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1 1.1 Introduction

LEAN MANUFACTURING

Lean manufacturing or lean production, which is often known simply as Lean, is a production practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Working from the perspective of the customer who consumes a product or service, value is defined as any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.

Basically, lean is centered around creating more value with less work. Lean manufacturing is a generic process management philosophy derived mostly from the Toyota Production System (TPS) (hence the term Toyotism is also prevalent) and identified as Lean only in the 1990s. It is renowned for its focus on reduction of the original Toyota seven wastes in order to improve overall customer value, but there are varying perspectives on how this is best achieved.

Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas.

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The elimination of waste is the goal of Lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste: Muda Mura Muri Muda: is a traditional general Japanese term for an activity that is wasteful and doesn't add value or is unproductive and it is also a key concept in the Toyota Production System (TPS). The original seven muda are: Transportation (moving products that is not actually required to perform the processing) Inventory (all components, work in process and finished product not being processed) Motion (people or equipment moving or walking more than is required to perform the processing) Waiting (waiting for the next production step) Overproduction (production ahead of demand) Over Processing (due to poor tool or product design creating activity) Defects (the effort involved in inspecting for and fixing defects) Mura: is traditional general Japanese term for unevenness, inconsistency in physical matter or human spiritual condition. Muri: is a Japanese term for overburden, unreasonableness or absurdity, which has become popularized in the West by its use as a key concept in the Toyota Production System.

1.2

Lean Manufacturing Goals

The four goals of Lean manufacturing systems are to: Improve quality: In order to stay competitive in todays marketplace, a company must understand its customers' wants and needs and design processes to meet their expectations and requirements. Eliminate waste: Waste is any activity that consumes time, resources, or space but

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does not add any value to the product or service. There are seven types of waste. Reduce time: Reducing the time it takes to finish an activity from start to finish is one of the most effective ways to eliminate waste and lower costs. Reduce total costs: To minimize cost, a company must produce only to customer demand. Overproduction increases a companys inventory costs due to storage needs.

1.3

Steps to achieve lean systems

to create the ideal lean

The following steps should be implemented in order manufacturing system: 1. Design a simple manufacturing system 2. Recognize that there is always room for improvement 3. Continuously improve the lean manufacturing system design 4. Measure

1.3.1 Design a simple manufacturing system A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing is demand-based flow manufacturing. In this type of production setting, inventory is only pulled through each production center when it is needed to meet a customers order. The benefits of this goal include: Decreased cycle time Less inventory Increased productivity Increased capital equipment utilization

1.3.2 There is always room for improvement The core of lean is founded on the concept of continuous product and process improvement and the elimination of non-value added activities. The Value adding activities are simply only those things the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or integrated(Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system layouts at the customer's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.

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1.3.3 Continuously improve A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach a company's goals. The term "continuous improvement" means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product performance (Suzaki, 1987).

1.3.4 Measure A set of performance metrics which is considered to fit well in a Lean environment is overall equipment effectiveness, or OEE, which is a hierarchy of metrics which focus on how effectively a manufacturing operation is utilized. To keep things really simple, lean manufacturing has a base premise and overall goal to get more done with less and this is effectively done, by: Minimizing inventory at and through all stages of production Eliminating waste Reducing wait times, queues Shortening product cycle times from raw materials to finished goods

Lean manufacturing involves some real positive, productive changes in businesses that will have a measurable impact in the bottom line. Benefits of lean production could include: Reduced lead time, wait time and cycle time Liberated capital Increased profit margins Increased productivity Improved product quality Just in time, affordable, streamlined, cost-efficient processes, products and services Improved on-time shipments Customer satisfaction and loyalty Employee retention

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1.2

Homework:

Investigate the following terms related to lean manufacturing and give their definition: Just in time - Kanban - Andon Kaizen - Jidoka - Six Sigma Poka Yoke - Heijunka -5S

Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0Q-xaYior0&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU01D-jTZcE&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q89qAbAAR3Q&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdHGTCXcJQU&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKb84GafalI

Activities
Complete the next chart with the next definitions:

Lean manufacturing

Reduce Time

Continuously Improve

TPS

Improve quality

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2. 2.1 Introduction

PROCESS DIAGRAMS

The process diagrams are very important in the manufacturing industry because they give us a clear perspective of the processes with every step, including materials, time, distance and others. This helps the engineers to interpret and analyze the manufacturing process and make decisions that will improve the process without being there to watch how everything works. The diagrams are composed by three parts: - Header - Body - Summary In the header you will include all the relevant information such as: company name, analyst, date, process, area, page number, type of diagram, etc. In the body, you will draw the diagram that is required according the specifications of each type and of the process. And in the summary you will write all the steps that the process has, including time. Time is the most important factor because we use it to calculate the process efficiency and productivity.

Example: HEADER

BODY

SUMMARY

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2.2

Operations Diagram

This diagram is a graphic representation of the operations and inspections in a production process. In this diagram well include the following symbols: Description Operation: is when the process has materials transformation, or involves any action or activity for the creation of products. Symbol

Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.

Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used when in the process you have to check the products during An operation.
Analyst: John Hamilton Area: kitchen Date: Nov. 20 , 2010 Type of diagram: operations Page 1 of 1
th

Company name: Johns house Process: making of hot chocolate

0.7 min 1 In a pot put 1 liter of water, in a stove With high fire, let it boil

1 min 2 Take the 0.30 pounds of chocolate out of the bag and put it into the pot

0.5 min 3 Get some marshmallows

7 min 4 Stir frequently and let the chocolate melt and get the desired consistency

0.5 min 1 Check if the chocolate is ready

0.8 min 5 Get a cup and serve

0.5 min 6 0.4 min 1 Check if its not too hot, Enjoy! Add the marshmallows

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Summary Description Operation Inspection Combined Totals Symbol # of steps 6 1 1 8 Time 10.5 0.4 0.5 11.4

2.2.1

Important considerations

Note that the time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in the right, as shown in the example. Process Flow Diagram

2.3

The process flow diagram is a graphic representation of the steps that follows a chronologic sequence of activities in a process or procedure, identifying them with symbols according to its nature, and also includes all the considered important information that is needed for analysis. This information could be distance, time, quantity, etc. This helps us discover and eliminate waste and delays, making the process more efficient and increase the productivity in the manufacturing industry. In this diagram we include the storage, operation, inspection, combined, delays and transportation symbols.

Description Operation: is when the process has materials transformation, or involves any action or activity for the creation of products. Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also the quality of the product during the manufacturing process. Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used when in the process you have to check the products during An operation. Delay: this is used when nothing is being done in the process, It could be the wait for other paralell process to finish before Adding the product to the asembly line.

Symbol

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Transportation: is when the product is moved more than 1.5 meters to the next step. This is because the human body Can move something from one side to other between 0 and 1.5 m and its irrelevant according to standars. Storage: this is used at the beginning of the process when the Materials are taken from the raw materials storage and at the end Of it in the finished product storage.

As the operations diagram, it has the same parts: header, body and summary, and its important to include in the summary the time and distance that you have in the diagram.

2.3.1 Important considerations Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. The distance is written meters and in the lower-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in the right, as shown in the example.
Process Travel Diagram

2.4

This diagram uses the same symbolism as the process flow and also the same structure, the only difference is that we draw the diagram in a plan view of the manufacturing plant. Remember to always draw the symbols in a 1 cm2 area. This is a standard for all the diagrams that youre going to draw.

2.4.1

Important considerations

Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram is drawn in a plan view of the manufacturing plant. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. The distance is written in meters and the lower-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram and the sequence in the process.

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Example: (For space reasons, this diagram doesnt include the time and distance)
Company name: Industry S.A. Process: production of ketchup Analyst: John Hamilton Area: manufacturing plant Date: Nov 20 , 2010 Type of diagram: process travel Page 1 of 1
th

Summary

Description Operation Inspection Combined Transportation Delay Storage Totals

Symbol

# of steps 9 2 2 4 3 1 21

Time

Distance

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2.5

Homework

With the given videos, draw the operations diagram, the process flow diagram and the operations travel diagram. To make the operations diagram, use the following link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gneZc_hafDE To make the process flow diagram and the process travel diagram, use the following link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkHFNnOK3Bg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TI-dSckvw0Q http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5sNItVp9cA&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Y5Auwf0nXE http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3K3-stVK0lM

Activities:
According to the picture below, determine what symbol each operation needs:

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Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Tables storage Sawing and Comprobation Sawdust 6% Waiting to be processed Devastation and Comprobation Transfer to the pendulum (forklift) Waiting to be processed Cut and Comprobation Sawdust 0.32% Waiting to be transported Transfer to the assembly area (forklift) Waiting to be processed Sawdust 0.38% Cut and Comprobation Sawdust Waiting to be transported Transfer to the assembly area (forklift) Waiting to be processed Cross storage Transfer to the pendulum (forklift) Waiting to be processed

Assembly and Comprobation Sawdust and Tables. Waiting to be transported Transfer to the Store (forklift) Storage

Description

Symbol

No. of steps

Time

Description 2

Symbol

No. of steps2

Time2

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3. 3.1 Introduction

QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control is a critical concept in every industry and profession. As globalization continues and the world become smaller, making it possible for consumers to pick and choose from the best products worldwide, the survival of your job and of your company depends on your ability to produce a quality product or service. In this chapter, we define the term quality, and we introduce some important quality control concepts and methods. For most people, quality is associated with the idea of a product or service that is well done, looks good and does its job well. We think of a quality product as one that lasts, holds up well under use, and doesnt require constant repair. A quality product or service should meet a high standard in many areas, such as form, features, fit and finish, reliability and usability.

3.2

Quality control concepts Costumer based: Quality is meet customer expectations. Statistical based: The less variation you have, the higher the quality of your product or service.

After an organization decides on a definition of quality, you need standards against which to measure your quality. The reason is because many standards are driven by the desire to safeguard and well-being of the people who use the products or services companies provide. Quality standards are also critical in support of international trade.

3.3

Quality Assurance

Quality assurance focuses on the ability of a process to produce or deliver a quality product or service. This method differs from quality control in that it looks at the entire process, not just the final product. Quality control is designed to detect problems with a product or service; quality assurance attempts to head off problems at the pass by tweaking a production process until it can produce a quality product.

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3.4

Measuring the quality

The old manager saying: You cant manage what you can measure rings especially true in quality control. A good measurement system helps you to know where youve been and where you are going. Costumers typically require that you measure certain attributes of your product or service against their specifications. So, working in quality control means that you have to determine what to measure, how to measure it and when to measure it.

Employee training is critical to ensure that everyone involved in your process measures the same specifications in the same way. You also need to collect data in a usable format so that you can analyze it to determine the effectiveness of your quality process. The effectiveness of your quality process is directly related to the quality of your data collection and analysis process. If you dont have a good data, you cant make good decisions.

3.5

Evaluating the quality

The most common way to analyze the data you collect is to use statistics. Statistics serve many purposes within quality control: Statistics helps you to determine which processes or parts of processes are causing your company the most problems (by using the 80/20 rule 80 percent of your problems are caused by 20 percent of what you do). You can use statistics for sampling so that you dont have to test 100 percent of the items you make. Statistics can help you spot relationships between the values you measure even if the relationships arent obvious. They also allow you to identify small variations in your process that can lead to big problems if you dont correct them.

Although, much of statistics allows you to look back only at was happened in the past. Statistical Process Control (SPC) allows you to identify problems before they can negatively impact the quality of your product or service. The basic idea behind SPC is that if you can spot a change in a process before it gets to the point of making bad products, you can fix the process before bad products hits the shelves.

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3.6

Introducing Lean Processes

Lean processes are the latest diet craze in the world of quality control. Lean is a quality control technique you can use to identify and eliminate the flab in your companys processes. The flab is all the dead weight carried by a process without adding any value. Most company processes are wasteful in terms of time and materials, which often results in poorer quality to the costumer a concern of all businesses. Lean focuses in customer satisfaction and cost reduction. Proponents of the technique believe that every step in a process is an opportunity to make a mistake to create a quality problem, in other words. The fewer steps you have in a process, the fewer chances for error you create and the better the quality in your final product or service. You can apply the lean techniques in the following sections to all types of processes and environments ranging from offices, to hospitals, to factories. In most cases applying lean concepts doesnt require an increase in capital costs it simply reassigns people to more productive purposes and of course, lean processes are cheaper to operate.

3.7

Lean Techniques

3.7.1 Value Stream Mapping People think in images, not in words, so giving them a picture of how something is done is often better than telling them about a process. After all, the quote is Show me the money! not Tell me about the money! Value Stream Mapping visually describes a production process in order to help workers locate waste within it. Waste is any activity that doesnt add value for the customer. Typically, eliminating waste involves reducing the amount of inventory sitting around and shortening the time it takes to deliver a product or service to the customer upon its order.

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3.7.2 The 5S method Work areas evolve along with the processes they support. As an organization implements new actions and tools, you must find a place for them somewhere. Over time, clutter can slowly build as piles of excess materials or tools grow and gradually gum up the smooth flow of work. The 5S method is an essential tool for any quality initiative that seeks to clear up the flow of work. The 5S describe five Japanese attributes required for a clean work place: Seiri (organization) Seiton (neatness) Seiso (cleaning) Seiketsu (standardization) Shitsuke (discipline)

Removing the clutter from a process eliminates hidden inventories, frees floor space for productive use, improves the flow of materials through the workplace, reduces walk time, and shakes out unnecessary items for reuse elsewhere or landfill designation. 3.7.3 Rapid improvement events No one knows a process like the workers who touch it every day. They know how the work should flow, they can identify obstacles that slow everyone down, and they deal with problems that never seem to go away. A Rapid Improvement Event (RIE) is an intensive process-activity improvement, where over a few days a companys workers bone up on lean techniques and rebuild their processes to incorporate its principles. The workers take apart their work areas, rearrange items and reassemble spaces for more efficient work. The improvements are immediate, and the workers have ownership of the process and fine motivated to further refine it.

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3.7.4 Lean materials and Kanban A companys materials are essential for the organization to work well, but they also tied up a large part of a companys capital. And while the company does its business year in and year out, its materials are, stolen, damaged, rotting, corroding, and losing value in many other ways. A key part of the lean approach is to minimize the amount of materials (both incoming and finished goods) you have sitting around in your facility. Excess materials hide problems with purchasing, work scheduling, scrap rates, and so on. Eliminating this excess materials provides an immediate financial benefit to your company if you eliminate correctly. You dont want to eliminate so thoroughly that you cause shortages. One method you can use to fix the problem of excess materials without causing shortages is Kanban. Kanban is a materials system controlled by the customer. When the customer buys an item, action cascades back up the production line to make one more of that item.

3.8

Homework

Investigate and make a summary of the following topics: Total Quality Management (TQM) Six Sigma Toyota Production System (TPS)

Suggested videos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Z33tljMTQ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdhC4ziAhgY

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Activities:
Write in each screw a different description about Quality Control:

Complete with the description of each lean technique:

Value stream Mapping Rapid improvement events Lean material and Kanban

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Complete the chart with the 5s technique:

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4. 4.1 Introduction

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

You need energy to start your day. Your breakfast is the fuel your body needs to work. What would you do if you ran out of your favorite cereal? You could buy another box. But what if the store was all out, too? What if it wasnt getting any more deliveries? What would you do then? The answer seems simple; youd have to find another food for breakfast. The world faces a similar problem; our fuel resources are running low and could run out in your lifetime. Most everything in the world needs energy to work. Think about the energy you use each day: the lights you turn on, the bus or car you take to school, the computer you use for homework, the television you watch before bed. Even while you sleep, energy runs your furnace heating your house and the refrigerator keeping food from spoiling. It even runs the alarm clock that wakes you up in the morning. Now think about how many people live on the Earth. With a population of more than 6 billion, the world uses a lot of energy. 4.2 4.2.1 Todays energy sources = fossil fuels Coal

People mine for coal, a hard, black, rock, throughout the world. Power plants use coal to generate electricity by grinding it into a powder that is burned. The burned powder heats water to create steam. The power of the steam turns turbines. The spinning motion of the turbines generates electricity. A network of wires called power grid, bring this electricity to houses and other buildings. 4.2.2 Oil

Companies drill for oil on land or in the ocean and store it in large barrels or underground tanks. People turn oil into many products, including plastics. Your ballpoint pen, your nylon backpack, and even your fleece jacket are all made from oil. Some homes burn oil for heat and some power plants burn oil too. In many countries, however, oils main use is for transportation. Oil is

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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 made into gasoline for cars, diesel fuel for trucks, and jet fuel for airplanes. 4.2.3 Natural gas

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Companies drill for natural gas the same way they do for oil. Natural gas is highly flammable. Gas stoves cook food with a lower flame. In the United States, and probably other countries, the houses heating system and water heater may use natural gas. Natural gas is also used in power plants to create electricity. 4.3 The problems of the use of the fossil fuels Fossil fuels have been a useful source of energy, but we need to rethink how much we depend on them. We need to consider three main facts. First, fossil fuel supplies are low. We use so much energy that someday well use up all of Earths fossil fuels. At the rate we use now fossil fuels, scientists estimate that the worlds reserve will last 40 to 70 more years. What will happen after all of the oil, coal, and natural gas have run out? How will we travel from place to place? How will we light our homes? How will we communicate with each other? The second fact is that the fossil fuels cost a lot of money. Countries buy fossil fuels from each other. Because the supply is low, they can raise their prices. If countries go to war or have a disagreement, they may not want to buy fuel from each other. No one will get what they need. Finally, burning fossil fuels harms Earth. Coal, oil, and natural gas create a lot of air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful emissions that cause asthma and other health problems. This pollution also leads to acid rain and snow. Many scientist and citizens are concerned about the carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide belongs to a group of gases known as greenhouse gases. As these gases collect in the atmosphere, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse, trapping warm air close to Earths surface. This warming is natural, and long ago it made the planets environment mild enough to support life. However, when human activities pump larger-than-normal amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, more heat is trapped, and temperatures can grow unnaturally high. As a result, there can be major effects on weather that may be devastating to the environment and all the people on Earth.

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4.4

The solutions What can we do about our energy problems? Instead of relying on fossil fuels, we need to examine our

green alternatives. Green energy is renewable it is constantly being replaced and wont run out. Natural forces, such as wind, water, and sunlight are green energy sources. Its not easy to switch to green energy; however, we rely on fossil fuels every day. People would need to spend huge amounts of money to change from one kind of fuel to another. We need to take action, but first, we need to understand our energy alternatives, then we can make the best energy choices to preserve our planet. 4.5 Solar energy Put on sunglasses, rub in sunscreen, and hit the beach. Its time to soak up some rays! The sun can give you a great tan or make you sweat playing Frisbee. The suns light and heat can also help us solve our energy problems. You have probably noticed wires running from your home to poles on the street. These wires connect you to the power grid of your community. Homes that use solar power, dont need as much energy from the grid. There are two types of solar power: solar cell energy and solar thermal energy.

4.5.1

How solar cell energy works

Years ago scientists developed solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells or PV cells, which can turn suns light directly into electricity. These small, flat devices made of silicon come in a variety of sizes. You may have seen PV cells in a calculator. Some billboards and streetlights use PV cells to operate. Most cells are 4 inches by 4 inches (10 centimeters by 10 centimeters) and grouped together in panels on the roofs buildings. The solar panel absorbs the suns light and transforms it into electric current. The electricity can then run lights, machines, and appliances in the buildings. The more PV cells, the more electricity panels can create. The cells generate electrical power when the sun is shining. But what happens at night or when the sun is covered by clouds? Batteries store the electricity; because solar panels absorb light, not heat, they still create electricity during a cold winter. As long as the sun is shining, PV cells are at work.

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Your family can install solar panels on your home, even though you are connected to the power grid. At times, the panels may even generate more power than your home needs. The power company then buys any extra power you create and puts it back into the grid for someone else to use. So by using solar panels you could help your whole community rely more on a green energy source. 4.5.2 How solar thermal energy works

Solar thermal energy uses heat instead of light. People can place thermal panels on their roofs to absorb the suns heat. Tubing filled with water runs under the panels. The sun warms the water. This water can then be used to make a cup of cocoa, fill a swimming pool, or run through a homes heating system. Thermal energy can also create electricity. In a solar power plant, the sun heats a liquid until it boils. Then the steam created from this boiling liquid runs a turbine to generate electricity. In order for the liquids to boil, these power plants use mirror to focus the suns heat and increase its strength. Some mirrors are curved and shaped like a saucer. Others are shaped like a trough or placed in a line. Some new solar energy plants have a power tower. Thousands of mirrors surround the tower and focus the suns heat to the top.

4.6

Wind Energy Wind is moving air. The motion is caused by changes in air temperature. Warm air is light, and cold air

is heavy. When the land beats up during the day, it warms the air above it. This warm air rises higher in the sky; while cold air moves down to fill the space left by the warm air. This movement of air creates wind. Wind can be powerful, as with a destructive hurricane, but its power can also be used for good. Sailors use the wind to keep their sailboats moving. Throughout history people have used windmills to harness the winds energy for grinding grain or pumping well water. Today people use wind turbines to generate electricity.

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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 4.6.1 How wind power works

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A wind turbine has what looks like an airplane propeller mounted very high in a tower. The blades of the turbine catch the wind and spin. The blades spin a shaft that is connected to an electrical generator. Wires connect the generator to the power grid to bring electricity to buildings in the area. To increase the amount of power, turbines are often grouped in wind farms. Most wind farms arent owned by electric power companies. They are owned by wind farmers who sell the electricity to power companies. Wind turbines work best where wind blows strongest. Wind is usually stronger the higher you go. Thats why turbines are often mounted on tall towers or placed on the top of hills. Some towers stand between 100 and 250 feet (30 and 76 meters) high. Shorelines and wide-open prairies are also good places for towers. Turbines dont work well in location of too many mountains, forests, or buildings, which block the winds flow. Some people place small turbines on their roofs and position them in a way to catch the most wind. 4.7 Geothermal energy Old faithful, Yellowstone National Parks most famous geyser, erupts with thousands of gallons of water and steam every hour to hour and a half. This popular Wyoming tourist spot is the home to more than 60 percent of the worlds geysers. In just one square mile (2.6 square kilometers), you can see more than a 150 of them. Some people think of Earth as a solid ball of rock, but it has many layers. At the center, Earth has a solid core. Around this core is an area of hot, liquid rock called magma. Above the magma is a layer of solid rock and magma called the mantle. The temperature of the mantle can be very high from 2,520 to 5,400 degrees Fahrenheit (1,382 to 2,982 degrees Celsius) depending on how deep you go. The surface of Earth, the crust, sits on the mantle. Water sometimes collects in the rocks underground and heats up. If there is a vent leading from this deep rock to the surface, superheated water shoots upward. Earths crust is thicker in some areas than others.

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4.8

Homework
Investigate at least 15 technical words from this chapter that you previously did not know and write the translation and definition of each Investigate about the following topics: magma, and mantle Watch the suggested videos. Then, answer this question: What could you do help to introduce people to living a "green" life? What are some ways to change their way of thinking and living?

Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIU5fFmDeSc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1HmY_ImHAg&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlG0xk93J-E&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&feature=fvw

Activities Write in each square and explain some energy sources:

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5. 5.1 Introduction

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is the science that deals with the study of rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold bodies. The hot and cold bodies are called the source and the receiver respectively. Process heat transfer deals with the rates of exchange of heat as they occur in the heat transfer equipment of engineering and chemical processes. In all such cases, the temperature difference between a source and a receiver acts as a driving force for heat transfer. The major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer is that the former is concerned with the relation between heat and other forms of energy, whereas the later deals with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium, so it cant be used to predict how fast a change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium in a process but it may be used to predict the amount of energy required to change the system from one equilibrium state to another. Consider the cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a jar of water. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar-water system but will not tell us how long it will take to reach the equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain time period before the attainment of equilibrium condition whereas heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both bar and water as a function of time.

5.2

Modes of heat transfer

There are three distinct modes of heat transfer from a source to a receiver: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction: it is the flow of heat that occurs, either due to the exchange energy from one molecule to another without appreciable motion of the molecules or due to the motion of free electrons if they are present. Conduction occurs on the molecular scale, molecules with a relative higher energy imparting energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. For example, the heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace or the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube occurs by conduction. Convection: it is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid by mixing (convection occurs through actual physical movement of warmer portions of fluid towards cooler portions of the same material). Convection is thus restricted to the flow of heat in fluids. If the fluid motion is caused by differences in density resulting from temperature difference in a fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection. If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external agency like pump, blower or agitator, the heat transfer is termed as forced convection. The heating of water in a cooking pan is an example of heat transfer mainly by convection.

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Radiation: it refers to the transport of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. The transfer of heat from the sun to the earth is the most important example of heat transfer by radiation.

In many of the applications of heat transfer in chemical engineering, heat will be transferred by combination of two or three of the basic mechanisms/modes of heat transfer. Consider a double pipe heat exchanger in which a hot fluid flows through the inside pipe and a cold fluid flows through the annular space. In this case, heat will flow by combination of convection and conduction from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. Here heat flows by conduction through the metal wall of the inner pipe and deposits on both sides of the inner pipe, and by convection through the fluid films. In the case of an insulated steam pipe, heat flows by convection through the steam film on the inside of the pipe, by conduction through the layer of scale and the metal wall of the pipe, and the layer of the insulation, and finally by convection and radiation from the outside insulation to the ambient/surrounding air. Hence, in this case, heat transfer involves all the three modes of transfer. This is also true with almost all heat transfer applications in the process industries. In a large of practical cases, one of the modes could be dominant, whereas in several cases it is required to deal with more than one mode of heat transfer, owing to significant impact of these modes on the overall heat transfer rates.

5.3

The laws of heat transfer

The foundation of heat transfer rest on a number of the fundamental and subsidiary laws. A fundamental law is the one which validity rests on the fact that it has not been proved to be wrong or false in the broad area of application of the subject under consideration. Therefore, these laws must be satisfied in solving any problem. On the other hand, a subsidiary law may be empirical in nature. The fundamental laws used in heat transfer are: 1. Law of conservation of mass 2. Newtons law of motion 3. Laws of thermodynamics The subsidiary laws generally used are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Fouriers law of heat conduction Newtons law of cooling/Newtons law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid. Laws of thermal radiation. Equation of state

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5.4

Fundamental laws

5.4.1 Law of conservation of mass

It states that the total mass of various components involving during a unit operation or unit process remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in any process is constant. Conservation of mass requires that the materials entering any process must either accumulate and/or leave the process. There can be neither loss nor gain. Thus for any unit operation or unit process: Input = output + accumulation or disappearance Examples: Consider a water tank containing some water initially as shown in Fig. 1.1 Water enters the tank at a rate of m1 kg/h and leaves the tank at a rate of m2 kg/h and accumulates at a rate of dm/dt. Then according to the law of conservation of mass,

Rate at which water enters the tank = rate at which water leaves the tank + rate of accumulation of water in the tank m1 = m2 + dm/dt m2 = m2 + A + dh/dt If m1 > m2 water gets accumulated in the tank and if m1 < m2 water gets depleted. For steady state operation when accumulation is constant or nil, the equation reduces to: Input = Output or m1 = m2, or Consider a stream tube (control volume) as shown in the figure 1.2. Assume that a fluid enters at a point where the area of cross-section of the tube is A1 and leaves where the area of cross-section is A2.

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Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Let 1 and 2 be the densities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Assume density in a single cross-section is constant and u1 is constant across area A1 and u2 is constant across area A2. For steady-state conditions, the rate of mass entering the control volume equals that leaving. 1u1A1 = 2u2A2 uA = constant This is the equation of continuity. 5.4.2 Newtons second law of motion

It states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body of mass m is proportional to the time rate of momentum change of the body in the direction of resultant force. F = k d/dt (mu) Where F is the resultant of all forces acting on the body, m is mass and u is velocity. For the volume control show in Fig. 1.2 assuming flow to be steady and unidirectional in the X-direction, according to Newtons second law of motion, the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the x-direction is equal to the increase in the time rate of change of momentum of the flowing fluid. For example, sum of all forces acting in the x-direction equals the difference between the momentums leaving with the fluid per unit time and that brought in per unit time by the fluid. F = 1/gc (M2 M1) Where M = mu; m is the mass flow rate of fluid and u is the linear velocity of the fluid.

For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have: F = P1A1 P2A2 Fw - Fg Where P1 and P2 are pressures at entrance and exit; A1 and A2 are cross-section area at entrance and exit, Fw is the net force of wall channel on fluid and Fg is the component of force of gravity (for flow in upward direction).

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5.4.3

First law of thermodynamics

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process, although the conversion of energy from one form into another is possible. The law can also be stated in the alternative way as the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. When system gains or loses energy, it must be exactly equal to the loss or gain of energy by the surroundings. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the conservation of energy. Let the initial state of a system be A. Let the quantity of heat Q be absorbed by the system. The result of absorption of heat is both to increase the internal energy and also to produce some mechanical work. Heat absorbed by system = increase in internal energy + work done by the system Q = U + W U = Q W This is the mathematical expression/statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In words, the equation states that the total energy change of a system is equal to the heat added to the systems minus the work done by the system. The equation applies to the processes involving finite changes in the system. For differential changes, this equation is written as: dU = dQ dW Taking derivatives from respect to time,

From the last equation we can say that the rate of increase of energy of the system is equal to the difference between the rate at which heat enters the system and the rate at which the system does work on the surroundings.

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5.5

Homework Investigate about the subsidiary laws of heat transfer. Watch the following videos

Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77R4arwD8G8&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pG-tkbQgMo&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0TurHQp_AE&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jeHd3ZbsFg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz6wzOtv6rs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05S1xXFGpKk&feature=related

Activities Answer the following questions: 1.- What is radiation?

2.- Explain Newtons second law of motion:

3.- Explain First Law of Thermodynamics:

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6. 6.1 Introduction

SOLAR POWER

93 million miles from Earth, our Sun is 333,000 times the size of our planet. It has a diameter of 865,000 miles, a surface temperature of 5,600C and, a core temperature of 15,000,000C. It is a huge mass of constant nuclear activity. Directly or indirectly, our sun provides all the power we need to exist and support all life forms. The sun drives our climate and our weather. Without it, our world would be a frozen wasteland of ice-covered rock. Solar electricity is a wonderful concept taking power from the sun and using it to power electrical equipment is a terrific idea. No ongoing electricity bills, no reliance on an electrical socket free energy that doesnt harm the planet! 6.2 The principles of solar electricity

A solar panel generates electricity using the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon discovered in the early 19th Century, when it was observed that certain materials produced an electric current when exposed to light. To create this effect, two layers of a semi-conducting material have to be combined. One layer has to have a depleted number of electrons. When exposed to sunlight, some of the photons are absorbed by the material which excites, causing some of them to jump from one layer to the other. As the electrons move from one layer to another, a small electrical current is generated. The semi-conducting material used to build a solar cell is silicon. Very thin wafers of silicon are cut and polished. Some of these wafers are doped to contaminate them, thereby creating an electron imbalance in these wafers. The wafers are then aligned together to make a solar cell. Conductive metal strips are attached to the cells to take the electrical current. When a photon hit the solar cell, it can do one of three things: it can be absorbed by the cell, be reflected of the cell, or pass straight through the cell. If a photon is absorbed by the silicon, this causes some of the electrons to jump from one layer to another. An electrical circuit is made as the electrons move from one layer to another, creating an electrical current. The more photons (the more intensity of light) that are absorbed by the solar cell, the greater the current generated.

Solar cells generate most of their electricity from direct sunlight. They can also generate electricity on cloudy days and some systems can even generate very small amount of electricity on bright moonlight nights.

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Individual solar cells typically only generate tiny amounts of electrical energy. To make useful amounts of electricity, these cells are connected together to make a solar module, otherwise known as a solar panel or, to be more precise, a photovoltaic module.

Solar Cells
(really called "photovoltaic", "PV" or "photoelectric" cells)that convert light directly into electricity. In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a 100W light bulb from just one square metre of solar panel. This was originally developed in order to provide electricity for satellites, but these days many of us own calculators powered by solar cells. People are increasingly installing PV panels on their roofs. This costs thousands of pounds, but if you have a south-facing roof it can help with your electricity bills quite a bit,and the government pays you for any extra energy you produce and feed back into the National Grid (called the "feed-in tariff").

Solar Water Heating:

Where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need to use so much gas or electricity to heat your water at home. Water is pumped through pipes in the panel. The pipes are painted black, so they get hotter when the Sun shines on them. The water is pumped in at the bottom so that convection helps the flow of hot water out of the top. This helps out your central heating system, and cuts your fuel bills. However, with the basic type of panel shown in the diagram you must drain the water out to stop the panels freezing in the winter. Some manufacturers have systems that do this automatically. Solar water heating is easily worthwhile in places like California and Australia, where you get lots of sunshine. Mind you, as technology improves it's becoming worthwhile in the UK.

Solar Boilers:
The main way that a conventional gas "combination boiler" continually wastes energy is by replenishing stored water as soon as the volume or temperature decreases. With solar powered boilers, this is instead fuelled by the solar power collected through panels on the roof of your home.

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The power collected through the solar tiles is used to fuel and therefore heat a separate water cylinder, thus saving energy throughout the course of every day. Another smaller tank, still powered by gas, is provided with most solar boiler installations as a backup.

Solar Furnaces:
Use a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's energy into a small space and produce very high temperatures. There's one at Odeillo, in France, used for scientific experiments. It can achieve temperatures up to 3,000 degrees Celsius. Solar furnaces are basically huge "solar cookers". A solar cooker can be used in hot countries to cook food. This one is in the UK, making tea and coffee, although it does take a long time!

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing: References

Lean Manufacturing: tools, techniques, and how to use them; William M. Feld, St. Lucie Press,
2000.

Lean Manufacturing: Implementation strategies that work; John Davis, Industrial Press, 2009.
Suggested readings:

Manufacturing systems: theory and practice; George Chryssolouris; Birkhuser, 2006. Lean Manufacturing implementation: a complete execution manual for any size manufacturer,
Dennis P. Hobbs, J. Ross Publishing, 2004 Process Diagrams References Ingeniera Industrial: mtodos, estndares y diseo del trabajo; Benjamn Niebel, McGraw-Hill Interamericana, 2009Suggested readings: Handbook of industrial engineering: technology and operations management; Gavriel Salvendy, Wiley-IEEE, 2001 Industrial Engineering; Khan, New Age International, 2007 English for Industrial Engineering; Marisa Carri, Ed. Universidad Politc. Valencia, 2005

Quality control References

Quality control for dummies; Larry Webber, Michael Wallace; For Dummies, 2006. Process Quality Control: troubleshooting and interpretation of data; Ellis Raymond Ott, Edward
Schilling, Dean Neubauer; ASQ Quality Press, 2005.

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Suggested readings Fundamentals of industrial quality control; Lawrence Aft; St. Lucie Press, 1998 Statistical quality control using excel; Steven Zimmerman, Marjorie Icenogle; ASQ Quality Press, 2003. In-process quality control for manufacturing; W.E. Barkman; M Dekker; 1989.

Alternative Energy References Alternative energy: Beyond fossil fuels, Dana Meachan Rau, Capstone press 2010. Alternative energy: political, economic, and social feasibility, Christopher A. Simon, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.

Suggested readings: Alternative energy: a beginners guide to the future of energy technology, Marek Walisiewicz, DK Pub. 2002 Alternative energy, S. Vandana, APH Publishing, 2002 Alternative energy: facts, statistics, and issues, Paula Berinstein, Oryx Press, 2001.

Heat transfer References

Heat Transfer; A.S. Sukomel, Varvara A. Osipova

Suggested readings: Heat transfer handbook; Adrian Bejan; Willey-IEEE, 2003 Heat transfer: a problem solving approach Vol. 1; Tariq Muneer, Jorge Kubie, Thomas Grassie; Taylor & Francis, 2003 Shaums outline of the theory and problems of heat transfer; Donald R. Pitts; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1998.

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