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Sedimentary Geology 203 (2008) 229 245 www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

A highstand shelf-margin delta system from the Eocene of West Spitsbergen, Norway
Carlos A. Uroza , Ronald J. Steel
Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C-1100, Austin, TX 78712, USA Received 26 March 2007; received in revised form 19 November 2007; accepted 7 December 2007

Abstract Demonstration of shelf-margin accretion by shelf-edge deltas during rising and highstand of relative sea level has important consequences for deepwater sand depositional models. Although highstand shelf-edge deltas are conceptually feasible and have been recently argued from subsurface data, we describe here the first outcrop example, thus providing facies and architectural data on this important category of delta. Deltas are able to reach the shelf-edge during rising sea level, if one or more of the key conditions of sediment supply, shelf width/gradient, or basinal processes are such as to allow complete cross-shelf progradation before the onset of delta auto-retreat. Such highstand deltas promote the retention of high volumes of sand on the aggrading shelf and coastal plain, and thus potentially have a reduced sand budget available for delivery to the deeper water areas. Clinoform 17, one of a series of eastward-prograding, shelf-margin clinoforms from the Eocene Battfjellet Formation on West Spitsbergen, contains a sand-rich delta complex sited near the clinoform shelf-slope rollover, and is argued to be a highstand (rising relative sea level) shelf-margin delta based on: (1) its highly aggradational architecture shown by an unusual (compared to other clinoforms) regressive unit thickness and its marked stacking of parasequences, (2) coeval accumulation of delta-plain and lagoonal deposits that are well-preserved in the landward reaches of the same clinoform, and (3) its context within a mappable, longer-term rising shelf-edge trajectory (through 5 clinoforms). It is likely that the delta reached its shelf-edge location because the shelf was narrow (less than 20 km), and not because of high sediment supply or relative sea-level fall. The delta system was markedly wave-dominated as might be predicted at a shelf-edge site. The sand-rich, shelf-edge portion of Clinoform 17 consists of (1) a 3035 m thick regressive deltaic unit with offshore mudstones and thin tempestite layers, wave-dominated delta-front sandstones, and tidalfluvial-distributary channels on the delta topsets, (2) an overlying 1523 m thick, aggrading-to-transgressive shoreface/barrier unit with associated tidal-inlet/estuarine channel-fill deposits, and (3) an uppermost, b 20 m thick regressive deltaic unit similar to (1). The slope successions of the units described in (1) and (3), beyond and below the shelf-edge, contain thin upper-slope tempestite sheet sandstones, within an otherwise shale-dominated environment. Neither sandy slope channels nor basin-floor fans are observed within the otherwise shale-prone deepwater segments of the clinoform. 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Highstand shelf-margin delta; Rising shelf-edge trajectory; Auto-retreat; Rising relative sea level

1. Introduction Shelf-edge deltas developed during conditions of relative sea-level fall are well-known from the Pleistocene shelf-margin in the Gulf of Mexico (Suter and Berryhill, 1985; Sydow and Roberts, 1994; Morton and Suter, 1996; Roberts et al., 2000), the Eocene of West Spitsbergen (Mellere et al., 2002; Plink Corresponding author. E-mail address: curoza@mail.utexas.edu (C.A. Uroza). 0037-0738/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.12.003

Bjrklund and Steel, 2005), the Porcupine Basin offshore Ireland (Johannessen and Steel, 2005), and the PlioPleistocene Orinoco delta in Trinidad (Sydow et al., 2003) among others. Shelf-edge deltas are conventionally associated with low sea level because falling sea level is known to be an efficient driver for bringing shorelines entirely across the shelf (Muto and Steel, 2002). However, deltas that crossed the shelf to the shelf-edge area during rising relative sea level (highstand conditions) have not been architecturally documented though these have been conceptually postulated by Burgess and Hovius (1998), imaged

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on seismic data by Bullimore et al. (2005), and described from subsurface data by Carvajal and Steel (2006). The two conditions that would most likely promote highstand deltas at or near the shelf-edge are: (1) high and continuous sediment flux from supply-dominated deltas (e.g., Einsele, 1996; Burgess and Hovius, 1998), and (2) narrow shelves (Fleming, 1981; Ito and Masuda, 1988). A narrow shelf causes shelf-transit time to be brief and would allow the delta to reach the shelf-edge before auto-retreat is enacted (Muto and Steel, 1997, 2002). Narrow shelf settings would clearly sustain shelf-edge deltas irrespective of whether sea level was falling or rising. Deltas that are supply-dominated, and driven to the shelf-edge by high sediment flux (rather than by negative accommodation) are able to transit even moderately wide shelves under conditions of rising relative sea level. Such supply-dominated deltas not only accrete

at the shelf-margin, but also have the potential to deliver large volumes of sand to the deepwater slope and basin-floor areas as occurs in the Maastrichtian Fox HillsLewis system, SE Wyoming (Carvajal and Steel, 2006). It should also be noted that this high-supply condition is likely to have an additional effect. Even where the shelf-margin prism is wide (and therefore potential transit distance for deltas is great) the transgressive transit may take the retreating deltas only a short distance back across the shelf, i.e., the deltas remain on the outer-shelf platform site throughout a series of cycles (Burgess and Hovius, 1998; Burgess and Steel, in press). This situation is in contrast to settings where sea level plays a larger role, i.e., where accommodationdrive forces deltas to transgress back across much of the shelf platform during each half-cycle. We illustrate here a case where deltas reach a shelf-edge position during rising and highstand sea-

Fig. 1. (A) The Central Tertiary Basin and the West Spitsbergen Orogenic Belt (modified from Blythe and Kleinspehn, 1998). (B) The Van Mijenfjorden Group, showing the Lower Eocene Battfjellet Formation (modified from Steel et al., 1985). (C) Location of the study area in Van Keulenfjorden, showing the location of the mountains Storvola and Hyrnestabben, and the 17 measured profiles from both mountains. See also the approximate shelf-break location for Clinoform 17.

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Fig. 2. General view of the 3 component units 17A, 17B and 17C within Clinoform 17 at Profile 13 location. The clinoform topset succession here is about 80 m thick. Note the two upward-coarsening parasequences in 17A, and the significant thickness (shoreface and barrier/tidal-inlet succession) of unit 17B.

level conditions, not because of high supply (calculation of shelfmargin accretion/aggradation rates show that the supply was relatively low), but because shelf width was less than 20 km. However, despite the deltas being perched at the shelf-edge there was little sand delivered down into the deepwater areas beyond, to judge from the absence of slope channels or basin-floor fans. The deltas simply aggraded at the shelf-margin. The Eocene Battfjellet Formation in West Spitsbergen, Norway (Fig. 1) provides good examples of deltas that prograded to the shelf-edge during both falling and rising sea-level conditions. The Battfjellet Formation succession is composed of about 20 sand-prone, eastwards prograding, shelf-margin clinoforms (Steel and Olsen, 2002) each deposited during a time

interval of a few 100 ky (4th-order sequences) (Steel and Olsen, 2002; Petter and Steel, 2006). In this study we selected Clinoform 17, which is located towards the top of the Battfjellet Formation. This clinoform is markedly aggradational along its topset (Fig. 2), shows landward-interfingering with delta-plain and lagoonal deposits and lacks deep channelized erosion, characteristics typical of shoreline successions that accumulate during relative rise of base level, i.e., with normal regression (Helland-Hansen and Martinsen, 1996). This aggradational growth style contrasts greatly with what is observed in some other clinoforms of the Battfjellet succession (Fig. 3), where there are much thinner and more amalgamated progradational units into which there are multiple fluvial incisions, suggesting much flatter shoreline

Fig. 3. Schematic shelf-edge trajectories for 4th-order Clinoforms 1417 (Battfjellet Formation). Figure is not to scale and is vertically exaggerated (slope angle: 34). Note the initial flat trajectories for Clinoforms 14 and 15 (implying stable to falling relative sea level) prior to rise and transgression. For Clinoforms 16 and 17, the trajectory is generally continuously rising, implying a lack of sea-level fall. Sketch shows partitioning onto the shelf, slope and basin floor. Shelf-edge deltas develop on the shelf segment of the clinoforms; slope channels and basin-floor fans are developed in the early stage of Clinoforms 14 and possibly 15. Clinoform # 14 is an example of type 1; # 15 could be either type 1 or 2; and # 16 and 17 are examples of type 3. A type 4 clinoform is not present in this succession.

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trajectories or even falling relative sea level (e.g., Mellere et al., 2003). The aggradational style of clinoform 17 implies that much of the sediment budget is likely to have been trapped within the coeval coastal plain and shelf segments of the clinoform, with correspondingly less potential to deliver sand to the deepwater slope and basin floor (Fig. 3). The purpose of this paper is to characterize Clinoform 17 in terms of its facies associations, external geometry, internal architecture and sequence stratigraphy. We will evaluate the role of waves, tides, and river currents in molding the component sand-bodies and will argue that the entire clinoform developed under rising relative sea level. 2. Geological setting 2.1. Structure and stratigraphy Spitsbergen is the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago, located to the north of mainland Norway (Fig. 1) and in the northwest corner of the Barents shelf (Kellogg, 1975). Early Eocene transpression, as N Greenland slid northwards past the Barents shelf, during the opening of the NorwegianGreenland Sea, formed the West Spitsbergen Orogenic Belt (Harland, 1969; Steel and Worsley, 1984) with areas of basement uplift, folding and thrusting along a NNWSSE trending fold- and thrust belt (Fig. 1A). Regional flexural subsidence produced by loading of thrust sheets along the orogenic belt formed the Central Tertiary Basin (Steel et al., 1985; Braathen et al., 1999). During initial periods of active thrusting, the subsiding area was a foreland basin, but through continued thrusting it may have taken on the character of a piggy-back basin in the study area (Blythe and Kleinspehn, 1998). Infilling of this basin occurred with moderate subsidence rates (Schellpeper, 2000), with sediments supplied mainly transversely from the growing orogenic belt to the west (Helland-Hansen, 1990). The basin filled by the development and growth of large-scale clinoforms (200400 m high) representing a linked coastal plain/shelf/slope/deepwater basinfloor system that systematically migrated eastwards in the Early Eocene (Helland-Hansen, 1992; Steel and Olsen, 2002). The sedimentary succession, latest Paleocene through Early Eocene in age (Manum and Throndsen, 1986), is about 1.5 km in thickness and has a lithostratigraphy consisting of the Frysjaodden (deepwater slope and basin floor), Battfjellet (shoreline and shelf) and Aspelintoppen (coastal plain and estuarine) Formations (Fig. 1B). 2.2. Battfjellet formation clinoforms The basin transect transverse to the fold-and-thrust belt along Van Keulenfjorden (Fig. 1) contains some 20 shelf-margin clinoforms, which have previously been classified into four types depending on: (1) the progradational trajectory at the shelfbreak, (2) the degree of fluvial channel incision at the shelf-edge, and (3) the presence or absence of thick sand at this outermost part of the shelf (see Steel et al., 2000). Type 1 clinoforms show a flat-to-downward shelf-break trajectory with marked fluvial erosion and often collapse features, resulting in sand by-pass and partitioning into the slope and basin floor (e.g. Crabaugh and

Steel, 2004; Petter and Steel, 2006). Type 2 clinoforms have a flat or low-angle rising trajectory but lack large channels or deep erosion at the shelf-edge and deposit shelf-attached turbidite aprons on the slope, without the development of basin-floor fans (e.g. Plink-Bjrklund et al., 2001; Mellere et al., 2002). Clinoform 17, presented here, is an example of Type 3 clinoforms where there was significant cross-shelf sand transport, but a generally rising shelf-edge trajectory and consequent aggradational style of the clinoform topsets resulted in only modest to negligible volumes of sand being delivered onto the slope or basin floor (see also Deibert et al., 2003). On the outer shelf, the deltas were substantially reworked by waves, and much sand was carried alongshore, because of exposure to open ocean swell and storm waves. Type 4 clinoforms are entirely muddy on the outer shelf and deepwater reaches because the deltas did not reach even the outer-shelf areas of the system. Clinoform Types 1 and 2 are relatively thin (2050 m) along their topset reaches, and generally show evidence of stable to falling relative sea level during development. Type 3 clinoforms, described herein, have thicker (N80 m un-decompacted) and more aggradational (significant marine mudstone interfingering) topsets, show a more marked parasequence stacking, lack deep fluvial incisions, and so are interpreted to have developed with continuously rising relative sea level (Fig. 3). Clinoform 17 has an intermittently exposed length of about 15 km from Brogniartfjellet to its distal reaches on Hyrnestabben, and a thickness of about 80 to 100 m (un-decompacted) in the Storvola and Hyrnestabben areas, respectively. Internally, Clinoform 17 has three distinctive units (Fig. 2), two of them (17A and 17C) showing regression with aggradation, whereas the middle one (17B) is initially progradational but becomes highly aggradational to slightly backstepping. 3. Methodology The study transect of Clinoform 17 (Fig. 1) is oriented within 20 of a true depositional-dip section. Fieldwork consisted of: (1) measuring 18 vertical sedimentary profiles (see Fig. 1C for location of profiles 117) at progressively downdip locations along 3 mountainsides (Brogniartfjellet, Storvola and Hyrnestabben), located in the Van Keulenfjorden area of West Spitsbergen, (2) outcrop photographing from both the ground and helicopter to delineate the general sand-body geometry, and to aid in the characterization of the deltas and other related facies, and (3) gamma-ray profiles through part of the succession in three locations in order to compare the gammaray response with most of the facies associations. The external geometry and internal architecture of Clinoform 17 were documented using helicopter photomosaics and a constructed correlation panel of measured profiles. This panel was hung from a transgressive mudstone level lying above and parallel to the shelf platform of Clinoform 17. 4. Early Eocene shelf-margin accretion in Van Keulenfjorden The Spitsbergen shelf-margin (along the exposed transect) shows a relatively low accretion rate into the basin. The shelf-

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break prograded at a rate of about 5 km/my and aggraded at a rate of 192 m/my, together suggesting relatively low sediment-supply conditions compared to other margins of similar clinoform amplitude (Carvajal and Steel, 2006; Steel et al., in press). This low apparent rate of sediment supply strongly suggests that the Spitsbergen deltaic delivery systems would have required the aid of negative accommodation (sea-level fall) in order to partition significant sand volumes out beyond the shelf-edge into the deepwater slope and basin floor. However, for Clinoform 17, there appear to be no coeval deepwater sands, and rather than sealevel fall, there is evidence of continuous sea-level rise. It is most likely that it was mainly the narrowness of the shelf that allowed the deltas to reach the shelf-edge. For both Clinoform 17 and the underlying Clinoform 16, the deepwater slope was markedly mud-prone, with only very thin tempestite beds seen on the distal mountainside of Hyrnestabben. 5. Facies associations The three units of Clinoform 17 show some common features in terms of facies associations. The lower and upper units (17A and 17C) pass upwards from offshore mudstones at the base, to a wave-dominated delta front, which is then truncated by tidally-and-fluvially-influenced distributary channels towards the top of the succession. However, unit 17B consists of muddy lagoonal facies in its basal and landward reaches, followed by a thin transgressive mudstone and overlying shoreface facies that are truncated by tidal-inlet deposits with an offshore mudstone capping. These deposits are fronted by a vertically-aggrading barrier island succession. Facies associations are organized here in two groups: units 17A

and C, and unit 17B. Each group is in some manner described from shallower to deeper paleowater depth. 5.1. Facies associations for units 17A and C 5.1.1. Tidally-influenced fluvial-distributary channels This association overlies (typically erosionally) the upwardcoarsening deposits of units 17A and 17C (described below in Section 5.1.2), and shows a general fining-upwards of grain size (Figs. 4 and 5). The association in unit 17A consists mainly of fine- to medium-grained cross-stratified sandstones that have planar and trough cross-strata with westward orientation, though south to southeastward-oriented cross-strata are also found (see Fig. 4). Towards West Storvola, the sandstones are medium- to fine-grained with mainly eastward-oriented planar and trough cross-strata (but also some south to southeastoriented cross-stratification), lack marine indicators, and show erosional surfaces with coal debris and mud pebbles within the cross-stratified beds (Fig. 5). In unit 17C, there is an abundance of eastward-oriented cross-stratification, structureless beds, convolute bedding, multiple internal erosional surfaces with coal debris and mud pebbles, and current-ripple laminae atop the individual sets of cross-strata. The erosional bases and general fining-upward tendency of the individual sandstone bodies high in units 17A and C, with abundant cross-strata, and association with underlying delta-front facies (see Section 5.1.2 below), suggest distributary channels (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991; Coleman et al., 1964). At some locations, especially towards the east of Storvola, an abundance of westwardoriented paleocurrents in the distributary channels, and the presence of subordinate southeastward-oriented cross-strata, suggest that

Fig. 4. Tidally-influenced distributary channel deposits from unit 17A, Profile 16 (Fig. 1), East Storvola. (A) Cross-stratified sandstone at the base of a tidallyinfluenced channel fill (35 cm stick as scale). (B) Tidally-influenced channel eroding the flat to swaley cross-stratified delta-front deposits. (C) Medium-grained sandstone with landward-oriented cross-strata sets (flood-tide generated dunes) and smaller-subordinated ebb-oriented cross-strata on top (section in C is 90 cm thick. (D) Cross-stratification (bidirectional) located few meters laterally of photo C (section in D is 80 cm thick).

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Fig. 5. Fluvial-distributary channel facies without obvious tidal influence, unit 17A, Profile 1, West Storvola. (A) Mudstone pebbles and coal debris at the base of trough cross-stratified sets (20 cm stick as scale). (B) Erosional contact (highlighted by yellow line) between fluvial-distributary channel and delta-front facies (50 cm stick as scale).

there was some tidal influence in the channels (Dalrymple and Choi, 2007). Towards the westward (landward) end of the system, the distributary channels contain abundant eastward-oriented trough and planar cross-strata, created by the downdip migration of 3D and 2D dunes (Miall, 1978). Here, we also use the consistent seawards orientation of paleocurrent data (see Fig. 5) as a signal of the fluvial influence (see also Selley, 1968; Long, 1978). The gamma-ray curves in Figs. 4 and 5 show a blocky character for both channel types, which is typical of such deposits. 5.1.2. Wave-dominated delta-front deposits This association, identified in units 17A and 17C, is characterized by upward-coarsening and thickening successions (up to 57 m thick) containing a high sand/mud ratio, which are capped by thick-sand channelized units (see earlier Section 5.1.1). The association overlies transitionally the deposits of the muddy association described below in Section 5.1.3. The sandstones are mostly well-sorted and fine-grained, but range from very-fine to lower medium-grained. They show a predominance of flat lamination, swaley cross-stratification (2080 cm sets that can be followed 10 s of m laterally), and wave-ripple lamination (Figs. 6 and 7), though hummocky cross-strata, current-ripple lamination, scattered Ophiomorpha burrows and soft-sediment deformation structures (load casts, pillows and water escapes structures) (Figs. 6 and 7) are also common. Locally, mud pebbles are found within the hummocky and swaley cross-stratified facies (Fig. 6). Sets of planar and trough cross-stratification, associated with sets of wave-ripple laminae, are also found especially towards the top of the individual coarsening-upward sand packages. It is also common to find abundant plant and other organic material within the

finer-grained beds. Gamma-ray response (Fig. 6) shows a decreasing-up pattern for this association. The upward-coarsening successions of 17A and C are interpreted as delta-front deposits, with the corresponding prodelta deposits immediately below, because of their channelized capping (see Fig. 6 and Section 5.1.1 above), the vertical grain size trend, the vertical thickness of the whole section (up to 25 m thick) including the prodelta below (see Section 5.1.3), and the presence of abundant plant and other organic matter in the finer-grained beds. The occurrence of hummocky and swaley cross-stratification indicates the strong influence of storm waves on the delta front (Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Leckie and Walker, 1982; Walker et al., 1983; Swift et al., 1983; Walker and Plint, 1992). The presence of load-cast, pillows and water escapes structures associated with the swaley and hummocky cross-stratified beds may possibly result from the cyclic effect of storm waves on unconsolidated sediments (see Molina et al., 1998; Alfaro et al., 2002). Also, the occurrence of mud pebbles within the hummocky and swaley-stratified facies may correspond to lag deposits (Kreisa, 1981) created by storms. Intervals of wave-ripple laminae are a common feature in the upper part of the individual storm-beds, and may indicate fair-weather wave reworking. The intervals up to mediumgrained sandstone with sets of planar and trough cross-strata (also capped by wave-ripple lamination) may indicate more proximal mouth-bar facies on the delta front. 5.1.3. Prodelta to offshore mudstones with occasional thinbedded sandstones These are abundant at the bottom of unit 17A and also present at the base of unit 17C (Hyrnestabben location). This

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Fig. 6. Upward-coarsening, wave-dominated delta-front facies (including base of distributary channel on top of delta front); Profile 1, West Storvola (Fig. 1) (vertical scale in meters). (A) Stacked swaley cross-stratified sandstone sets. (B) An 80 cm thick section of swales alternating with wave-ripple lamination. (C) Soft-sediment deformation at the bottom of the delta front (50 cm meter stick as scale).

association is up to 18 m thick and composed mainly of gray mudstones, but also contains some thin beds of very-fine to fine sandstone, in beds and bedsets up to 1 m thick. These thin beds (usually b40 cm) are ripple-laminated or flat-laminated, or show alternating rippled (mostly current-ripples, but also wave ripples in some parts) and flat-laminated intervals. Bioturbation

is mostly represented by Phycosiphon and some Planolites traces. Because of its stratigraphic position, fine grain size and marine-like bioturbation, the association is interpreted as offshore/prodelta to shelf deposits, with thin turbidite-like beds (flatto-ripple-laminated beds) that are probably tempestites because

Fig. 7. Common sedimentary structures in the delta front: (A) soft-sediment deformation (load casts and water escape structures) at base of the sandy delta-front succession of unit 17A, Profile 15, Storvola (meter stick as scale). (B), (C) and (D) Symmetrical wave ripples from Profiles 6, 10, and 17 respectively. 20 cm stick as scale in D.

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of their wave-rippled capping (see also Myrow and Southard, 1991, 1996) and their updip association with wave-dominated shoreline deposits. Reineck and Singh (1972) described similar laminated sand beds within shelf mudstones from the modern North Sea and interpreted them as storm deposits. 5.1.4. Upper-slope turbidite-like beds (tempestites) These are found on the mountainside of Hyrnestabben mostly at the bottom of unit 17A, and they occupy an upperslope setting on the clinoform, just basinwards of the shelf-slope break. Updip, they are also associated with the delta front described in Section 5.1.2. These beds are composed of sharpbased, thin sets of flat- to ripple-laminated, fine to very-fine sandstone, interbedded with mudstones. It is common to find Phycosiphon trace fossils within the muddy beds (A. Uchmann, 2004, personal communication). Because of their slope setting and association with an updip delta front that is storm-wave dominated, these beds are likely to be storm-wave generated from the shelf-edge area and driven out onto the upper slope as tempestites during storms (see also Myrow and Southard, 1991, 1996). 5.2. Facies associations for unit 17B 5.2.1. Fluvial crevasse channels and splays (within coastal plain deposits) This association is preserved on west Storvola (see panel in Fig. 12) and on Brogniartfjellet (west of Storvola). It comprises relatively thin (11.5 m thick), channelized successions of finegrained sandstone with sets of trough cross-strata and current-

ripple lamination towards their top (Fig. 8). Structureless sandstone is common and soft-sediment deformation is also present. These channelized units are frequently capped by coal layers. Within this association, there are also thin sheet-like packages of fine to very-fine sandstone with current-ripples and wavy bedding. The abundant coal layers capping the channels, suggests deposition within the coastal plain and rapid abandonment to areas of vegetation (see Guion, 1984; Fielding, 1985). This, in turn, strongly suggests that these thin channelized successions do not reflect distributary channels but are ephemeral crevasse channels, with their associated crevasse splays (sheet-like sandbodies), that occasionally broke out from the distributaries during floods (Elliott, 1974; Fielding, 1984). The sandstone bodies of this association are similar in character to those described by Plink-Bjrklund (2005) for the coastal plain of the Aspelintoppen Formation on Brogniartfjellet and Storvola. 5.2.2. Lagoonal deposits (brackish-water mudstones) This association is composed of mudstone deposits, which are rich in carbonaceous matter (thin coal layers, plant and coal fragments), and is mainly located westwards of the tidal-inletchannel deposits of unit 17B (see panel in Fig. 12). Towards the west of Storvola, they are also interbedded with the fluvial crevasse channel and crevasse-splay deposits, described above in Section 5.2.1. We interpret these deposits as brackish-water lagoonal mudstones because of their abundant organic content (Reading and Collinson, 1996) and the absence of marine fauna (D. Van Nieuwenhuise, 2007, personal communication). They also

Fig. 8. Fluvial channel and crevasse-splay deposits from unit 17B, Profile 2, West Storvola. (A) Trough cross-stratified sandstone at base of channel (85 cm stick as scale). (B) Rippled sandstone probably associated with crevasse-splay deposits. 17 cm stick as scale (lower right of photo).

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occupy a position behind the tidal-inlet-barrier complex of unit 17B (see Fig. 12). 5.2.3. Tidal-inlet deposits This association is erosionally based, dominates unit 17B in places and is up to 15 m thick. It is composed of clean, well-tomoderate sorted, fine to coarse-grained sandstone, with crosssets that have characteristic and persistent northwestwarddirected paleocurrents (Fig. 9). Individual cross-sets are up to 1.5 m. thick, and some are capped by wave-ripple lamination. This association is generally in erosional contact with the underlying shoreface and barrier bar deposits (Figs. 9 and 12). The gamma-ray response of this association is blocky in character, with a slight increasing-upward trend towards the top of the succession (see Fig. 9). These deposits are interpreted as inlet-channel infill (Hoyt and Henry, 1967; Kumar and Sanders, 1974; Moslow and Tye, 1985) because of their location between lagoonal and barrier deposits, their marked and deep channelized erosion and persistent flood-tidal paleocurrents (northwestward-oriented), great thickness, and their incision into the wave-generated shoreface and barrier deposits. 5.2.4. Shoreface This association, particularly found at the bottom of unit 17B, is up to 9 m thick, and contains some coarsening-upward

packages (up to 35 m thick). Plane parallel-laminated finegrained sandstones with wave-ripple capping, and hummocky/ swaley cross-stratified sandstone sets, also capped by waveripple lamination, dominate the association (Fig. 10). Bioturbation is common, with mainly Ophiomorpha burrows (Fig. 10B) and soft-sediment deformation (mainly load casts) is also prominent. Some planar and trough cross-strata, wavy lamination, and current-ripple lamination, also occur. Gamma-ray response, for this association, shows a decreasing upward pattern (Fig. 10). We interpret this facies association as shoreface deposits, based on the following: (1) it is a coarsening-upward facies succession (above marine mudstones) that was deposited during coastal progradation (sensu Walker and Plint, 1992), (2) occasionally there are sharp-based sandstone beds with hummocky cross-strata and wave-ripple lamination, which correspond to storm-beds (see also Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Walker et al., 1983), (3) there is an absence of a fluvial feeder landwards of the association (see Fig. 12), (4) this wave-dominated succession did not prograde as far as the earlier deltaic system. 5.2.5. Sandy barrier complex This association occurs within unit 17B and it is represented by an upward-coarsening succession (up to 13 m thick) (Fig. 11) with similar facies to those described above in Section 5.2.4. Sandstone is mostly fine-grained, well-sorted, with mainly

Fig. 9. Tidal-inlet-channel facies from unit 17B, Profile 9, Mid Storvola. (A) Channel eroding into the shoreface facies (40 cm stick at lower portion of photo). (B) and (C) Tabular cross-bedding oriented landwards (45 cm stick as scale in B, and 30 cm in C).

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Fig. 10. Shoreface facies from unit 17B (regressive component), Profile 9, Storvola. (A) Shoreface facies truncated by tidal-inlet channel (see truncation T highlighted by red line). Outcrop section in A is about 2.2 m. (B) Flat-laminated sandstone with Ophiomorpha burrows (see black pen as scale).

swaley cross-stratified and plane parallel-laminated sets, though hummocky cross-strata sets are also common. Individual bedsets are 1040 cm thick and commonly capped by waveripple lamination (Fig. 11). Sets of swaley cross-strata within this association reach a few m in wavelength. Ophiomorpha

burrows are common, and minor low-angle cross-bedded sandstones are also found within the succession. All the features described above are indicative of a wavedominated shoreface setting (Walker and Plint, 1992). However, the position of this association near the shelf-slope break (see

Fig. 11. Barrier-bar facies from the seaward end of unit 17B, Profile 16, East Storvola. (A) Swaley cross-stratification (50 cm stick as scale). (B) Plane-parallel and wave-ripple lamination in alternation within sandstones. (C) Close-up of middle portion of A showing SCS (30 cm stick as scale). (D) Swaley cross-stratified sandstone capped by wave-ripple laminated sandstone. Walking stick scale in B and D: 70 cm.

C.A. Uroza, R.J. Steel / Sedimentary Geology 203 (2008) 229245 Fig. 12. Correlation Panel and helicopter photomosaics for Clinoform 17, Battfjellet Formation, West Spitsbergen. The whole clinoform is interpreted to have developed during overall rising sea level. Photos A and B are located towards the eastern and western ends of Storvola respectively. 239

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Fig. 12) and its thickened aggradational character (Fig. 11) suggest that this association is a barrier complex (McCubbin, 1981; Reinson, 1992; Friis et al., 1998) related to the initiation of transgression in the system. This barrier complex is mostly developed on eastern Storvola and pinches out into mudstones between Storvola and Hyrnestabben (see correlation panel in Fig. 12). 6. Clinoform 17: geometry, architecture, and formative processes 6.1. Geometry and architecture The geometric configuration of Clinoform 17 as a whole, as well as of the component sand-bodies of this deltaic and barrier lagoon succession, is illustrated in Fig. 12. The clinoform is mainly seen in a 2-D, near-downdip section. Similarly to the stratigraphic configuration of the underlying clinoforms (numbers 1216) on Storvola, a shelf-slope break is preserved in Clinoform 17. This slope break must occur between the two mountains, because Storvola contains the shelf-edge deltas,

whereas on Hyrnestabben the same clinoform mostly shows muddy slope deposits with thin tempestite sands (Fig. 12). Fig. 12 clearly illustrates the general rising character of the shoreline trajectory within the progradational trend of the Clinoform 17 shoreline system (yellow and light red colors), and the coeval, parallel rising belts of coastal plain/lagoonal (green colors) and offshore (blue) deposits. In addition to these topset components of the clinoform, the shale-prone, upper-slope component of the shelf-margin can also be seen at the right-hand end of the correlation panel on the mountain Hyrnestabben. Complicating this overall stratigraphy in Fig. 12, the three main phases of shoreline development are evident, namely an early regressive phase (17A), a middle aggradational to slightly transgressive phase (17B), and a late regressive phase (17C). Phases 17A and C are thick wavedominated delta successions with well-preserved feeder distributary channels emphasizing the normal character of shoreline progradation. Phase 17B represents an intervening interval of initial coastline progradation with aggradation and then slight transgression, during which an inlet-channel and barrier/lagoon coast developed. This temporary aggradation/

Fig. 13. Schematic summary of the depositional history of Clinoform 17, including the depositional setting for the three component units. The whole deltaic system is interpreted to have been deposited under highstand conditions. Figure is vertically exaggerated. Slope angle: 34.

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transgression in 17B further emphasizes the overall aggradational character of Clinoform 17. Clinoform 17 resembles the geometry of other documented clinoform successions that developed associated with a rising shelf-edge trajectory. For example, Bullimore et al. (2005) documented seismic-scale clinoforms with high-angle positive shelf-edge trajectory in the Norwegian Sea Molo Formation. Here, they attributed this condition to normal regression in which coastal plain units were deposited and preserved in the topset segment of the clinoforms (see Bullimore et al., 2005, Figs. 6 and 8). 6.2. Variability of depositional processes on the clinoform Clinoform 17 shows evidence of an interplay of fluvial, wave, tidal, and storm ebb-surge processes, though the wave domination on the open coast is clear throughout the record of the overall regressive-aggradational shelf transit of the deltaic system. Wave-domination is evidenced both on the delta-front deposits of units 17A (Figs. 6 and 7) and 17C, and the shoreface (Fig. 10) and barrier facies (Fig. 11) of unit 17B. Storm ebbsurge processes (Mount, 1982; Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Cheel, 1991) acted at different times during the regressive transit of the delta system, and they were responsible for the deposition of the thin tempestite sand beds within the mudprone prodelta to offshore and upper-slope environments, and probably the hummocky cross-stratified beds. Strong tidal influence, on the other hand, is seen especially well in the

aggradational to transgressive deposits of unit 17B (Fig. 9), and in the distributary channels of units 17A (Fig. 4) and 17C. Fluvial influence is implicit at all times during the coastal regression and is especially implied by the system reaching the shelf-break area despite the overall aggradational tendency. The fluvially-influenced portion of the distributary channels is wellpreserved in 17A (Fig. 5) and 17C. 7. Discussion 7.1. Clinoform 17: a highstand shelf-edge delta system The characteristics of Clinoform 17 described above show clearly that: It is a sand-rich delta system. The delta system was sited on the shelf-margin, near the shelf-slope break of the clinoform (Figs. 12, 13 and 14). The markedly aggradational character of the delta complex during progradation strongly suggests that relative sea level was rising during its development (see also Helland-Hansen and Gjelberg, 1994; Bullimore et al., 2005). There is no evidence of forced regression (sensu Posamentier et al., 1992) or relative sealevel fall. The partly aggradational/transgressive middle interval (unit 17B) in Clinoform 17 further reinforces its overall aggradational character (Figs. 12 and 13). Despite its shelf-slope break site, the deltas were apparently able to deliver only modest volumes of sand out onto the

Fig. 14. The conventional lowstand model (A) vs. the highstand model (B) proposed here for clinoform growth, Battfjellet Formation, West Spitsbergen.

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adjacent deepwater slope, and there was no visible development of turbidite slope channels, or basin-floor fans (see also Deibert et al., 2003) despite relatively good exposure on adjacent mountains. These features together strongly suggest that Clinoform 17 represents a highstand (rising relative sea level) shelf-edge delta system that crossed a relatively narrow shelf (Fig. 13). The occurrence of highstand shelf-edge deltas is somewhat unusual in the literature because falling relative sea level is commonly invoked to account for deltas at the shelf-edge, giving rise to lowstand shelf-edge deltas (Muto and Steel, 2002; Porbski and Steel, 2003) (Fig. 14). Clinoform 17 can therefore be used to test some literature concepts concerning highstand deltas at the shelf-edge. 7.2. Clinoform 17: an outcrop test of highstand shelf-edge deltas 7.2.1. Occurrence of shelf-edge deltas during highstand Although no previous highstand shelf-edge deltas have been described from outcrops, there have been a number of suggestions as to the conceptual feasibility of highstand deltas reaching the shelf-edge. Initial suggestions were made by Burgess and Hovius (1998), especially for short shelf-transit distances. Such occurrences were disputed by Muto and Steel (2001), who emphasized the auto-retreat tendencies of deltas during rising sea level, especially during long shelf transits. However, later subsurface descriptions of highstand shelfedge deltas (50100 km wide shelves), made by Carvajal and Steel (2006), concluded that this was possible because of a supply domination during shelf transit. Also, Hiscott (2003) documented highstand delta lobes (though muddy), sited on the outer continental shelf to upper slope, from the Late Quaternary Baram delta of northwestern Borneo. This history, plus the outcrop evidence from Clinoform 17 herein, suggests that: Most deltas can attain a shelf-edge position at lowstand of sea level, irrespective of shelf width, and generate sands into deepwater areas. This scenario is the conventional one, is accommodation driven, and does not require a high fluvial drive (see also Porbski and Steel, 2006; Yoshida et al., 2007) (Fig. 14A). Deltas can attain a shelf-edge position at highstand of sea level if sediment supply is very high, irrespective of shelf width, and can also generate deepwater sands. This is the supplydriven scenario (see Carvajal and Steel, 2006). Even low-supply delta systems, such as has been argued for Clinoform 17, can reach the shelf-edge as highstand deltas if shelf width is narrow. Nevertheless slopes are likely to be muddy, and delivery of deepwater sand is likely to be minimal, unless the shelf width is reduced severely. The delivery and accumulation of large volumes of deepwater sands is most favored by (a) high sediment supply, (b) deltas drawn to the shelf-edge by falling relative sea level, and (c) significantly narrow shelves.

7.2.2. Wave influence at the shelf-edge Other characteristics of highstand deltas have been proposed. For example, Porbski and Steel (2006) and Yoshida et al. (2007) have suggested that shelf-edge deltas should normally be wave-dominated, because waves arriving at the shelf-edge from the open ocean are large, but tend to become smaller as they cross the shelf. This was also observed by Sydow et al. (2003) in their study of reservoirs near the Pliocene Orinoco shelf-edge in offshore Trinidad. However, Suter and Berryhill (1985); Morton and Suter (1996); and Roberts et al. (2000) showed their studied Pleistocene shelf-margin deltas as fluvial-dominated with some wave-modification. On the other hand, Cummings et al. (2006) recorded strong tidal signals on the front of Cretaceous deltas near the Nova Scotia shelf-edge, but showed that this was probably due to the deltas being sited within a shelf-edge embayment. Shelf-edges are probably more likely to be embayed at sea-level lowstand, whereas shorelines on highstand shelf-edges are more likely to be straight and open, and therefore wave-dominated. This was also suggested and documented by Ainsworth et al. (in press) from subsurface reservoir data. The outcrop data presented here on Clinoform 17 are consistent with a relationship between rising sea level (irrespective of the cause of rise) at the shelf-edge and the occurrence of wave-dominated shorelines. 7.2.3. Enhanced thickness and parasequence development in highstand shelf-edge delta units The greater thickness of regressive deltaic units at the shelfedge compared to the inner shelf is obvious because of the greater water depth normally encountered towards the outer shelf. This increased shelf-edge thickness was suggested to be further enhanced by rising relative sea level, and the proposition made that this thickness increase would be accompanied by an increased number of parasequences in the unit (Porbski and Steel, 2006). In the study of the Orinoco Pliocene shelf-margin reservoirs (Sydow et al., 2003), rising relative sea level created by high subsidence rates caused the wave-dominated sequences to be unusually thick, and with multiple parasequences (N150 m in places). This thickness aspect is consistent with the character of the Clinoform 17 data. Contrary to this, Morton and Suter (1996) reported a significant thickness reduction in several late Quaternary deltaic sequences (Gulf of Mexico) that were formed under a rapid lowering in sea level. 8. Conclusions Shelf-margin deltas preserved in Clinoform 17 of the Eocene Battfjellet Formation on Spitsbergen are argued to have developed during conditions of rising relative sea level (highstand), because of their thick aggradational and parasequence-prone character. The wave-dominated character of the delta-front and barrier deposits, suggesting an open, straight coast, is consistent with this. The strong fluvial drive and high flux of sediment normally associated with highstand shelf-edge deltas cannot be argued here because the shelf-margin progradation rate is estimated to have been low. So, the reason the Clinoform 17 deltas reached the shelf-break was the

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narrowness of the shelf itself. If the shelf had been wider, these low-supply deltas would have retreated before reaching the outer shelf, in accordance with auto-retreat principles. The well-exposed outcrops of Clinoform 17 add to our knowledge of highstand shelf-edge deltas, and suggest the following characteristic features: Deltaic units are unusually thick because they occurred in deeper water at the shelf-edge and because rising relative sea level caused aggradation of the body and a rising shelf-edge trajectory. The aggradation of the sediment body was achieved by a vertical stacking of parasequences. This also caused the shelfedge delta to contain short-lived shale-prone transgressive incursions. The deltas are wave-dominated, as would be expected because shelf-edge areas are almost always exposed to open ocean waves. Where coastline morphology is less straight, signals of tidal influence would be better preserved. Highstand deltas in general deposit and store a large proportion of their sediment budget on the shelf and coastal plain, whereas falling-stage deltas deliver more of their sediment into deepwater areas. Where the shelf-edge deltas are of high supply type, deepwater sands might still be expected beyond the shelf-edge. Where supply is low, as in the studied succession, the deltas reached the shelf-margin because the shelf was narrow, and the deepwater slope and basin floor tended to be mud-prone. Because highstand shelf-edge deltas are aggradational, they contain no major widespread erosional surface or sequence boundary, in contrast to falling-stage deltas. Acknowledgements We thank the WOLF Consortium (BP, Norsk Hydro, Statoil, Shell, BHP Billiton, ConocoPhillips, and Pdvsa) for their financial support to cover the field work and for lively discussion. Thanks to the Jackson School of Geosciences at the University of Texas at Austin for their administrative support. Also, the authors recognize the valuable contribution of Atle Folkestad, Andrew Petter, Piret Plink-Bjrklund, Alfred Uchmann, and Cristian Carvajal, through assistance in the field or contribution to this research. Dr. Marc Edwards is thanked for a constructive review of an early draft of this paper. We especially acknowledge Drs. Chris Fielding, M. Royhan Gani, and Jesus Soria, for their constructive criticism in reviewing the manuscript. References
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