Series casement windows and Kawneer Series 503 Tilturn windows 672,000 Residential-style glazing contract featuring the new Kawneer Series 503 Tilturn windows set within large bays, and as projecting within brickwork enclosed by Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system. Safety rails to the exterior of windows, and clip-on face caps to emphasise the developments vertical lines.

Contract value Specification

Detail

3.04
Project Architect Installer System Contract value Specification Detail

Transport
Terminal 2 Extension, Heathrow Airport Llewellyn Davies Glamalco Ltd Kawneer Series 1640 curtain walling system and Kawneer Series 190 doors 1,750,000 The ability to move opaque and clear vision panels, at any time, to accommodate internal franchise holders. Kawneer Series 1640 curtain walling system.

3.05
Project Architect Installer System

Commercial/Office
Five Brindleyplace, Birmingham Sidell Gibson Glamalco Ltd Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system, Kawneer Series 1200 slope glazing system, Kawneer framing system and Kawneer Series Tilturn windows 1,400,000 Complex six-storey curtain walling structure with glazed atrium designed to offer natural internal environment with minimal solar gain through use of automatic blinds and vents. Atrium glazing featuring Kawneer Series 1200 slope glazing system.

Contract value Specification

Detail

3.06
Project Architect Installer System

Industrial
Motorolas new Mobile Telecommunications Manufacturing HQ, Swindon Sheppard Robson Exterior Profiles Ltd Kawneer Series 1200S curtain walling system, bespoke semistructurally glazed, low pitch roof and Kawneer Series Designer 53 swing doors. 3,300,000 Bespoke semi-structurally glazed, low pitch roof, and new curtain walling system providing a four-sided, structurally glazed, structure. Flush finish to curtain walling panels and glass.

Contract value Specification

Detail

3.07
Project Architect Installer System Contract value Specification Detail

Retail
Buchanan Galleries, Glasgow Jenkins & Marr Charles Henshaw & Sons Ltd Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system 3,000,000 Kawneer curtain walling, windows, fixed lights and decorative spandrel panels Custom-designed face cap

3.08
Project Architect Installer System Contract value Specification Detail

Public Buildings
Millennium Stadium, Cardiff Lobb Sports Architecture Siac Construction Ltd Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system 3,500,000 Feature bands of continuous horizontal glazing, set within the cladding, running around the entire building Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling cantilevered out over the River Taff.

3.09
Project Architect Installer System

Industrial
Roy Castle International Lung Cancer Research Centre, Liverpool FSP Architects & Planners Ltd SG Aluminium Ltd Kawneer Series 1200 curtain walling system, Kawneer casement, pivot and tilturn windows and Kawneer Series 190 doors 130,000 Three blocks linked by central atrium topped with pyramidal rooflight Glazing to curved tower

Contract value Specification Detail

4.0
4.01

Excavation and Production

Extraction and Manufacturing

Despite the superabundance of bauxite, aluminium was not isolated until 1825. The real breakthrough in commercial terms came with the simultaneous discovery, by Hall and Heroult, of the electrolysis process whereby alumina, which is derived from bauxite, is reduced to aluminium. The process allows consistently pure metal to be produced in commercial quantities, with 20 million tonnes of aluminium produced annually; 60% of which is used in construction. It is supplied to manufacturers as billet; round tubes of solid aluminium alloy. This billet is then heated to 480 C to allow it to flow easily under pressure while retaining its original shape when not under load. This hot billet is then placed on a press and forced through a die to produce the desired section.

4.02

Recycling

The benefits of recycling aluminium are clear. It only takes 0.6kW/kg to recycle aluminium, compared with the 12kW/kg required for primary production. Currently 40% of all aluminium used in construction is recycled, but this figure is steadily rising as the concept of re-usability in building components becomes more widely accepted, with 70% recycling a realistic target in the medium term.

4.03

The 6000 series of Alloys

The 6063 family of magnesium silicone alloys is the most widely used in the extrusion industry. They are chosen for their good resistance to atmospheric attack, formability, suitability for TIG and MIG welding, and anodizing. 6063 alloys are heat-treated in ageing ovens as part of the extrusion process, to maximise the materials strength. The relationship between the mechanical properties of aluminium alloys and heat treatment was first discovered by Wilm in 1906. The technology has been refined over the years to the current position where components fabricated from heat treated alloys are the established norm. The 6063 family of alloys, once heat treated, achieve a modulus of elasticity 65,500 N/mm2. This allows excellent impact absorption and lower imposed stress levels from structural flexing.

4.04

Aluminium in Construction

It is estimated that across Europe, the building and construction market consumes almost 1.4 million tonnes of aluminium per annum. The growing importance of recycling can be gauged by the fact that, in 1996, the production of primary aluminium in Western Europe stood at 890,000 tonnes, while production of secondary aluminium was 1,747,000 tonnes; with the building sector accounting for 54% of extruded products and 15% of rolled products.

4.05

Conclusion

It is certain that aluminium will become even more widely used in construction as pressure grows for buildings that are flexible, easy to maintain and offer low cost-in-use. There is certainly scope for growth in a wide variety of structural applications, such as supporting aluminium sheet roofing on aluminium extruded roofing members. This growth is limited principally by a lack of understanding of aluminiums true structural abilities. No construction material is perfect. Timber is affected by moisture, requires maintenance, has limited structural capabilities and cannot be machined into complex shapes. Steel has a relatively poor strength to weight ratio, cannot be thermally broken, rusts in an untreated state and, under stress, is prone to brittle fractures. PVCu is available in a limited range of colours, can suffer from polymer migration, does not have the inherent stiffness of metals, and has been attacked on environmental grounds by leading environmental NGOs. Aluminium, while it has a relatively high initial energy cost, offers unparalleled manufacturing flexibility, the broadest ranges of finishes, an excellent strength-to-weight ratio, unlimited recyclability and has a far better environmental profile than many specifiers believe. Above all, it offers architects the most elegant and satisfying design solutions. For many contemporary designers there is simply no alternative to aluminium - the form dictates the material and the material facilitates the form. This fact alone will ensure the continued growth of aluminium in construction.

5.0
5.01

Acknowledgement
The Author

Joe Simpson , 42, has been a construction joumalist for twenty years. He started his career at RCI, and later edited both Building Products and Building Refurbishment before founding his own publishing company of which he is still a director. In recent years Joe has been freelance Technical Editor of Building Design, and founder Editor and Publisher of ECO magazine. Joe currently works as a freelance journalist, as well as editing Tile UK and a number of industry reports. He also lectures to the RIBA, local authorities and other professional bodies on a range of subjects from sustainable construction to new roofing technology.

6.0
6.01

Sources of Information
Trade Associations and Research Bodies

Centre for Window and Cladding Technology University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY Tel: 01225 826541 Aluminium Federation Broadway House, Calthorpe Road, Five Ways, Birmingham B15 1TN Tel: 0121 456 1103 Council for Aluminium in Building (Architectural Aluminium Association, Aluminium Windows Association, Patent Glazing Contractors Association) 191 Cirencester Road, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL53 8DF Tel: 01242 578278 Glass & Glazing Federation 44-48 Borough High Street, London SE1 1XB Tel: 0207 403 7177

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6.02

Relevant Standards
Aluminium Alloy Extrusion Aluminium Alloy Sheet Specification for aluminium alloy sections for structural purposes The structural use of aluminium Design Code for structural uses of aluminium Specification for aluminium-framed sliding glass doors Specification for aluminium alloy windows Code of Practice for designing and installing of sloping and vertical patent glazing Method for specifying anodic oxidation coatings on aluminium and its alloys Specification for anodic oxide coatings on wrought aluminium for external architectural applications Specification for powder organic coatings on aluminium Specification for liquid organic coatings on aluminium Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Anodizing Building components and building elements. Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance. Calculation methods 1997 Curtain Walling. Air permeability. Performance requirements and classifications Curtain Walling. Air permeability test methods Building Hardware. Gaskets and weatherstripping for doors, windows shutters and curtain walling Thermal performance of windows, doors and shutters - simplified method Thermal performance of windows, doors and shutters - numerical method Windows, doors and shutters. Determining thermal transmittance by the hot box method Windows and doors. Air permeability test methods Thermal bridges in building construction. Linear thermal transmittance Glass in building. Determination of thermal transmittance Calculation method Glass in building. Determination of thermal transmittance Guarded hot plate method Glass in building. Determination of thermal transmittance Heat flow meter method Thermal insulation. Determination of steady state transmission properties Thermal performance of windows and doors - Determination of thermal transmittance Building components and building elements - Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance Thermal performance of curtain walling Thermal bridges in building construction Windows and doors. Watertightness test method Windows and doors. Resistance to windload test method Windows and doors. Air permeability classification Windows and doors. Watertightness classification Windows and doors. Resistance to windload classification

BS EN 755 BS EN 485 BS 1161 CP 118 BS 8118 BS 5286 BS 4873 BS 5516 BS 1615 BS 3987 BS 6496 BS 4842 BS EN 12373 BS EN ISO 6946 prEN 12152 prEN 12153 prEN 12365 BS EN ISO 10077-1 BS EN ISO 10077-2 prEN 12412 BS EN 1026 BS EN ISO 14683 BS EN 673 BS EN 674 BS EN 675 BS EN ISO 8990 BS EN ISO 12567-1 BS EN ISO 6946 prEN 13947 BS EN ISO 10211-1 BS EN 1027 BS EN 12211 prEN 2207 prEN 12208 prEN 12210

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6.03

Further Reading
Aluminium Federation Aluminium Window Association Author: Edward Allen Author: Howard Spencer, AEA Aluminium Extruders Association Authors: J Randolph Kissel & Robert L Ferry Author: John W. Bull Author: John Lane Author: L William Zahner

The Properties of Aluminium & Its Alloys Guide to the Specification of Windows Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methodology ISBN: 0-471-18349-0 Aluminium Extrusions: A technical design guide Advanced Uses of Aluminium Extrusions in Commercial Fenestration Aluminium Structures: a guide to their specification and design ISBN: 0-471-05385-6 The Practical Design of Structural Elements in Aluminium ISBN: 0-291-39798-0 Aluminium in Building ISBN: 1-85742-082-9 Architectural Metals: a guide to selection, specification and performance ISBN: 0-471-04506-3

6.04

Kawneer Contact File

Main Office: Kawneer UK Limited Astmoor Industrial Estate Runcorn, Cheshire WA7 1QQ Tel: 01928 502500 Fax: 01928 502501 E-mail: enquiries@eu.kawneer.com www.kawneereurope.com London Office Tel: 0207 409 1422 Fax: 0207 409 1466 www.kawneereurope.com Technical Literature Finishes & Services Shopfronts & Framing Systems Non Thermal and Thermal Framing Systems Door Systems 505 Swing Door 1200 Series Curtain Wall Systems RS-100 Rainscreen System Patent Glazing Systems 1600 Curtain Wall Sliding Windows 500 Series Windows Econ Windows Econ 75 TS Top Swing Window Patio Doors

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KWP 1999 / Alu / Rev.2 / 500 / 7-01