University of Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies Ruhr University Bochum Institute of Development Research and Development Policy / South

h African German Centre For Development Research and Criminal Justice.

Academic and Research Workshop

Topic Reforming aid partnerships and international aid architecture: redefining the reformative role and place of the civil society and marginalized poor in urban and rural communities within the new aid optic context with specific reference to Zimbabwe in the 2000 decade and beyond.

Author Dr Godfrey Chikowore. Director: University of Zimbabwe: Institute of Development Studies. (UZ-IDS). University of Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies P Bag MP 167 Mt Pleasant Harare Zimbabwe.

UZ IDS

05-08. 10. 2010.

HARARE.

CONTENTS

1. Abstract 2. Key words / phrases 3. Introduction 4. Literature review 5. Methodology 6. Expected outcome 7. Discussion

7.1 Historical and ideological interpretation of the first, second and third generation aid delivery packages. 7.2 Reformative essence of fourth generation aid delivery policy. 7.3 Strategic and Action Plan for the civil society in the new aid optic. 7.4 Strategic and Action plan for the marginalized poor in the new aid optic. 7.5 Progressive common human centred approaches for the fourth generation new aid development effectiveness program. 8.Conclusion. 9. References.

1. Abstract The increasingly unprecedented pronounced level of poverty and marginalization of the majority in sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular on one hand, coupled by extremely burdensome debt for the same geographical regions and nations presents itself as a great challenge, requiring fundamental more human centred approaches in the Donor, Recipient nations, as well as the Civil society in an organically progressive combination with the historically marginalized poor in urban and rural communities.

Notwithstanding the efforts launched by the United Nations in adopting the Millennium Development Goals (2000), adoption of New Partnership for Africas Development by the African Union (2001), the SADC-Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (2001) and the Zimbabwe - Short Term Economic Recovery Program (2009), and the good intentions behind such endeavors, poverty, hunger,disease and unbridled corruption with its attended marginalizaion of the poor majority has continued to manifest in sub Saharan Africa, Developing Countries and Zimbabwe in particular in the new millennium. At the same time high volumes of aid flows (loan, grant, technical, humanitarian) advanced within the context of these programs have not yielded the more human centred results of not only reducing but eradicating poverty, hunger and disease. The net effect of this unfavorable development means deteriorating and depressive human rights disposition, highly questionable social justice and a sustainable absence of human centred development in both rural and urban communities across sub Saharan Africa, the Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. On both a historical and developmental note, what this rather depressed but potentially promising circumstance basically point to is an overhaul of the principles of Donor Recipient Policy towards a more progressive framework in which the marginalized and poor are accorded a cross sectoral centre stage in aided programs from the cell, village, ward, district, province and national level, and further to regional, continental and global level. Analyzing the factually mounting threat of hunger, diseases and poverty and the attendant deprivation of human rights, social justice and unsustainable development in the in the poor and marginalized majority rural and urban communities in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular in the new millennium, this contribution will content that the whole noble process on optimization of development effectiveness of aid, is a historical legacy reclamation mission, necessitating a restructuring of the international aid architecture and a realization by both Donor Recipient Nations, Civil Society and the poor that inherently that process abundantly has both opportunities and threats which all players in the struggle for equity, equality and justice for all, have to address without any reservation. In addition the contribution in a dialectical historically biased approach , considers the inherent constraints, and also very limited opportunities in the first, second and third generation aid reform programs and proposes among other alternatives reformative traditional / modern sector -aid based- empowerment programs for the marginalized poor majority in the rural and urban communities of sub- Saharan Africa, Developing Countries and Zimbabwe in particular.

2. Key terms / phrases:

traditional institutions key reformative role; pro poor

/civil society aid driven strategic long and short term targeted development plans and programs; development effectiveness; reformative aid; human centredness aid

reform; Afrocentricity; Eurocentricity; Asiacentricity; Latin-Americanocentricity; reformative traditional / modern sector- aid based empowerment programs ; historicity; justice; ideological orientation; progressive aid policy; poor and

marginalized rural and urban communities.

1. Introduction The new millennium has witnessed great development challenges, in which there continues to be increasing levels and numbers of the poor and marginalized people in urban and rural communities of the sub Saharan Africa, Developing Countries and Zimbabwe in particular, notwithstanding the efforts by both the progressive international and local communities to address meaningfully these historically generated obstacles. More systematic approaches to the socio- economic, political, cultural, historical, scientific and technological plight of sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular have generated greater concern in the progressive human centred international and local communities expressing the determination not only to reverse, but eradicate poverty, hunger and disease, through optimization of aid driven development effectiveness. This progressive community comprising an unprecedented gathering of donors, governments, recipient nations, international organizations and the civil society, poor and marginalized communities made a successive official launch of the struggle to reverse poverty, hunger and disease during the first week of September 2008 at the Third High Level Forum (HLF3) held in Accra Ghana in the context of reviewing the 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness1. Developing a broad framework of operation, the HLF3 developed the Accra Agenda for Action which essentially defined the broader agenda of country ownership to include the civil society, and parliamentarians also recognizing that aid would be effective if at all it demonstrated measurable development impact, through an essential address of gender equality, respect for human rights and environmental sustainability as these were cornerstones to the process of transformation of the livelihoods of the poor, women, men and children. In the wider context of the broad definition of the agenda, the 2005 Accra Agenda for Action (AAA) recognized the essence of developing policies on addressing these challenges more coherent and systematic and above all, there was recognition of the importance and distinctiveness of the South South

Reality of Aid 2010 Report Theme Statement : Development Effectiveness: Human Rights, Social Justice and Democratic Development: Concept Paper. p1 -2.

Cooperation in the context of its uniqueness in approaches and contributions to development. However, the unfolding events on advancing the battle for aid effectiveness took a new and more bold twist when in the phase just before the Third High Level Forum more than 700 civil society organizations mobilized under the Better Aid Platform, confirmed the reality that the concepts of aid development effectiveness were mutually reinforcing, which was well elaborated in a Reality of Aid Network 2008 Report on Aid Effectiveness, Democratic Ownership and Human Rights, launched then at the Accra Civil Society Organization parallel Forum held September 2008. Nevertheless notwithstanding, the fact that the 2008 Report further examined the themes explored in the previous Global Reports on addressing the politics of aid ineffectiveness in the context of broader issues of international cooperation, such as debt and international development finance, it still advocated for the deeper and more fundamental reforms in the current trends and practices, if at all aid was to be effective in eliminating poverty and inequality for marginalized majority in the rural and urban communities in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. An analysis of the earlier contributions of the Reality of Aid Global Reports points to the fact that the challenges on a systematic and practical eradication of poverty and inequality for the marginalized poor as well as the key reformative role of the civil society were not given adequate attention. Such was the position because the 2002 Report mainly focused on issues of conditionality; while the 2004 focused on governance; and the 2006 focused mainly on peace and security, but were all effectively examining the realities in the content of aid and donor practices from the perspective of international principles of solidarity and equity as well as donor and government obligations to the international human rights standards2. The combined negative net effect of this content of aid and donor practicesdonor and government obligations to the international human rights standards syndrome and preoccupation over the years was increasing levels of poverty, hunger and disease in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. Thus over the 2009 average births and deaths per 1000 population in Africa were 36 and 12 respectively, by far greater than World averages of 20 and 8 respectively, while for Zimbabwe the averages were comparatively higher at 32 and 18 respectively3, that is with a 160 % and 230% elevation over the world averages for births and deaths per 1000 population respectively and a 151 % elevation over Africas average deaths per 1000 population, and lagged behind average Africa births per 1000 population at 88 %. At the same time in 2006 average World

Analytical insights into the essence of the respective 2002; 2004 and 2006 Reality of Aid Global Reports and qualification of the urgency of addressing the challenges of poverty and inequality of the marginalized poor and recognition of the reformative role of the civil society. Reality of Aid 2010 Report Theme Statement. p 1. 3 Some key socio- biased indice qualifying the degree of poverty and marginalization of the poor in both rural and urban areas of sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. 2009 World Population Data Sheet. PRB- Empower; Inform and Advance. Washington.

GNI PPP per capita (US$) was 9940 US$, while for Africa it was 2550 US$ 4almost 3 times less than the World averages, and for Zimbabwe the average GNI PPP per capita was 1940US$, that is 4.9 (~5) times less than the World average and 1.2 times less than the averages for Africa. Inherently the socioeconomic distress that arises from this unequal and inequitable disposition necessitates not only intervention but a more human centred, pro-poor approach Donor Recipient Aid policy in which non partisan and progressive Civil society plays a key role. On sovereign state level in 2006 across the Developed world High Income Economies as Norway the average GNI PPP per capita (US$) equals 43920US$; while for Industrialising Middle Income Economies5 as Brazil the GNI PPP per capita equals 8800US$, and for Developing Low Income Economies as Zimbabwe the GNI PPP per capita equals 1950US$. Thus according to 2006 data Zimbabwe GNI PPP per capita was approximately 22 times less than that of High Income Economies in particular Norway; and approximately 4.4 times less the GNI PPP per capita of Industrializing Middle Income Economies and in particular Brazil, thus clearly qualifying the level of development and democratization and the quality of life led by the majority of the populace in this nations and geographical destinations. This indeed tells much positive about the centrality of civil society in promotion development and aid policies that are essentially propoor and human centred. Certainly the reformative set backs in the first and second generations of aid reform need to be addressed inorder to practically reverse the mounting trends of inequality, inequity; poverty, hunger and diseases across sub Saharan Africa, the Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. This mission can among other human centred alternatives that are essentially pro poor be accomplished through a redefinition of the role and place of the civil society, marginalized rural and urban majority poor people within the Donor aid - Recipient nation policy. Indeed if both the first and second generations of aid reform could not fully address the challenge of delivery of aid effectively, so as to impact on poverty and inequality of the majority of the poor, the third generation of aid reform, informed and steeped in the historical socio-economic circumstances of the poor rural and urban majority in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular should realize development effectiveness and a more equitable international aid architecture across all sectors of social and economic life from both a traditional and contemporary modernistic angle. All sectors of the social and economic life in both the productive and non productive sectors mainly because of the progressive combinations they inherently possess and their capacity to create self employment and employment and lastly because of their inherent potential to generate creativity, innovativeness and

Comparative analytical quantitative data manifesting a more vivid qualitative disposition of the marginalization of the majority poor and ill advised defective investment of aid over both short, medium and long term. 2007 World Population Data Sheet. PRB- Empower, Inform and Advance. Washington. 5 Key integral (qualitative and quantitative ) indice qualifying not only level of development, democratization, but also degree of quality of life in sovereign nations across the world. 2007 World Population Data Sheet. PRB- Inform, Empower and Advance. Washington.

motivation grounded in the tradition of the majority of the poor in both rural and urban communities, of sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular. This can be well achieved through development of National Strategic Development and Action Plans for both the civil society and marginalized poor majority over the short, medium and long term, in a constructive synchrone of programs and action plans from cell, ward, village, district, provincial and national level which should subsequently be projected in a mutually developmental manner to the regional, continental and international level. 2. Literature review Existing literature has over the decades since independence as observed in The Reality of Aid 2010 Report: Theme statement, focused mainly on: issues of aid conditionality in a more and dictatorial aid policy was being pursued ignoring in the main the historical socio-economic circumstances in which inequality and inequity in development; poverty, hunger and disease emerged, in a classic top to bottom approach governance in which generally that was done from a very narrow technicist framework which concentrated more on exclusively donor/ government aid management and delivery. Essentially this approach mutually and effectively excluded both the civil society and the majority marginalized poor in rural and urban areas of sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular; peace and conflict in which the realities in the content of aid and donor practices from the point of view of international principles of solidarity and equity as well as donor and government obligations to international human rights standards. Again while all these efforts were commendable, they still fell far short of the key role and place of the civil society and marginalized poor majority in the Donor aid Recipient policy and implementation; competitive profit margins generated by returns from aid advanced to developing recipient nations, which was and still remains the major cause of socio-economic hardships (poverty, hunger, disease and corruption and conflict) in sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular. Generally, the existing literature lost sight of the Afrocentricized approaches in the Donor aid Recipient policy in which the civil society and marginalized poor majority needed to be placed at the centre stage as key players in the new reformed strategy of aid use in a context of a gradually changing international aid architecture towards equal and equitable use of donor funding. The Reality of Aid Special Report on South South Cooperation 2010 entitled South South Cooperation: A challenge to the Aid System, better informs forth generation aid reform efforts as it contextualizes development effectiveness in the socio-economic circumstances in which Southern communities

obtained, emphasizing the catalytic role of the civil society and the marginalized poor in rural and urban communities of the South. 3. Methodology Quite pivotal investigative instruments of the effectiveness of aid delivery in terms of its development impact on poverty and inequality, elimination of hunger, disease are analytical primary and secondary data, combined with analytical qualitative and quantitative data interpretation. Analytical comparisons of development effectiveness of aid use in High Income Economies, Industrializing Middle Income Economies and Low Income Economies to which Zimbabwe belongs will have a considerable application in this work. Historical, descriptive analysis and evaluation of the impact of aid and aid policy and the place of civil society and poor marginalized in rural and urban communities of Zimbabwe will also be conducted. Practical and policy relevant recommendations in the form of reformative human centred Strategic and Action Plans that promote the centrality of the civil society and the marginalized poor in the forth generation of reformed aid policy, in circumstances of more equitably evolving international aid architecture. 4. Expected outcome This research effort, will constitute a key background policy relevant contribution to the third generation of aid reform efforts on development effectiveness of aid and translation of current nonequitable international aid architecture to a more human centred pro-poor equitably mode. The submission envisages the centrality of the civil society and poor marginalized majority in Donor aid Recipient Policy implementation for both rural and urban communities of sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries in general and Zimbabwe in particular, in the short and long term. 5.

Discussion
7.1 Historical and ideological interpretation of the first, second and third generation aid delivery packages.

The otherwise visibly ignored historical socio- economic and political circumstances and the inherent deeply seated ideological disposition of the rural and urban communities of sub Saharan Africa, Developing Countries and Zimbabwe in particular through all generations of aid reform remain a real retrogressive dimension in efforts to effect development effectiveness6 and a more equitable international aid architecture. Why such a contradictory scenario? Because then Afrocentricity should not be taken for granted for replacement by Eurocentricism or the reverse, and dialectically the same fundamental argument remains for other forms of expression of existence of communities across the

A key concept in the Donor Aid Recipient policy reform campaign which should with dialectical subtility be well understood and applied in a historical context of the emergency of the sub Saharan Africa, Developing Countries and Zimbabwe rural and urban communities. John lliffe.1999. Africans : The history of a Continent. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. pp 63-272.

world that is the none substitution of Asiocentricity, LatinoAmericancentricity, etc by Eurocentricity or any or either of the other forms of existence highlighted above. Yet certainly it is absolutely true and natural that the forms of existence are complimentary, can coexist for then there are common human values, vision and mission that have to be promoted for the mutual good / benefit, and never at all for the interest of a particular class, group of people or section in the community. Certainly the human centred vision in both the 2005 Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action cannot be ignored, yet developmentalists in sub Saharan Africa, Developing World and Zimbabwe in particular are more than before also concerned about the historical legacy reclamation process by sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe, through the anticipated third generation aid reform. According to key development analysts first generation of aid reform since the first High Level Forum in Rome in 2002, gave maximum attention to harmonization of donor activities through identification of aid effectiveness with better governance mechanisms. This approach visibly ignores the historical socio-economic context of the rise of the targeted communities for advancement of funding. Again the second generation of aid reform assumed a narrow technicist7 character as it focused on donorgovernment aid management and delivery system. Nevertheless in the absence of an integral and coherent National Strategic and Action Plans for development of rural and urban communities with well defined targets and absence of political accountability unbridled corruption by the governmentocrats /ruling class, compromised the noble intentions of the second generation. Again the tragedy of the third generation of aid reform in its rational and human centred quest for realization of development effectiveness and a more equitable aid architecture negates the fact that aid architecture is itself a historical category which should have and still needs to evolve in a responsive fashion and in rhythm with the historical demands, challenges and processes happening in the world and notably in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. Equally the reformative and developmental dilemma of the Paris Declaration according to the 2010 Reality of Aid Report is its inherent inadequacies in addressing reform in areas as conditionality, tied aid and technical assistance, which ever since have been crafted with a bias for the Donor Community on both short and long term and this explains the pronounced poverty, hunger, disease and protracted conflicts on the African continent in particular which apart from a sizeable African governmentocrats being incompetent and neocolonial, the Donor community (particular sovereign states) on grounds of the ulterior motives behind aid are also largely responsible in that unhealthy symbiosis. Notwithstanding the fact that Zimbabwe was a major beneficiary of aid by 2006/7 it had 83 % of its population living on less than

Technicist systems, policies and approaches are essentially deliberate and thus deviate from the noble mission of reversing poverty and inequality, therefore the need for beginning the process of development effectiveness and equitable international aid architecture from dialectical and historical socio-economic circumstances of the rise of sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe. The Reality of Aid 2010 Report Theme Statement.

2US$ per day, Zambia and Mali had 94% and 91 % respectively8. Over the same period Argentina and Brazil had 23% and 21 % respectively , while Iran and Southern Korea, China and India had 7%; <2%; 73% and 80 % respectively. Again Belarus, Hungary; Moldova; Russia and Ukraine had respectively < 2% ; <2%; 64 %; 12 % and 5 % of their population living on less than 2US$ per day over the 2006/7 period. Essentially this situation which goes beyond Zimbabwe, sub Saharan Africa, the Developing world is worldwide and certainly while the centrality of the civil society and the marginalized poor in rural and urban communities should take precedence in the forth generation of aid reform, it must be well understood that this phenomenon has to be looked at on a global level since the world is an integral, interdependent global community, with specific historical socio-economic circumstances governing its existence. 7.2 Reformative essence of fourth generation aid delivery policy. As already alluded to in the above sub question, the 2011Seoul Declaration in its forth generation aid reform campaign, need to rationalize the aid reform argument by grounding it and taking cognizance of the historical socio-economic circumstances of the rise of both the Developing and Developed world, sub Saharan Africa and Zimbabwe in particular since the world exist integrally and interdependently. On realization of this fundamental principle, there subsequently will be the need to establish the centrality of civil society and the marginalized poor in rural and urban communities in aid reform and pro-poor sector based programmed utilization of aid funds in employment, self employment generation and development of living standards. 7.3 Strategic and Action Plan for the civil society in the new aid optic. Civil society both local and international should be guided by common humanitarian cause for justice, equality and development in a struggle against poverty, hunger, disease, marginalization and corruption by governmentocrats, and should thus be apolitical though in the scope of their activities they will deal with political issues. Both civil society have own autonomously elected representation in local (village, ward, district, provincial), national, continental and global level political and financial institutions to influence policy, content, form and scope of programs being adopted for developed for sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular. Their operations have to be guided by historico-socio-economic circumstances governing the existence of both the Developing and Developed world in a world of interdependence and integrity. Civil society would need to ensure equality, justice and development for the marginalized poor by participating not only in the development of national strategic plans but also their implementation on agreed targets in rural and urban areas with accountability by all. The civil society driven strategic plans and requisite aid funds would be cross sectoral ( traditional and modern economic sectors) targeted on empowering,

2007 Population and Economic Development Linkages Data Sheet. PRB. Washington DC.

employment creation, self employment of the majority poor rural and urban communities in growth points and other selected locations. 7.4 Strategic and Action plan for the marginalized poor in the new aid optic. The new generation of aid reform would have to target clusters of rural and urban households with given skills and knowledge from their cultural and traditional backgrounds. Households need identification from villege, ward, district and provincial level initially across all traditional sectors of the economy (craft work, sculpture, pottery, food storage; agriculture; mining; arts, and craft, health and medicine, drama, creativity, sport, traditional science and technology, etc ), since tradition backed by local knowledge systems is a source of all innovation and creativity for all communities, globallly. Also households of the poor marginalized majority would be empowered through aid and special programs funded in all modern sectors where the talented could also excel namely mining, agriculture, manufacturing, science and technology, innovation, creativity, arts and culture, drama, transport, tourism, health, etc. Special aid programs with targets on local level, district, provincial, national, regional and continental as well as global level would have to be designed cutting through partocrats, governmentocrats and bureaucracy that has contributed much to the suffering of the marginalized poor in sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe inn particular. Indeed representation of the marginalized poor rural and urban communities in all institutions making economic and political decisions is quite critical. The marginalized poor need to develop their own proposals and be trained to do so and not having the partocrats guided by greed for power and wealth to marginally represent them. 7.5 Progressive common human centred approaches for the fourth generation new aid development effectiveness program. Common human centred approaches for the forth generation aid reform policy should cease to be class driven and be driven humane rather than profit making interests or reconquest endeavors. Notwithstanding the noble cause of the 2005 Paris Declaration, Accra Agenda for Action and both the first , second and third generation aid policy reform, the forth generation aid reform should essentially champion the sanctity of the human being who currently constitutes the majority of the marginalized poor, (tightly gripped under the exceedingly burdensome yoke of hunger, poverty, disease and unbridled corruption) and civil society across the sub Saharan Africa, Developing World and Zimbabwe in particular. An integral ingredient to this historical process would be a continually evolving international aid architecture, whose operations and scope should not only see but actuate the key reformative and developmental role of traditional rural and urban institutions, civil society and marginalized poor in the rural and urban communities of sub Saharan Africa, Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular. 8.Conclusion.

The forth generation of aid reform can only make a break through in changing the livelihood of the marginalized poor majority of sub Saharan Africa, Developing countries and Zimbabwe in particular by acknowledging that: aid reform has to be treated not in isolation from the historical socio-economic circumstances of the existence of the sub Saharan Africa, Developed and Developing world and Zimbabwe in particular and as such it remains as critical vehicle for reclamation by all the lost legacy of equality, equity and justice, either through colonizing or being colonized; traditional institutions in both rural and urban communities with enhanced parliamentary /statutory powers ( chiefs, headmen, and traditional police under chiefdoms) complemented by civil society and poor marginalized by representing them in all financial, political and administrative institutions (local and international) would go a long way in rationalization of aid use and evolution of he international aid architecture; the civil society and marginalized need representation in all financial and political institutions from village, ward, district, provincial, national, regional, continental and global level to ensure justice, peace and security, equality and equity in access of opportunities and resources; empowerment, self employment, employment of the marginalized poor in rural communities can be achieved even on household cluster level through targeted pro-poor sector (traditional and modern ) based aid driven short and long term programs. Infact aid will be advanced on the basis of how National Socio-Economic Development Plans and Strategic Plans represent the traditional sectors in all rural and urban communities due to their specialized traditional skills base which is currently unexploited and taken for granted due to poor planning. 9. References. 2003. African Development Report. Globalization and Africa`s Development. ADB/OUP. p314. 2004. Zimbabwe Millennium Development Goals. Progress Report. GoZ/ UNDP. Harare.p72. 2007 Population and Economic Development Linkages Data sheet. PRB Inform, empower and advance. Washington DC. 2007 World Population Data Sheet. PRB Inform, empower and advance. Washington DC. 2008 World Population Data sheet. PRB Inform, empower and advance. Washington DC. 2009. World Population Data Sheet. PRB Inform, empower and advance. Washington DC. SADC . 2006. Official SADC Trade, Industry and Investment Review. SAM Co. Gaberone. p288. Concept Note. 2010. The Reality of Aid Report Theme Statement: Development Effectiveness: Human rights, social justice and democratic development. p4.

OECD. 2000. Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Recipients 1994-1998. Disbursements, Commitments, Country Indicators. OECD Publications. Paris. p319. Southern African Development Community. Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan. SADC House. Gaborone.p 147. The 2009 Mid Year Fiscal Policy Review Statement. STERP in Motion. July 16. Min Fin. Harare. p 163. The Reality of Aid. 2010. Special report on South South Cooperation. South South Cooperation : A Challenge to the Aid System. IBON Books.Quezon City. p 132. UNDP.2008. Comprehensive Economic Recovery : A Discussion Document. UNDP Zimbabwe. Harare. p 240. World Bank. 2003. World Development Indicators. World Bank. Washington DC. p 391.