Global Climate Change

Resources for Environmental Literacy

Global Climate Change

Resources for Environmental Literacy

Environmental Literacy Council National Science Teachers Association

Claire Reinburg, Director Judy Cusick, Senior Editor Andrew Cocke, Associate Editor Betty Smith, Associate Editor Robin Allan, Book Acquisitions Coordinator Cover and Interior Design by Linda Olliver Printing and Production Catherine Lorrain, Director Nguyet Tran, Assistant Production Manager Jack Parker, Electronic Prepress Technician National Science Teachers Association Gerald F. Wheeler, Executive Director David Beacom, Publisher Copyright 2007 by the National Science Teachers Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. 10 09 08 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Global climate change: resources for environmental literacy / by Environmental Literacy Council and National Science Teachers Association. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-933531-18-2 1. Climatic changes. 2. Global warming. 3. Environmental education. I. Environmental Literacy Council. II. National Science Teachers Association. QC981.8.C5G6486 2006 551.6--dc22 2007009486 NSTA is committed to publishing material that promotes the best in inquiry-based science education. However, conditions of actual use may vary and the safety procedures and practices described in this book are intended to serve only as a guide. Additional precautionary measures may be required. NSTA and the author(s) do not warrant or represent that the procedure and practices in this book meet any safety code or standard or federal, state, or local regulations. NSTA and the author(s) disclaim any liability for personal injury or damage to property arising out of or relating to the use of this book including any of the recommendations, instructions, or materials contained therein. Permission is granted in advance for photocopying brief excerpts for one-time use in a classroom or workshop. Permission requests for coursepacks, textbooks, electronic reproduction, and other commercial uses should be directed to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923; fax 978-646-8600; www.copyright.com. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. ESI-0243521. Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Contents

Acknowledgments Preface F. James Rutherford Introduction About the Authors Dedication Student Learning Goals From Benchmarks for Science Literacy From National Science Education Standards Background Content for Teachers Essential Question 1: What Is the Difference Between Weather and Climate? Essential Question 2: How Does the Earth Gain and Lose Heat? Essential Question 3: What Causes the Earths Climate to Change? Essential Question 4: If Global Warming Is Actually Happening, What Are the Likely Consequences? Essential Question 5: If Global Warming Is Actually Happening, What Can Be Done About It?

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xiii xv xvii 1 1 2 5 5 6 7

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15

Teaching Approach Activities Overview Misconceptions Assessing Student Learning Recommended Resources Books Websites Student Activities and Materials Activity 1: LEARN Activity 5: Atmospheric ProcessesRadiation Activity 2: LEARN Activity 8: Differences Between Climate and Weather Activity 3: LEARN Activity 9: Climate Variability Activity 4: LEARN Activity 12: What Is a Greenhouse? Activity 5: LEARN Activity 13: What Factors Impact a Greenhouse? Activity 6: LEARN Activity 15: What Is the Carbon Cycle?

17 17 17 18 19 19 19 21 21 21 22 22 22 22

Acknowledgments

hese materials were the product of many handsteachers, curriculum developers, scientists, and Environmental Literacy Council (ELC) staff members. They were reviewed by independent teachers of various science subjects at ELCs request and were approved by James Rutherford, the Principal Investigator of the project and an ELC member. We extend our thanks to all who devoted their efforts to this project: David Anderson Eric Anderson Erma Anderson Daniel Barstow Kathleen Berry Rick Bodishbaugh Nancy Bort Don Byerly Robert Dayton John Disinger Graham Down Earl Feltyberger Gary Freebury Steven Gilbert George Gray David Hanych Jeff Hetfeld Marlene Hilkowitz Ruth Howes Andrew Jorgensen Robert Kolenda Don Lee Mark Lesney Jeffrey Marsh Sally McFarlane Beverly Nelson Stan Ogren Eric Packenham Jeffrey Pestrak Barbara Pietrucha Patricia Rourke Stephen Schneider Napier Shelton Matthew Smith Michael Smith Robert Sproull Graeme Stephens Art Sussman Nancy Trautmann Anne Vidaver Gerald Wheeler Soren Wheeler

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e would also particularly like to thank Tyson Brown of the National Science Teachers Association for his role in helping garner independent teacher testers of the draft materials. The following teachers tested this module in their classrooms: Krystal Bellamy Stacey Breden Karan C. Brown Cally Chauvin Anthony DiSipio Steve Fielman Gina Franks Gina Gola Amanda Hammes Sherry Humphries Dorothy Johnson Tracy Kuhnell Jane Lee-Rhodes Barbara Lenker Sharin Manes Will Manier Louise McMinn Anna Mika Janice Mooney-Frank Jeff Schragenheim Cindy Skarda Susan Smith Maureen Van Ackooy Karin Wheeler Jeanine Wolf

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1979

2003

South Cascade Glacier, Washington

The retreat of mountain glaciers during the past century is often cited as one example of evidence that the climate is changing. But how much do scientists really know? And how do they predict future impacts?
Source: (www.koshland-science-museum.org/exhibitgcc/intro01.jsp), images are originally from the U.S. Geological Survey.

Preface

he primary responsibility of teachers of science is to teach science, not to inform their students on environmental issuesand certainly not to influence the stand students may take on those issues. Fostering student understanding of the scientific view of the natural world and how science goes about its work is the first order of business in the teaching of science. Nevertheless, experienced science teachersbacked by research on learningknow that most students do better when they see how the science they are studying helps them to understand practical things that matter to them. Thus, it makes sense to organize science teaching contextually from time to time, that is, to treat the science content from a real-world perspective. Many such contexts exist, including inquiry, mathematics, health, sports, technology, history, biography, art, and other cross-cutting themes, such as scale, systems, constancy and change, and models. It is the contention of this project that the environment is another such context, and a particularly important one at that.

Environmental issues and concerns provide a particularly attractive context for teaching various scientific concepts and skills. That belief is what motivated the Environmental Literacy Council (ELC) and the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) to join forces in developing this set of science/environment modules for teachers. From an educational perspective, science learning and environmental understanding effectively complement each other in two ways:

The environmental context can improve science learning. Learning science can improve the ability of students to deal with environmental issues.

Another way of putting this is that studying science in the context of the environment is doubly productive. It shows how scientific knowledge and ways of thinking, coupled with the process of making decisions about our collective interaction with nature, can illuminate each other to the advantage of both.
F. James Rutherford Environmental Literacy Council

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Introduction

ased on a variety of evidence, most scientists believe that the Earths climate is changing and is in fact heating up. However, there are considerable differences among the views with regard to the rate of change, the impact on our environment, and what can or should be done about it. Moreover, climate change and global warming have become political issues: some argue that warming is either nonexistent or too minor to worry about, some argue that the consequences are too mild to justify costly policy responses, and others argue that the consequences are so threatening that immediate action is called for. This module is based on the premise that understanding the nature of the Earths energy balance and what influences that balance is necessary, but not sufficient, to make decisions with regard to climate change. Teachers can take advantage of the natural interest students have in space and astronomy to introduce key topics in Earth science, including global climate maintenance and global climate change. Information comparing the Earths climate to that of Venus and Mars is included here because of its intrinsic interest, but it also gives students a sense of the range of possible climates for planets in our solar neighborhood. Earth, Venus, and Mars are all similar in size and are similar distances from the Sun compared with the other planets in our solar system, yet their climates differ

substantially. Why? Students might assume, if they have thought about it at all, that the reason for the difference is simply distance from the SunVenus is too close, Mars too far, and the Earth just rightbut that is by no means the entire story. Based on distance factors alone, the Earth should actually be much colder than it is. Climate change is an environmental issue that is likely to persist as a contentious social issue. It is important, therefore, that todays students become prepared to deal with the issue of global warming thoughtfully as citizens in a democratic society. Nevertheless, this module is not about how to persuade students one way or the other with regard to the political issues. Rather, it is designed as a resource to help teachers foster the scientific knowledge and critical ways of thinking that students will need as they grow to be responsible adults. By its nature, this module provides an excellent opportunity to deal with the idea of systems. If students have already studied systems, this can be used as a review and to emphasize that systems analysis can be useful in many different contexts; if they have not, then this provides a good opportunity to introduce them to the properties of systems and their usefulness. To help teachers tap the potential of Earths energy balance and climate change as a learning context and to access the resources

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they need more readily, this module addresses five essential questions: 1. What is the difference between weather and climate? 2. How does the Earth gain and lose heat? 3. What causes the Earths climate to change? 4. If global warming is actually happening, what are the likely consequences? 5. If global warming is actually happening, what can be done about it? The sequence of these essential questions is intentional. It moves from the science that underlies Earths energy budget to considering possible consequences and actions if global warming is actually occurring, with the aim of fostering a more thoughtful way of approaching complex environmental issues. Note that the module itself takes no stand on the extent of global warming or what society ought to do about it. It is very important that students learn to draw their own conclusions based on an understanding of the relevant science, as well as on social, economic, and personal considerations. The next section of this module presents Student Learning Goals. Good instruction usually begins with a clear picture of what take-

away learning we want students to acquire the understandings and ways of thinking that will remain with them long after the details of instruction have been forgotten. The learning goals for this module, which are selected from Benchmarks for Science Literacy and National Science Education Standards, assume student familiarity with weather, climate, and radiation. Teachers may want to administer a pretest to assess the readiness of the students before undertaking this module. The learning goals are followed by the Background Content for Teachers section, which summarizes useful scientific and environmental information and is organized with reference to the essential questions. The Teaching Approach section includes an overview of possible student activities, suggestions regarding potential student misconceptions, commentary on assessing student learning, and some recommended resources. The module concludes with links to six student activities. These activities are presented as examples and therefore may be replaced with other activities, as appropriate. Some of the activities involve student handouts (instructions or readings), which are found at the source website.

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About the Authors

he Environmental Literacy Council is a nonprofit organization dedicated to improving the knowledge base of K12 teachers in environment-related sciences. Its membershipdrawn from the life, physical, Earth, mathematical, and social sciences of prestigious institutionsreflects the cross-disciplinary nature of environmental concerns. The National Science Teachers Association is the oldest national association of science educators in America and the largest organization in the world committed to promoting excellence and innovation in science teaching and learning for all.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. ESI-0243521. Any opinion, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Responsibility for the content and design rests with the Environmental Literacy Council and the National Science Teachers Association.

Disclaimer: The opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in Resources for Environmental Literacy are those of the Environmental Literacy Council and the National Science Teachers Association and may or may not conform to the individual viewpoints of each organizations members or staff on either current or historical events, or their impacts on the environment.

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Dedication

his publication is dedicated to the memory of Kathleen B. deBettencourt. She was known for her dedication to the preservation of our environment through a better understanding of science, for being extraordinarily informed on the connections between science and responsible environmental stewardship, and as a leader in environmental education with a keen ability to collaborate effectively with others. As the founding executive director of the Environmental Literacy Council, Kathleen was innovative and tireless in advancing the Councils goals. To those of us fortunate to have worked with her, she was both an admired colleague and dear friend.

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Student Learning Goals

enchmarks for Science Literacy and National Science Education Standards describe core earth systems content appropriate for all students. They do not dictate instruction, but rather articulate some key ideas and skills students should be left with after their learning experiences are complete. There is considerable overlap between science learning goals as expressed in the two documents; however, since some teachers choose to use one over the other, both are presented here. Only those that relate best to the expected learning outcomes of this module are included.

The earth is mostly rock. Three-fourths of its surface is covered by a relatively thin layer of water (some of it frozen), and the entire planet is surrounded by a relatively thin blanket of air. It is the only body in the solar system that appears able to support life. The other planets have compositions and conditions very different from the earths. (p. 68) The cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere plays an important role in determining climatic patterns. Water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises and cools, condenses into rain or snow, and falls again to the surface. (p. 69) Heat energy carried by ocean currents has a strong influence on climate around the world. (p. 69) Climates have sometimes changed abruptly in the past as a result of changes in the earths crust, such as volcanic eruptions or impacts of huge rocks from space. Even small changes in atmospheric or ocean content can have widespread effects on climates if the change lasts long enough. (p. 69) Human activities, such as reducing the amount of forest cover, increasing the amount and variety of chemicals released into the atmosphere, and intensive farming,

From Benchmarks for Science Literacy Weather (in the short run) and climate (in the long run) involve the transfer of en ergy in and out of the atmosphere. Solar
radiation heats the land masses, oceans, and air. Transfer of heat energy at the boundaries between the atmosphere, the land masses, and the oceans results in layers of different temperatures and densities in both the ocean and atmosphere. The action of gravitational force on regions of different densities causes them to rise or falland such circulation, influenced by the rotation of the earth, produces winds and ocean currents. (p. 70)

Global Climate Change: Resources for Environmental Literacy

have changed the earths land, oceans, and atmosphere. Some of these changes have decreased the capacity of the environment to support some life forms. (p. 73) Heat can be transferred through materials by the collision of atoms or across space by radiation. If the material is fluid, currents will be set up in it that aid the transfer of heat. (p. 85) Over a long time, matter is transferred from one organism to another repeatedly and between organisms and their physical environment. As in all material systems, the total amount of matter remains constant, even though its form and location change. (p. 120) Thinking about things as systems means looking for how every part relates to others. The output from one part of a system (which can include material, energy, or information) can become the input to the other parts. Such feedback can serve to control what goes on in the system as a whole. (p. 265) A system may stay the same because nothing is happening or because things are happening but exactly counterbalance one another. (p. 274) A system can include processes as well as things. (p. 265) Any system is usually connected to other systems, both internally and externally. Thus a system may be thought of as containing subsystems and as being a subsystem of a larger system. (p. 265) Physical and biological systems tend to change until they become stable and then remain that way unless their surroundings change. (p. 274)

Many systems contain feedback mechanisms that serve to keep changes within specified limits. (p. 274) Models are often used to think about processes that happen too slowly, too quickly, or on too small a scale to observe directly, or that are too vast to be changed deliberately, or that are potentially dangerous. (p. 269) The global environment is affected by national policies and practices relating to energy use, waste disposal, ecological management, manufacturing, and population. (p. 177)

From National Science Education Standards Light interacts with matter by transmis-

sion (including refraction), absorption, or scattering (including reflection). To see an object, light from that objectemitted by or scattered from itmust enter the eye. (p. 155) The sun is a major source of energy for changes on the earths surface. The sun loses energy by emitting light. A tiny fraction of that light reaches the earth, transferring energy from the sun to the earth. The suns energy arrives as light with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. (p. 155) Heat moves in predictable ways, flowing from warmer objects to cooler ones, until both reach the same temperature. (p. 155) Water, which covers the majority of the earths surface, circulates through the crust, oceans, and atmosphere in what is known as the water cycle. Water evaporates from the earths surface, rises and cools as it moves to higher elevations, condenses as rain or

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snow, and falls to the surface where it collects in lakes, oceans, soil, and in rocks underground. (p. 160) The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases that include water vapor. The atmosphere has different properties at different elevations. (p. 160) Clouds, formed by the condensation of water vapor, affect weather and climate. (p. 160) Global patterns of atmospheric movement influence local weather. Oceans have a major effect on climate, because water in the oceans holds a large amount of heat. (p. 160)

The sun is the major source of energy for phenomena on the earths surface, such as growth of plants, winds, ocean currents, and the water cycle. Seasons result from variations in the amount of the suns energy hitting the surface, due to the tilt of the earths rotation on its axis and the length of the day. (p. 161)

References
American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1993. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. National Research Council. 1996. National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Global Climate Change: Resources for Environmental Literacy

Background Content for Teachers

deas and issues that can serve as background knowledge are summarized in this section. It is not intended to be comprehensive, but can easily be supplemented by reference books and websites listed under Recommended Resources in the Teaching Approach section of the module. Although this material is intended for teachers, some of the ideas presented might also be useful in the course of instruction for the students. It is highly recommended, however, that the student learning goals be emphasized when thinking about the core content that is most important for students to understand. In the following summary, the science content focuses mainly on radiation and the Earths energy balance, whereas the environmental content has to do more with the projected effects of global warming and proposed policy responses.

dition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time and is measured in terms of things such as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. Weather also describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climate, on the other hand, is the average pattern of weather for a particular region, usually taken over a 30-year time period. Climatic elements can include precipitation, temperature, humidity, wind velocity, fog, frost, hailstorms, and other measures of weather. The term climate change implies a significant change from one climatic condition to another, including changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity. Because it affects other climate patterns, the aspect of climate that receives the most attention from scientists and policy makers is that of global temperature change. Global warming refers to a particular climate change, namely, the increase in the Earths average surface temperature. The Earths surface includes the land areas, the atmosphere, all liquid water on the Earths surface and underground, and all of the frozen water on the Earths surface, including glaciers, sea ice, and the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets. The Climate Change Basics Glossary (www. climatenetwork.org/climate-change-basics/climate-change-basics-glossary) of the Climate Action Network is an excellent source of these and other climate-related terms.

Essential Question 1:
What Is the Difference Between Weather and Climate?
Weather and climate are not the same thing, but they are related. As explained by the Environmental Protection Agency (http://iaspub.epa.gov/trs/trs_proc_qry. org_info?P_REG_AUTH_ID=1&P_DATA_ ID=11564&P_VERSION=1&P_LIST_OPTION_CD=INFO), weather is the specific con-

Global Climate Change: Resources for Environmental Literacy

Essential Question 2:
How Does the Earth Gain and Lose Heat?
The Sun, of course, is the ultimate source of heat energy reaching the Earth and other planets. Light from the Sun (solar radiation) fuels the weather systems and drives photosynthesis in plants to fuel all life, and its geometric variation over the curve of the roughly spherical Earth establishes our major climate zones. The Sun creates enormous amounts of internal energy through nuclear fusion reactions. This energy, created in the inner regions of the Sun, eventually works its way to the cooler outer regions and is then radiated out in the form of lightor electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The surface of the Sun is very active and is constantly changing, with giant dark sunspots appearing and disappearing in a sort of cyclic fashion, roughly over an 11-year period. However, the total amount of EM radiation emitted

by the Sun over these periods varies by only small amounts. In Figure 1, sunspots appear on the photosphere as dark cooler regions, but there are also compensating brighter regions related to the activities that produce sunspots. The net result is that the Sun emits slightly more radiation during active periods of large sunspots than during more inactive periods. There is, however, good evidence that larger variations in the Suns activity than that normally associated with sunspots do occur. For example, over 300 years agoduring the last half of the 17th centurythere was a period of greatly reduced solar activity. This was also a time of harsh winters and extended bitter cold and was referred to as the Little Ice Age. Scientists do not yet understand the underlying cause of such larger-scale variations in solar activity, but they do know that these variations can play a key role in Earths climate. Some scientists believe that there is a repeating 1,500-year solar irradiance cycle that is responsible for cyclic periods of warming and the Little Ice Age. They claim that this cycle, rather than human activity, is responsible for current global warming (Haigh 2001). The EM radiation from the Sun arrives mostly in the form of visible and infrared wavelengths. Infrared energy is most often thought of as heat. The Earth is a transmitter of heat as well as a receiver. As incoming EM radiation heats the Earth, the Earth, in turn, radiates heat out into space in the form of infrared radiation. When the total amount of energy leaving the Earth is equal to that entering, the global climate remainsexcept for local variationsunaffected. In Figure 2, the white curve shows the wavelengths of various types of EM radiation. The yellow curve is a simple plot of the Suns energy spectrum. The colored bands indicate the wavelengths of visible light; the spectrum

Figure 1. Sun Flare

Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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Suns energy spectrum Visible light Infrared radiation Microwaves Radio waves Wave pro le

Energy

X-rays

UV

400 nm 700 nm Wavelength Shortwave radiation

1mm

1m

1km 100 km

Longwave radiation

Figure 2: Wavelengths of Different Radiation Types

Source: Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education and Training (COMET) (http://meted.ucar.edu) of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.

is so named because it corresponds to the range of wavelengths that our eyes respond to. Note that the peak of the solar spectrum lies in the visible light region, but that the Sun also has energy in the ultraviolet (UV) and infrared regions. It is the infrared wavelengths of the Suns energy spectrum that are drawn into the Earths energy balance.

EM energy that is emitted from Earth back into space. As solar energy reaches the Earths surface, a fraction of it is absorbed and the Earths surface warms up. The remaining fraction is reflected immediately off the surface back into the atmosphere and space. The surface of the Earth (land and water) that has been warmed by the radiation then emits energy back in the form of heat into the atmosphere and toward space. Since the Earths surface temperature is much lower than that of the Sun, it emits radiation at longer wavelengths and with energy levels much lower than that from the Sun, in this case at infrared (heat) wavelengths (not at visible wavelengths like the Sun). Thus, the higher energy, shorter-wave radiation from the Sun

Essential Question 3:
What Causes the Earths Climate to Change?
The Earths energy balanceand hence climatedepends on the balance between the EM energy that enters Earth from the Sun and the

Global Climate Change: Resources for Environmental Literacy

is effectively transformed into longer-wave radiation by the processes of absorption and emission at the Earths surface.

either the Earth or a greenhouse actually works (see Figure 3). Some of the gases that make up the Earths atmosphere, such as water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4), only absorb radiation at particular wavelengths. These gases are mostly transparent to the shorter-wave solar radiation (visible and UV), but they absorb and emit infrared radiation. Thus, the atmosphere like a glass greenhouseis reasonably transparent to sunlight. Sunlight is absorbed mostly at the Earths surface (the land, water, and vegetation) and not into the atmosphere. Similarly, sunlight is absorbed mostly by the vegetation in the greenhouse. The Earths surface (or the vegetation in the greenhouse) then emits radiation

The Greenhouse Effect

This sequence of absorption of shorter-wave solar radiation and the subsequent emission of longer-wave radiation is thought of as the greenhouse effect. Comparing the Earths atmosphere to a greenhouse is often used to help explain the processes that maintain the Earths temperatures as we experience them today. The greenhouse effect is commonly portrayed as a process of heat being let in and then being trappedunable to escape. This, however, is not exactly how

Figure 3. Example of a Greenhouse (left); Depiction of the Absorption and Emission of Radiation (right)
Source: Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET) (http://meted.ucar.edu) of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.

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back into the atmosphere. This emitted radiation is not trapped but rather is exchanged with its environment. This might seem subtle, but it is an important distinction. The exchange occurs as follows: infrared radiation is emitted from the surface and then absorbed by the atmosphere. Much of this absorption is by water vapor, less by CO2, and still less by CH4 and other greenhouse gases. Clouds also absorb significant amounts of this infrared energy. The gases in the atmosphere emit infrared radiation out to space but also back to the surface, so an exchange is taking place between the surface and atmosphere. It is this radiation that is emitted back to the surface that produces the greenhouse effect. The net result is that the mean surface temperature for the entire Earth is about 15C, which is about 35 higher than it would be without the atmosphere. This is the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is relatively weak on Earth, but it is extreme on Venus because of its very dense atmosphere consisting mainly of CO2 (Weart 2006). This dense atmosphere traps the radiation so efficiently that Venus has an average surface temperature of about 450C, the highest of any planet in the solar system. Mars, on the other hand, has a very thin atmosphere that provides practically no real greenhouse effect, which makes it much colder than it otherwise would be with an Earth-like atmosphere (Darling n.d.). Scientists believe that Mars, because it is smaller than the Earth, did not have sufficient gravity to hold its ancient atmosphere and the atmosphere boiled off slowly into space (Weart 2006). Many have argued that the analogy of our climate system to a greenhouse is misleading. Although glass greenhouses do have much in common with the Earths atmospheric greenhouse effect, with the glass letting a high proportion of the Suns radiation through and in-

hibiting the loss of outgoing long-wave radiation from within the glass house itself, the dominant effect of an actual greenhouse is to stop wind and convection carrying the heat away, as would be the case in the open air.

The Greenhouse Gases

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the atmosphere include H2O, CO2, CH4, nitrous oxide (NO2), and ozone. Certain human activities, however, can add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases:

CO2 is released into the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood or wood products are burned. CH4 is emitted during production and transport of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and in the raising of livestock. NO2 is given off primarily during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as in the combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal).

The Earths Energy Balance

If the Earth and the atmosphere did not emit radiation but only absorbed radiation, the Earth and the atmosphere would continue to get hotter and hotter until it would be uninhabitable. If more radiation were emitted than absorbed, over time the Earth would get colder and colder. Neither of these happens because the Earth is roughly in energy balance. At a particular time and place, the energy emitted by the Earth might not balance the energy absorbed by the Sun, but when averaged over the Earths entire surface for a long time period, the input and output of energy are nearly in balance.

Global Climate Change: Resources for Environmental Literacy

But the Earth is not in exact energy balance, because its surface is gradually heating up. There are several possible explanations for this: the radiation from the Sun is increasing, the subsequent heat radiation from Earth is decreasing, and the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are increasing. It is the last of these explanations that is the most widely accepted. While all greenhouse gases may be responsible to some degree, it is the increase of CO2 that is the focus of attention. Scientists have studied past climate by looking at many different data sources. These include ice cores taken from polar regions (which can

be used to measure increases and decreases in snowfall over time, as well as changes in the gases in the atmosphere as seen in trapped air bubbles); tree rings (trees grow fasterhence wider ringsin warm, moist years and slower in cold, dry ones); and coral reefs (which respond to differences in ocean temperatures, growing faster in warmer waters). There is also the human recordscientists have been monitoring temperature and rainfall systematically for more than a hundred years, and anecdotal accounts of the weather over time have also been kept by common people since recorded history began. An analysis of these forms

C
14.4 14.3 14.2 14.1 14.0 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 1860 1880

Global Average Temperature

F
57.92 57.74 57.56 57.38 57.20 57.02 56.84 56.66 56.48

5 year average 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

56.30 2000

Figure 4. Global Average Temperature

Using averaged temperature data from across the world, climatologists estimate that global temperature increased by 0.9 C (1.62 F) between the years 1860 to 2000.
Source: Project Learn (www.ucar.edu/learn) at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). 20002001 University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.

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of information has shown that climate has indeed varied throughout history. Figure 4 shows the variation in global average air temperature since 1860.

Arctic Feedback Loop: Surface Re ectivity

Decrease ice/snow extent. Forests migrate northward

Positive and Negative Feedbacks

An important concept in understanding climate change is feedback. Feedback is any process that increases (positive feedback) or decreases (negative feedback) any change to a system. A positive feedback amplifies an initial change, whereas a negative feedback dampens the change and pushes the system back toward its original position or state. For example, suppose that the Earths global surface air temperature increased because of some disturbance. In a warmer atmosphere, more water could evaporate from the oceans, leading to larger amounts of water vapor in the atmosphere. More water vapor in the atmosphere would absorb more infrared radiation from the Earths surface and emit more infrared radiation back, enhancing the greenhouse effect and further increasing the air temperature. This increased air temperature would then make it possible for the air to hold even more water vapor when evaporation increases. If this feedback was not stopped, the Earths temperature could increase until the oceans eventually evaporated away. This particular form of unchecked feedback would produce a runaway greenhouse effect. It is similar in principle to what happened on Venus (though on that planet, it was due to gases other than water vapor). Figure 5 depicts the Arctic feedback loop. In addition to positive feedbacks in the climate system, there are also negative feedbacks that act to restore the system to its initial state. For example, in a warmer atmosphere with more water vapor, more clouds might form. An inWarming

Decreased albedo (re ectivity)

Figure : Arctic Feedback Loop: Surface Reflectivity

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists. Global Warming: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Available online at (www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science/arcticclimate-impact-assessment.html).

crease in cloudiness would increase the amount of solar radiation reflected back to space. Therefore, less solar radiation would be absorbed by the Earths surface and the rate of warming would slow. Such a feedback, though it may not be enough to push the Earth completely back toward its initial state, might lead to a new energy balance, one that is in equilibrium with the overall increase in energy. One example of a natural disturbance to the climate system is a volcanic eruption. When volcanoes erupt, small particles of ash and dust as well as gases such as sulfur are released. The sulfur can combine with water vapor to produce small sulfuric acid particles that form a dense layer of haze in the upper atmosphere. This haze can stay in the atmosphere for up to several years, absorbing and reflecting some of

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the incoming solar energy, reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed by the Earths surface and the lower atmosphere, thereby lowering the global air temperature. Sunspots are another example of a natural disturbance. People can also cause climate change. CO2 is a greenhouse gas because it is transparent to most solar radiation yet it both absorbs and emits infrared radiation. Although CO2 exists naturally in the atmosphere, its concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing steadily since the 1950s. This increase is due primarily to the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, which releases carbon when it is burned), but it is also due to deforestation as people clear lands across the world, especially in the tropics. Figure 6 illustrates world CO2 emissions by fuel type since 1980. As CO2 increases in the atmosphere, its greenhouse effect increases as well, causing warmer surface temperatures. This warming due to human-induced increases in greenhouse gases is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect. It is important to differentiate between the natuBillion metric tons History Projections

ral greenhouse effect, which enables us to live comfortably on Earth, and the enhanced effect, which is due to changes in the normal concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Uncertainties Associated With Climate Change

Scientists use complicated computer models to predict climate change. Currently, most models predict that by the year 2100 average surface temperature will increase by 1.4C (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2001). However, there are many uncertainties in climate models because scientists do not completely understand all of the physical feedbacks and processes of the Earths climate system. Two of the largest uncertainties in climate models are predicting the effects of clouds and predicting the effects of aerosol on the overall energy balance. It is easy to understand how such complicated processes would be difficult to predict. That is why scientists are always looking for additional data on all the different components that control the global energy balance in order to make their climate computer models more accurate. It is important to remember that these are not weather-predicting machines; rather, they are tools attempting to predict overall changes in climatewhose potential impact on local weather conditions is impossible to determine at this time.

5040-

Total
30201001980 1990 2003 2010 Coal Oil Natural Gas 2020 2030

Essential Question 4:
If Global Warming Is Actually Happening, What Are the Likely Consequences?
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a group of scientists from around the world brought together by the United Nations every five years to assess our understanding of, and the potential impacts of, climate change. Most

Figure . World Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel Type, 19802030

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Report DOE/EIA0484(2006), (www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/figure_ 66.html).

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What causes the sea level to change?

Terrestrial water storage, Surface and deep ocean extraction of groundwater, circulation changes, storm surges building of reservoirs, Exchange of the water changes in runoff, and stored on land by seepage into aquifers Subsidence in river glaciers and ice sheets delta region, with ocean water land movements, and tectonic As the ocean warms, displacements the water expands

Figure 7. Causes of Sea-Level Change

Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. R. T. Watson and the Core Writing Team. New York: Cambridge University Press. www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_ tar/vol4/english/index.htm. Figure also available online at www.ipcc.ch/present/graphics/2001syr/large/04.02.jpg.

importantly, they identify options for lessening the rate of change and describe how societies can adapt to it. According to the IPCC (2007), the worlds surface air temperature increased an average of 0.74C in the 100 years between 1906 and 2005. The IPCC also projected (based on computer models) that during the 21st century temperatures will rise much more than they did during the past century. Since temperatures will likely continue to climb, it is important to understand how the Earth responded to climate change over the past century so we can better predict how it may respond in the future. The impacts of climate change listed within this section are just a handful of those discussed in the IPCCs Climate Change 2001 and Climate Change 2007 reports.

Sea-Level Rise
Sea level rose 58 inches during the 20th centurya result of both the melting of glaciers and the expansion of water through increasing heat (see Figure 7). Mountain glaciers have become much smaller during the past century, especially those in low-latitude locations like Mount Kenya in Africa and the Andes in South America. Ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are also melting and contributing to sealevel rise (IPCC 2007). Computer models predict a range of possible changes in sea level over the course of the 21st century, from 7 inches to as much as 23 inches (IPCC 2007). While the smaller projections would have relatively modest impacts, the higher projections suggest dramatic effects on low-lying coastal communities as shoreline erosion threatens houses and

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freshwater supplies are contaminated with salty water. Certain natural ecosystems such as wetlands and coral reefs would also be in jeopardy with a rapid rise in sea level.

Warmer Oceans
While the idea of swimming in a warmer ocean is pleasant to most human beings, increasing ocean temperatures could cause serious ecological damage. In the past, warm sea-surface temperatures have been responsible for major destruction and can cause more damage if global temperatures continue to climb. Approximately a quarter of the worlds coral reefs have died over the last few decades, many of them affected by coral bleachinga process tied directly to warming waters, which weakens the coral animals.

Melting Arctic Sea Ice

Today, the Arctic summer sea ice is about half as thick as it was in 1950. Just like an ice cube melting in a glass of water, the melting Arctic sea ice does not contribute to sea-level rise, except for the expansion of seawater with increasing heat. However, melting Arctic sea ice may eventually lead to global changes in water circulation. The water from melted ice forms a layer at the sea surface that is less dense than the underlying water because it is less salty, potentially preventing the pattern of deep ocean currents from rising to the surface. Additionally, melting sea ice speeds up the warming of the Arctic because water absorbs 80% of sunlight, about the same amount that the cover of sea ice used to reflect (IPCC 2007). Figure 8 shows sea ice changes from 1979 to 2003.

Floods
Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation of water, which, as part of the water cycle (see http://eo.ucar.edu/basics/wx_1_c.html) eventually leads to increased precipitation. In fact, the world has seen a 5%10% increase in precipitation over the past century. Some computer models predict that the frequency of heavy rainfall events is likely to rise with global warming, further increasing the potential for flooding.

Observed sea ice September 1979

Observed sea ice September 2003

Figure 8. Observed Sea Ice Changes 19792003

Source: Arctic Council and International Arctic Science Committee. Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge University Press, 2004.

NASA

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Droughts
While some parts of the world are projected to experience increased precipitation if global warming persists, other parts may experience higher levels of drought. This is because places that are typically dry, such as the centers of continents, will experience even more evaporation as global temperatures climb. More intense droughts have been observed since the 1970s, particularly in the tropics and subtropics, but scientists are still deciphering whether drought is increasing worldwide or the areas of drought are shifting.

about 6 days earlier and fall colors coming about 5 days later.

Changing Ecosystems
Scientists believe that ecosystems will likely respond to climate change in one of two ways. Either ecosystems will move, migrating to new locations that are similar to their current climate, or they will change, adapting to the changing climate, with some species becoming less abundant or locally extinct and others thriving under the new conditions.

Agriculture
With drought affecting some regions and heat intensifying in the tropics, many areas are becoming unsuitable for agriculture. In tropical areas that are already dry and hot, the amount of food harvested will likely decrease with even small amounts of climate change. It is likely that, with changing climate, a global change in the agricultural pattern will occur.

Heat Waves
Heat waves can pose a great risk to human health. A 1995 heat wave in Chicago, for example, caused 514 heat-related deaths. Unless steps are taken to avoid it, heat waves are likely to continue to increase, as will their intensity, leading to a greater number of heat-related deaths (IPCC 2007).

Warmer Winters
Warmer winters mean that many deaths related to cold temperatures might be avoided and that the growing season will last longer, a possible upside to global warming. More people around the world die because of wintertime cold than because of summertime heat. Decreased wintertime deaths could offset some of the potential increase in summertime heat-related deaths, or even lead to more lives saved as a result of the changed temperatures. With respect to longer growing seasons, there is already evidence in Europe that the growing season has been extended since the 1960s, with spring plants now blooming

Essential Question 5:
If Global Warming Is Actually Happening, What Can Be Done About It?
Responses to climate change can include attempts at slowing or preventing climate change, increasing efforts to adapt to change, or a combination of both. Slowing the rate of climate change depends more than anything else on decreasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. In principle, this can be accomplished by releasing less CO2 into the atmosphere, by sequestering more CO2 in trees and oceans, or through other physical means such as underground injection. However, the best way to accomplish these things is quite complicated. It is not just a mat-

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ter of science, since many actions involve technological, economic, political, and geographical considerations at international, national, state, and local levelsthus involving governmental, corporate, and individual decision making. Inevitably, there are compromises and trade-offs to be made. Solutions currently being put forth include reducing the use of carbon fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and reducing the discharge of CO2 into the atmosphere. Ways to reduce the use of carbon fuels include

providing additional incentives for the development of new and better technologies.

For all of the above propositions, it is important to recognize that many solutions offered reflect particular values and biases by individuals, organizations, and governments, so they need to be carefully compared and thoroughly assessed.

References
Darling, D. n.d. The encyclopedia of astrobiology, astronomy, and spaceflight. www.daviddarling. info/encyclopedia/M/Marsatmos.html Haigh, J. D. 2001. Climate: Climate variability and the influence of the Sun. Science 294: 21092111. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001. Climate change 2001: Synthesis report. A contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. R. T. Watson and the Core Writing Team. New York: Cambridge University Press. www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/vol4/english/pdf/front.pdf Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Summary for policymakers. A contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://ipcc-wg1. ucar.edu/wg1/docs/WG1AR4_SPM_PlenaryApproved.pdf Weart, S. June 2006. Venus and Mars. In The discovery of global warming. American Institute of Physics, Center for History of Physics. http://aip.org/history/climate/Venus.htm

increasing the existence and convenience of public transit systems; purchasing fewer automobiles per family and favoring fuel-efficient ones, such as hybrids; increasing the use of noncarbon fuels, such as biomass and hydrogen fuel-cells; and reducing the energy demands of homes through better insulation and the use of energy-efficient appliances.

Ways to reduce the discharge of CO2 into the atmosphere include

using advanced technologies to remove CO2 from industrial exhaust; switching to noncarbon energy technologies such as wind farms, solar panels, hydroelectric power, and nuclear power; and

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Teaching Approach

o understand why the Earths climate is so different from that of our sister planets, students need to understand the nature of the Earths energy balancehow the Earth responds in a systemwide way to the continual bath of the Suns light. The major factor in affecting that energy balance is the nature of each planetary atmosphere. To help students understand what we mean by an energy balance, what establishes this balance, and how it affects planetary climate, it will be helpful if the students first explore (or review, as needed) some basic scientific concepts, including

and global climate change. LEARN has excellent website material aimed at the middle grades. Each topic contains background material for teachers and several activities developed by classroom teachers. Six of the 20 LEARN activities have been singled out as most appropriate for this module. Rather than duplicate them here, we recommend that teachers print out the necessary material from the website. Each activity also lists relevant Standards and Benchmarks, time involved, assessment ideas, and a student guide.

the nature of light as electromagnetic radiation, the water cycle, the nature of systems, and feedback.

Misconceptions
Many students approach the study of science with preconceived ideas or misconceptions about science terms and ideas. Some of the misconceptions that students may have about the ideas in this module are discussed below.

This section of the module provides an overview of the six student activities available for use, a list of possible student misconceptions, ideas for assessing student learning, and some recommended resources.

Activities Overview
The LEARN project was developed by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) and funded by the National Science Foundation. Topics of interest to the module are the atmosphere, climate, greenhouse effect,

Students may not understand the difference between climate and weather, and they may find it even harder to understand the difference between local or regional climate and global climate. For example, they may find it difficult to imagine how the global climate could be warming and yet predictions have certain regions becoming colderwhether through greater mobility of arctic air masses or the shifting of ocean currents.

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Students may think that seasons are the same across the Earth and that summer is warmer because the Earth is closer to the Sun during the summer and farther away in the winter. Some students may conclude that the equator is warmer because it is closer to the Sun (because it seems to be the fattest part of the surface of the Earth as a sphere), misunderstanding the effect of angle on solar radiation. These misconceptions can be mistakenly reinforced by activities where the inverse square law is used to show students that things grow hotter when closer to a radiant heat source. Many students associate the word radiation with nuclear radiation. They do not realize that radiation is a general term for energy that is emitted by an object, such as sunlight, or the heat emitted by our own bodies. Students also might not realize that all objects (that have temperatures above absolute zero) radiate energy. Some students may not realize that the term greenhouse effect is used just as an analogy and is not meant to be interpreted literally. Many students believe that global warming is occurring because of the ozone hole. However, global warming and the reduction in ozone concentration are actually two separate processes, although there are some indirect links between the two because of the interconnectedness of the climate system. Ozone in the stratosphere (the region 2050 km high in the Earths atmosphere where temperature increases with height) acts to absorb UV radiation from the Sun. The ozone hole specifically refers to a thinning of the concentration of stratospheric ozone over the Antarctic region. This reduction in ozone concentration is due primarily to industrial chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) that break down in the stratosphere, releasing chlorine atoms which react with and remove ozone from the atmosphere. Although not universal, the production of new CFCs has been banned in many industrialized nations. However, CFC pollutants previously released remain active. CFCs are also greenhouse gases, but they play a minor role in global warming relative to other gases, such as CO2 and CH4. Students may find it difficult to grasp how something untouchable like light energy can have real properties such as height (amplitude) and length (wavelength), especially since these properties are invisible. This can be even more difficult to comprehend when dealing with light and other submicroscopic properties that interact to create perceived effects with equally invisible atoms. Students may not understand the concept of heat as having two components: the physical, as reflected by the motion of molecules (as with hot water); and the electromagnetic, as infrared radiation. For younger or less advanced students, simply point out that it is the difference between putting your hand in hot water (coming in contact with the hot object) and feeling the warmth of the light of the very distant Sun radiating on your skin. The latter energy is carried by EM waves, the former by molecules hitting your hand. For higher-level students, this can lead to the discussion of black bodies.

Assessing Student Learning

Each LEARN Activity referred to in this module includes assessment suggestions for the teacher. However, many teachers will also want an assessment after the completion of this module. We suggest that the students be

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asked to complete the five essential questions listed at the beginning of the module with short-answer responses.

Recommended Resources
These readings and websites provide experiments, activities, and student-and-teacherfriendly explanations for many of the concepts and topics introduced in this module. In many cases, the explanations and activities range from beginner to advanced.

Books
Bohren, C. F. 2001. Clouds in a glass of beer. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. A fascinating exploration of atmospheric physics, with more than 25 experiments to observe and reproduce natural phenomena with simple materials at home or in the classroom. Bohren, C. F. 1991. What light through yonder window breaks? More experiments in atmospheric physics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. This is an outstanding text for nonscientists looking to understand some of the remarkable physical phenomena in the Earths atmosphere. It contains simple experiments that require no expensive equipment or specialized knowledge, is suitable for readers of many ages, and is intended to encourage a healthy curiosity about the physical universe.

Websites
Environmental Literacy Council (www.enviroliteracy. org/subcategory.php/8.html) This is a substantial online primer about the Earths air, climate, and weather. The website explains key topics such as climate change and the greenhouse effect and provides a bevy of recommended resources for teachers and students looking for more information.

Looking at Earth From Space (http://kids.earth.nasa. gov/guide/earth_and_space.pdf) This teachers guide was developed by the Maryland Pilot Earth Science and Technology Education Network (MAPS-NET), sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), to help teachers use NASA material in Earth science education. The Electromagnetic Spectrum (http://imagers.gsfc. nasa.gov/ems/ems.html) This interactive multimedia site was developed by NASA. Understanding the Seasons (www.astronomy.org/astronomy-survival/seasons.html) This site is from the Allentown (Pennsylvania) School District Planetarium, a unique science laboratory for the community. Exploring Earth (www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/navigation/visualization.cfm) ClassZone provides a comprehensive variety of Flash and QuickTime animations dealing with space and planetary science, oceanography, hydrology, and geology. The Water Cycle (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html) An excellent site developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. The Carbon Cycle (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Library/CarbonCycle/index.html) This site is from NASAs Earth Observatory. What Is the Earths Radiation Budget? (http://eosweb. larc.nasa.gov/education/whatis.html) This site is from NASAs Atmospheric Science Data Center. Climate Change (http://epa.gov/climatechange/kids/ greenhouse.html) This Environmental Protection Agency website helps to teach students about global warming. Climate Change Basics Glossary (www.climatenetwork.org/climate-change-basics/climate-changebasics-glossary) This site, presented by the Climate Action Network, is an excellent source of climate- related terms.

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Student Activities and Materials

he student activities listed here are part of UCARs LEARN project. Explanations about their use and any student materials you might need can be found at the associated websites.

Activity 2:
LEARN Activity 8: Differences Between Climate and Weather 1 (www.ucar.edu/learn/1_2_2_8t.htm)
Understanding and interpreting local weather data and understanding the relationship between weather and climate are important first steps to understanding larger-scale global climate changes. In this activity, students will undertake a project that allows them firsthand knowledge of local weather changes and how these changes relate to local climates.

Activity 1:
LEARN Activity 5: Atmospheric ProcessesRadiation (www.ucar.edu/learn/1_1_2_5t.htm)
After a brief discussion of heat transfer processes in general, this activity focuses on radiation. Students will investigate how different surfaces absorb heat and apply their experience with the surfaces to interpret real-world situations.

1. Originally modified by UCAR with permission from Global ClimatesPast, Present, and Future: Activities for Integrated Science Education, eds. S. Henderson, S. R. Holman, and L. L. Mortensen, 16. EPA Report no. EPA/600/R-93/126. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.

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Activity 3:
LEARN Activity 9: Climate Variability (www.ucar.edu/learn/1_2_2_9t.htm)
In this activity, students will simulate climate variability and come to understand that longterm climate averages are the result of significant annual climate variability. Students will be able to express the fact that random climate variability makes detecting climate change more difficult.

Activity 5:
LEARN Activity 13: What Factors Impact a Greenhouse?3 (www.ucar.edu/learn/1_3_2_13t.htm)
In this activity, students will identify factors that affect the heat-trapping ability of a greenhouse.

Activity 6:
LEARN Activity 15: What Is the Carbon Cycle? 4

Activity 4:
LEARN Activity 12: What Is a Greenhouse? (www.ucar.edu/learn/1_3_2_12t.htm)
2

(www.ucar.edu/learn/1_4_2_15t.htm)
In this activity, students will explore the carbon cycle and be able to identify carbon sources, sinks, and release agents.

This activity is designed to have students become familiar with how a greenhouse retains heat by building simple models. Through further discussion, you can explain how the atmospheric greenhouse effect retains heat.

2. Originally modified by UCAR with permission from Global ClimatesPast, Present, and Future: Activities for Integrated Science Education, eds. S. Henderson, S. R. Holman, and L. L. Mortensen, 3944. EPA Report no. EPA/600/R-93/126. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. 3. Originally modified by UCAR with permission from Global ClimatesPast, Present, and Future: Activities for Integrated Science Education, eds. S. Henderson, S. R. Holman, and L. L. Mortensen, 4752. EPA Report no. EPA/600/R-93/126. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. 4. Originally modified by UCAR with permission from Global ClimatesPast, Present, and Future: Activities for Integrated Science Education, eds. S. Henderson, S. R. Holman, and L. L. Mortensen, 5964. EPA Report no. EPA/600/R-93/126. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.

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