Finding a balance

by M. Alberto, Y. Hosen, and R. Wassmann

william sta. clara

As farmers try to save water in the face of shortages, they also have to contend with climate change that makes water in their fields even scarcer

ice thrives in a flooded ecosystem. These conditions enrich the nutrients available for the crops growth, allowing farmers to reap abundant harvests. The downside, however, is that this flooded ecosystem emits large amounts of methanea major greenhouse gas (GHG)that contribute to global climate change. One of the effects of climate change is drought, which now occurs more frequently in some regions. This aggravates water shortages, which thus threaten rice production even more. Hence, water-saving techniques have been developed, particularly by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and the growing of aerobic rice in well-drained, nonpuddled, and nonsaturated soils (see The big squeeze on pages 26-31 of Rice Today Vol. 7, No. 2, and High and dry on pages 28-31 of Rice Today Vol. 6, No. 4). In this bid to conserve water, however, the environmental impacts of these methods have yet to be established. Needless to say, the two watersaving techniques have advantages and disadvantages. AWD, for one, maintains the basic features of flooded rice fields and keeps the potential for high production intact. However, although this practice reduces methane emissions, it can potentially increase the release of nitrous oxideanother GHG. Aerobic rice systems similarly entail drastic changes in carbon and nitrogen emissions and canopy temperature that contribute to global warming and aggravate heat stress for the rice plants,
Rice Today October-December 2009

respectively. Although the consequences for the sustainability of rice fields remain unknown, it is worthwhile to thoroughly assess the use of aerobic rice, and AWD, as an option to mitigate the dire effects of climate change and, at the same time, reduce emissions. Hence, in response to these concerns, IRRI conducted two distinct field measurements to determine just how much AWD and aerobic rice growing contribute to climate change (see Goodbye gas on page 14 of Rice Today Vol. 6, No. 3).

One goes down, another goes up

Methane emissions from rice fields are mainly determined by the application of water and organic inputs. Again, the more flooded the field is, the more methane is released. The emission of this particular GHG is also influenced by the type of soil, weather, tillage management, residue, fertilizer, and rice cultivar. Recent assessments of irrigated rice cultivation estimate that, in 2000, its global emissions were equivalent to 625 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. Since flooding the soil sustains methane emissions, shifting to a more conservative way of applying water in rice fields appears to be the best solution to reduce the amount of methane released into the atmosphere. To note, AWD effectively lessens the water used in irrigation by 1530%. The first experiment IRRI did in 2006 covered eight crop seasons and measured GHG emissions captured in chambers installed in AWD fields. This study confirmed that water15

m. alberto

Camera

CO2/H2O analyzer Radiation sensors

Sonic anemometer

Data logger Solar pannel

Temperature/humidity probes

Batteries

Figure. eddy covariance system installed at irri.

saving techniques are indeed effective in mitigating the net global warming potential (GWP) of rice fields. These methods, however, raise the risk of increasing nitrous oxide emissions when a high amount of nitrogen fertilizer is applied. This can offset or even supersede any GWP savings made by lowered methane emissions. These findings can be used to explain conflicting reports on the net GWP watersaving techniques had in earlier studies conducted in different regions and under different N management practices. There seems to be a growing consensus that water-saving techniques can still keep nitrous oxide emissions relatively low if nitrogen is applied in appropriate doses. Thus, the aim should be to combine techniques of (1) water saving and (2) efficient N-use management as a means to reduce GHG emissions.

The warmer field

IRRI conducted its second study in 2008 during the wet and dry seasons to compare the seasonal changes in
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heat, water vapor, and carbon dioxide in a lowland (flooded) and aerobic rice environment using the eddy covariance (EC) method (see Figure). EC is the standard micrometeorological method that directly measures CO2 and heat exchange over a larger area. Unlike the chambers used in the study described above that cover an area of only 1 square meter per chamber, the ECs minimum scope is a 100-meter radius corresponding to a field size of 4 hectares when the system is located in the center. The EC system at IRRI is actually the first in the Philippines. Powered by a solar panel, the system consists of a sonic anemometer that senses wind coming from all directions to record its gas composition, an openpath CO2/H 2O infrared analyzer, as well as sensors for radiation, temperature, and humidity. All these sensors can generate 10 data records per second. These data are then stored in a data logger. Based on the 2008 findings, lowland rice fields sequester more
Rice Today October-December 2009

carbon from the atmosphere than aerobic rice fields. This is attributed to lowland rices higher photosynthetic capacity to convert carbon into organic compounds and to the slow organic matter decomposition in flooded soils. In turn, the conversion from a flooded to an aerobic system entails net emissions from soil organic carbon that have to be taken into account to compute the net GWP of these systems. Moreover, IRRI found out that the temperature and water vapor profiles in rice canopies of these two different environments vary significantly. The difference was particularly observed in the records of what is scientifically called sensible heat flux and latent heat flux. Sensible heat is the energy that warms the surrounding air, whereas latent heat is the energy stored as water vapor. IRRI learned that, on an annual basis, aerobic rice fields had 58% more sensible heat flux and flooded fields had 18% more latent heat flux. This distinction has implications for the heat stress the rice plant is exposed to

william sta. clara

Food vs. gas

by Reiner Wassmann

IRRI finds a way to ensure food security and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions

ruth Agbisit, assistant scientist at irri, collects a gas sample from a field chamber through a manual gas collection system.

in either system. Heat stress caused by high temperatures is aggravated by high humidity. The distinct microclimates in the canopy result in more temperaturerelated stress in nonflooded rice fields and more vapor-related stress in flooded fields.

Facing climate change

As much as growing rice and saving water are important, their effects on climate change mean more challenges ahead. This demonstrates how complex the world can be, as we try to plug one hole and another one bursts open that equally needs attention. Nevertheless, this only goes to show how the world needs to find a balance. Aside from saving water, it is also important to consider the overall effect of these watersaving technologies on climate change, while at the same time ensuring food security.

Ms. Alberto, assistant scientist, and Dr. Hosen, soil scientist, are working with the Rice and Climate Change Consortium at IRRI.

he International Rice Research can reduce GHG emissions in a given Institutes (IRRI) work has area of rice land, but, in most cases, demonstrated the potential the saved water will then be used to to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) irrigate more rice land or new crops in emissions in rice production with future seasons. Subsequently, reduced relatively low opportunity costs emissions caused by these techniques and, in some cases, with increased are offset by emissions created in productivity. Adapting technologies newly irrigated land. Ironically, if to local conditions is necessary, and the saved water were channeled to this involves local farmers, extension other users, for example, in residential agents, and research institutions in areas, one could rightfully claim technology design and dissemination. CERs because of a net reduction in Technically, methane reduction global warming potential (GWP) from irrigated rice could be a caused by the mitigation project. promising strategy to mitigate GHG Increasing food production is emissions in line with the idea of an absolute necessity for the human Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) population, and improved resourceintroduced in the Kyoto Protocol use efficiencies are imperative to (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ achieving this goal. As an agricultural convkp/kpeng.pdf). According to research institution devoted to this regulation, farmers can receive increasing food production, IRRI payments from a private or public proposes specific provisions for CER institution in an industrialized allocations in the land-use sector country for reducing GHG emissions. to converge the legitimate goals of In the next step, a designated panel food security and GHG mitigation of the United Nations Framework in a Copenhagen agreement. Our Convention on Climate Change suggestion is to compute net GWP (http://cdm.unfccc.int/index.html) savings based on food production can approve CERs that can be used targets. As long as saved resources, by the purchasing institution as part namely, water and fertilizer, are of its required contingent of emission used to increase food production in savings. a resource-efficient manner, it seems Now, however, there is no CER unreasonable to account for new project in rice production. One emissions as offsets in or leakages obstacle is the reluctance of the from a mitigation project. UNFCCC panel to accept projects in the land-use sector. Even if this changes in the near future, the existing regulations for CERs obstruct funding of GHG mitigation through water-saving irri technician collects a soil projects. Watersolution sample in an AWD field. saving techniques

Rice Today October-December 2009

william sta. clara

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