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What are Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

GMO is defined as an organism in which genetic matter is altered in a way that doesnt occur naturally. This technology is called Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology. Genetic technology Most GM plants are generated by the biolistic method (particle gun) or by Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation. Such method are used to create GM plants-which are then used to grow GM food crops. These techniques are much more precise than mutagenesis (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change.

GM CROPS DISTRIBUTION WORLD WIDE

GM crops have been grown commercially since 1996. Since then the GM market has grown 74 folds and spread to 25 countries. The global value of the GM crop market was 7.5 billion dollars in 2008. 90% of GM crops, and almost all GM food crops, are grown in four countriesthe United States, Argentina, Brazil, and Canada. The U.S. produces almost half of all GM crops. The top three GM crops in 2010 were soyabeans (53 percent of total GM area), maize (30 percent), and cotton (15 percent). Others include rapeseed (canola), alfalfa, and papaya.

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WHY GM FOODS ARE PRODUCED:

GM foods are developed and marketed because there is some perceived advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to translate into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or nutritional value) or both with resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards herbicides.

Common GM crops:

1. GM soyabeans 2.GM corn 3. Bt Cotton 4.Canola Others are GM tomatoes, potatoes, papayas, chicory, melons, rice, squash, chicory melons rice squash sugar beets and wheat beets, wheat.

Agricultural benefits 1. Herbicide tolerance 2.Protection against insect damage 3.Virus resistance y 4.Tolerance to salty soil 5.Drought tolerance Human Health Benefits 1.Reduction of mycotoxin contamination 2.Lowered food costs potentially leading to more varied diets 3.Nutrient enhancement 4.Vaccine production

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How GM food/crop is produced?

GM crops are produced using laboratory techniques where genetic material from the cells of one species is transferred into another species to artificially create new li i i h i ifi i ll living organisms that would never naturally occur through breeding. Method-''Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. It involves majorly three mechanisms: 1. Conventional breeding (previously used) 2. Cisgenesis 3.Transgenesis

In conventional breeding multiple backcrosses must be performed, each taking at least several months, to create a new cultivar.

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In the process of cis genesis , genes are artificially transferred between organisms that could be conventionally bred. Cis genesis differs from conventional breeding because it can potentially create new varieties of crops more quickly and y cheaply and only selected beneficial genes are transferred and not other genes nearby on the chromosome.

Transgenesis is the process of

introducing an exogenous gene called a transgene into a living organism so that the organism will exhibit a new property and p p y transmit that property to its offspring. Transgenesis can be facilitated by liposomes, plasmid vectors, viral vectors, pronuclear injection, protoplast fusion, and ballistic DNA injection. Transgenic Transgenic organisms are able to express foreign genes because the genetic code is similar for all organisms. This means that a specific DNA sequence will code for the same protein in all organisms.

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GM organism produced when exogeneous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require transferring genes as part of an attenuated virus genome or physically inserting the foreign DNA into the nucleus of the intended host using a microsyringe, or as a coating on gold nanoparticles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, etc.

Specific examples of GM crops

The first commercially grown GM whole food crop was a tomato (called FlavrSavr), which was modified to ripen without softening.

GM tomatoes can remain fresh longer they can be allowed to ripen in the sun before picking - resulting in a better tasting tomato. GM tomatoes can tolerate a lengthier transport time. The producers also have the advantage that all the tomatoes can be harvested simultaneously. GM foods were first put on the market in the early 1990s.

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INSECT RESISTANCE
Insect resistance is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene for toxin production from bacterial strains such as bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT). This toxin is currently used as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is safe for human consumption. GM crops that permanently produce this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations, e.g. where pest pressure is high. Bt crops, such as Bt corn and Bt cotton have an inserted gene from the Bt bacteria which enables them to produce a poison which shall kill the dominant pests likeCorn borer, Cotton boll worm.

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Bt Brinjal
Bt brinjal is a GM brinjal, carrying an additional gene that provides an in-built insect protection against fruit and shoot borer (FSB). The development of Bt brinjal involves the introduction of the so-called cry1Ac gene from a ubiquitous soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), expressing insecticidal protein to confer resistance against FSB. The cry1Ac gene along with two other supporting genes namely nptII and aad genes are put together in such a way that they work in tandem to produce insecticidal protein that is toxic to the targeted insect.

Frost resistant tomato:

Scientists have created these plants by adding an antifreeze Gene from a coldwater fish to it. The antifreeze gene comes from the coldwater flounder, a fish that can survive in very cold conditions. This is how it was done. 1. The flounder has a gene to make an antifreeze chemical. This is removed from the chromosomes within a flounder cell cell. 2.The antifreeze DNA is joined onto a piece of DNA called a plasmid. 3.This hybrid DNA, which is a combination of DNA from 2 different sources, is known as recombinant DNA. 4.The recombinant DNA, including the antifreeze gene, is placed in a bacterium. The bacterium is allowed to reproduce many times producing lots of copies of th recombinant DNA. f the bi t DNA 5.Tomato plant cells are infected with the bacteria. As a result, the antifreeze gene in the plasmid, in the bacteria becomes integrated into the tomato plant cell DNA. 6.Tomato cells are placed in a growth medium that encourages the cells to grow into plants. 7.Tomato plant seedling is planted.

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Golden rice:
Golden rice is GM rice that now contains a large amount of vitaminsA, more precisely this GM rice contains the element betacarotene which converts into Vitamin-A inside the body. Beta carotene Beta-carotene gives carrots their orange colour and is the reason why genetically modified rice is golden. For the golden rice to make beta-carotene three new genes are implanted: two from daffodils and the third from a bacterium. Importance of Golden rice: People in various countries (mostly Asians) eat only an extremely p ( y ) y y limited diet lacking in the essential bodily vitamins causing death or blindness. The GM rice (Golden Rice) can be considered a particular advantage to poor people in underdeveloped countries.

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Disease resistance :There are many viruses, fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are working to create plants with geneticallyengineered resistance to these diseases.

Cold tolerance:C ld t l
Unexpected frost can destroy sensitive seedlings. An antifreeze gene from cold water fish has been introduced into plants such as tobacco and potato. With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to tolerate cold temperatures that normally would kill unmodified seedlings.

Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance

Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or high salt content in soil and groundwater will help people to grow crops in formerly inhospitable places.

Pharmaceuticals:
Medicines and vaccines often are costly to produce and sometimes require special storage conditions not readily available in third world countries. Researchers are working to develop edible vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes. These vaccines will be much easier to ship, store and administer than traditional inject able vaccines

Phytoremediation:
Not all GM plants are grown as crops. Soil and groundwater pollution continues t b a problem i all parts of th world. ll ti ti to be bl in ll t f the ld Plants such as poplar trees have been genetically engineered to clean up heavy metal pollution from contaminated soil.

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Future Prospects of GM crops

There will be a wide range of crops resistant to pests, diseases & herbicides. Food materials with improved keeping & processing qualities such as fruit much less susceptible to mould spoilage & reduced or eliminated natural toxicants (such as glycoalkaloids in potatoes ) or allergens ( such as allergenic proteins in nuts ). g p ) Better understanding of responses of crops to environmental stress & development of varieties that can grow in areas currently too inhospitable.

Production of high value drugs such as vaccines in high volume agricultural crops such as oilseed rape or livestock such as in milk of dairy cattle. Development of renewable & sustainable sources of few materials (such as plastics based on starch or vegetable oil) in designer agricultural crops such as oilseed rape, potato & maize. Despite the technical difficulty, substantial progress is p y, p g now being made with genetically modifying the compositional & processing characteristics. of food
crops

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Criticism towards GMO food

Most concerns about GM foods are as follows: Environmental hazards, Human health risks, Economic concerns, Legal concerns. 1. Environmental Hazards. (a) Unintended harm to other organisms: A study showed that pollen from B.t. corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterfly caterpillars. y y p Monarch caterpillars consume milkweed plants, not corn, but the fear is that if pollen from B.t. corn is blown by the wind onto milkweed plants in neighboring fields, the caterpillars could eat the pollen and perish.

(b) Reduced effectiveness of pesticides: Just as some populations of mosquitoes developed resistance to the now-banned pesticide DDT, it is a concerned that insects will become resistant to GM crops to produce their own pesticides. (c) Gene transfer to non-target species: Another concern is that crop plants engineered for herbicide tolerance and weeds will cross-breed, resulting in the transfer of the herbicide resistance genes from the crops into the weeds. These "superweeds" would then be herbicide tolerant as well.

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2. Human Health Risks

Allergenicity: Many children in the US and Europe have developed life-threatening allergies to peanuts and other foods. There is a possibility that introducing a gene into a plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals individuals. Extensive testing of GM foods may be required to avoid the possibility of harm to consumers with food allergies.

3. Economic concerns
Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly process, and of course agri-biotech companies wish to ensure a profitable return on their investment. Many new plant genetic engineering technologies and GM plants have been patented, and patent infringement is a big concern of agribusiness. Yet consumer advocates are worried that patenting these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high that small farmers and third world countries will not be able to afford seeds for GM crops.

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4. Legal Concerns
GM foods do not contain substantially increased levels of previously known toxic substances, new hazardous substances or different levels of substances, nutrients than traditional counterparts. It is crucial to address whether known or potentially new allergens have been transferred to the modified product. If so, then the product must be labeled as such. This labeling policy applies to all foods to avoid the possibility that they may unexpectedly contain allergenic potential.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ANIMALS

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Transgenic organisms , a subset of GMOs, are organisms which have inserted DNA that originated in a different species. Some Genetically modified Organisms:
Transgenic microbes: Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics. GM bacteria are used to produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes. Similar bacteria have been used to produce clotting factors to treat haemophilia. GM bacteria also produce human growth hormone to treat various forms of dwarfism

Transgenic animals:

Genetically Modified (Genetically Engineered) animals are becoming more vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. By altering the DNA or transferring DNA to an animal, we can develop certain proteins that may be used in medical treatment. Stable expressions of human proteins have been developed in many animals, including sheep, pigs, and rats. Some chimeras, like the blotched mouse, are created through genetic modification techniques like gene targeting. Transgenic animals are used as experimental models perform phenotyping and for testing in biomedical research. to

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Glofish: The GloFish is a patented brand of GM fluorescent zebra fish with bright red, green and orange fluorescent color. A gene called green fluorescent protein (GFP), originally extracted from a jellyfish, that naturally produced bright green bioluminescence, inserted into a zebra fish embryo, allowing it to integrate into the zebra fish s genome, fishs genome which caused the fish to be brightly fluorescent under both natural white light and UV light. Vacanti mouse The Vacanti mouse was a laboratory mouse that looked like a human ear grown on its back. The ear was actually an ear-shaped cartilage structure grown by seeding cow cartilage cells into a biodegradable earshaped mold.
Glofish Vacanti mouse

Sudden-Death Mosquito Oxitec which is a British bio-tech company, has created GM mosquitoes, which are programmed for sudden, early death. It involves irradiating male insects, causing mutations that make them sterile. When released into the wild, they mate with females passing on lethal genes which either kills the female or at least kills the youngs in her so then she fails to reproduce. See through frog See-through frog does not require dissection to see its organs, blood vessels, and eggs. Enviro pig (phytase transgenic pig) A genetically engineered pig approved for limited production which p produces 65 percent less phosphorous in animal waste thus very p p p y environmental friendly.

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Fruit flies:
In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development (Developmental research) Fruit fli are often preferred over other animals d to their short i flies f f d h i l due h i h life cycle, low maintenance requirements, and relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates.

Cnidarians:
Cnidarians have become attractive model organisms to study the th evolution of i l ti f immunity and certain developmental processes. it d t i d l t l

Future Prospective of GM animals

Blood replacement- Functional human haemoglobin production is in process in transgenic swine.

Farm animals, such as pigs, sheep or even cattle may be appropriate models for potential therapies for human diseases which require long observation periods such as atherosclerosis, non-insulin dependant diabetes, cystic fibrosis, cancer and neuro-degenerative disorders.

The pig could be a useful model for studying defects of growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH),which are implicated in variety of conditions such as Turner syndrome & renal insufficiency.

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Conclusion
GM foods have the potential to solve many of the world's hunger and malnutrition problems. GM foods may help to protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides and herbicides. Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation, international policy and food labelling. Thus we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential benefits. However, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthusiasm for this powerful technology.

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