Appendix

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N ORTON S T HEOREM M ILLMAN S T HEOREM

Nortons Theorem
Like Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem provides a method of reducing a more complex circuit to a simpler form. The basic difference is that Nortons theorem gives an equivalent current source in parallel with an equivalent resistance. The form of Nortons equivalent circuit is shown in Figure C1. Regardless of how complex the original circuit is, it can always be reduced to this equivalent form. The equivalent current source is designated IN, and the equivalent resistance is designated RN. To apply Nortons theorem, you must know how to find the two quantities IN and RN. Once you know them for a given circuit, simply connect them in parallel to get the complete Norton circuit. Nortons Equivalent Current (IN ) As stated, IN is one part of the complete Norton equivalent circuit; RN is the other part. IN is defined to be the short-circuit current between two points in a circuit. Any component connected between these two points effectively sees a current source of value IN in parallel with RN. To illustrate, suppose that a resistive circuit of some kind has a resistor connected between two points in the circuit, as shown in Figure C2(a). We wish to find the Norton circuit that is equivalent to the one shown as seen by RL. To find IN, calculate the current between points A and B with these two points shorted, as shown in Figure C2(b). Example C1 demonstrates how to find IN.
FIGURE C2 R1 R3

IN

RN

FIGURE C1

The form of Nortons equivalent circuit.

Determining the Norton equivalent current, IN.

VS R2

R1

R3

RL

VS

R2 I N

B (a) Original circuit

B (b) Short the terminals to get I N.

EXAMPLE C1
FIGURE C3

Determine IN for the circuit within the shaded area in Figure C3(a).
R1 47 VS 83.3 V R3 100 R2 47 B (a) (b) R1 47 RL VS 83.3 V R3 100 R2 47 A

IN

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Solution

Short terminals A and B as shown in Figure C3(b). IN is the current through the short and is calculated as follows: First, the total resistance seen by the voltage source is RT = R1 + R2R3 = 47 R2 + R3 + (47 )(100 ) = 79 147

The total current from the source is IT = IN = VS 83.3 V = = 1.05 A RT 79

Now apply the current-divider formula to find IN (the current through the short).

This is the value for the equivalent Norton current source.

R2 47 IT = R2 + R3 147

1.05 A = 336 mA

Nortons Equivalent Resistance (RN ) We define RN in the same way as RTH: it is the total resistance appearing between two terminals in a given circuit with all sources replaced by their internal resistances. Example C2 demonstrates how to find RN.

EXAMPLE C2 Solution

Find RN for the circuit within the shaded area of Figure C3(a) (see Example C1). First reduce VS to zero by shorting it, as shown in Figure C4. Looking in at terminals A and B, you can see that the parallel combination of R1 and R2 is in series with R3. Thus, RN = R3 + R1 = 100 2 + 47 2 = 124

R1 Replace VS with a short 47 R2 47

R3 A 100

B FIGURE C4

The two examples have shown how to find the two equivalent components of a Norton equivalent circuit, IN and RN. Keep in mind that these values can be found for any linear circuit. Once these are known, they must be connected in parallel to form the Norton equivalent circuit, as illustrated in Example C3.

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EXAMPLE C3 Solution

Draw the complete Norton circuit for the original circuit in Figure C3 (Example C1). In Examples C1 and C2 you found that IN = 336 mA and RN = 124 . The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Figure C5.

FIGURE C5

A IN 336 mA RN 124 B

Summary of Nortons Theorem Any load resistor connected between the terminals of a Norton equivalent circuit will have the same current through it and the same voltage across it as if it were connected to the terminals of the original circuit. A summary of steps for theoretically applying Nortons theorem is as follows: 1. Short the two terminals between which you want to find the Norton equivalent circuit. 2. Determine the current (IN) through the shorted terminals. 3. Determine the resistance (RN) between the two terminals (opened) with all voltage sources shorted and all current sources opened (RN = RTH). 4. Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce the complete Norton equivalent for the original circuit. Nortons equivalent circuit can also be derived from Thevenins equivalent circuit by use of the source conversion method.

Millmans Theorem
Millmans theorem permits any number of parallel voltage sources to be reduced to a single equivalent voltage source. It simplifies finding the voltage across or current through a load. Millmans theorem gives the same results as Thevenins theorem for the special case of parallel voltage sources. A conversion by Millmans theorem is illustrated in Figure C6.

A R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3 Rn Vn B FIGURE C6 REQ VEQ

Reduction of parallel voltage sources to a single equivalent voltage source.

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Millmans Equivalent Voltage (VEQ ) and Equivalent Resistance (REQ ) Millmans theorem gives us a formula for calculating the equivalent voltage, VEQ. To find VEQ, convert each of the parallel voltage sources into the current sources, as shown in Figure C7.
A A R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3 Rn Vn B (a) FIGURE C7 (b) I1 R1 I2 R2 I3 R3 In Rn B

Parallel voltage sources converted to current sources.

In Figure C7 (b), the total current from the parallel current sources is IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + + In The total conductance between terminals A and B is G T = G1 + G2 + G3 + + Gn where G T = 1>RT, G1 = 1>R1, and so on. Remember, the current sources are effectively open. Therefore, by Millmans theorem, the equivalent resistance, REQ, is the total resistance RT. REQ 1 GT (1/R1) (1/R2) 1 (1/R3)

(1/Rn)

Equation C1

By Millmans theorem, the equivalent voltage is ITREQ, where IT is expressed as follows: V1 V2 V3 Vn IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + + In = + + + + R1 R2 R3 Rn The following is the formula for the equivalent voltage: VEQ (V1/R1) (1/R1) (V2 /R2) (1/R2) (V3 /R3) (1/R3)

(Vn /Rn) (1/Rn)

Equation C2

Equations C1 and C2 are the two Millman formulas. The equivalent voltage source has a polarity such that the total current through a load will be in the same direction as in the original circuit.

EXAMPLE C4

Use Millmans theorem to find the voltage across RL and the current through RL in Figure C8.
FIGURE C8 A R1 22 10 V R2 22 5V R3 10 15 V B

RL 47

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Solution

Apply Millmans theorem as follows: REQ = 1 (1>R1) + (1>R2) + (1>R3) 1 1 = = = 5.24 (1>22 ) + (1>22 ) + (1>10 ) 0.19 (V1>R1) + (V2>R2) + (V3>R3) (1>R1) + (1>R2) + (1>R3)

VEQ = =

(10 V>22 ) + (5 V>22 ) + (15 V>10 ) (1>22 ) + (1>22 ) + (1>10 ) = The single equivalent voltage source is shown in Figure C9. Now calculate IL and VL for the load resistor.

2.18 A = 11.5 V 0.19 S

11.5 V = 220 mA REQ + RL 52.2 VL = ILRL = (220 mA)(47 ) = 10.3 V IL = =

FIGURE C9

VEQ

A REQ VEQ

5.24 11.5 V B

RL 47