Automotive Electronic

AUTOMOTRIZ ELECTRONICOS
Published by Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Chonan Technical Service Training Center
FOREWORD
This service-training booklet has been prepared for service technicians of authorized distributor to familiarize them with vehicle basic electronic. It is our intention to increase the level of skill and knowledge of service personnel to enable effective and efficient problem diagnosis and repair.
December. 2003 Printed in Korea Published by Chonan Technical Service Training Center
copyright by Hyundai Motors All right reserved. Chonan Technical Service Training Center http://training.hmc.co.kr training@hmc.co.kr
CONTENTS
1. General 2. Compositions/essence of electricity 3. Conductor & nonconductor
7 8 9
8. Thermistor 45
8.1 NTC type 45 8.2 PTC type 46
4. Semiconductors 11
4.2 Semiconductor material 12 4.3 Classification of semiconductor 13
9. Photoconductive cell 47 10. Piezo-electric element 48 11. Hall effect 49 12. Integrated circuit 51
12.1 Integrated circuit general 51 12.2 Analog I.C 52 12.3 Digital I.C 53 12.4 Various logic circuits 54
5. Diode 17
5.1 Diode general 17 5.2 Diode usage & symbol representation 17 5.3 Diode operation 18 5.4.Characteristic of diode 20 5.5 Rectification operation of diode 21 5.6 Example of diode use in automobile 23 5.7 Diode check method by using a m-meter
25
13. Microcomputer 59 14. To understand electronic circuit 63 APPENDOX 67
6. Special type of semiconductor diode 26

6.1 Zener diode 26 6.2 Photo diode 28 6.3 LED (Light emitting diode) 29
7. Transistor 31
7.1 Whats transistor? 31 7.2 Basic operation of transistor 32 7.3 Judgment of good/bad transistor
42
1. General
Today in automobile there are essentially used application fields of electricity and electronic beginning from switch for simple on /off of lamp to many equipments of engine management system (EMS ) , antilock brake system (ABS ) , transmission control system (TCS ) , airbag, instrumentation system, body electrical system (BCM), etc. requiring microcomputer control. Because of use of so many sophisticated electrical equipments and electronic parts, there come forth also many electronic defects in comparison to traditional mechanical defects as for car trouble causes. Accordingly learning the basic knowledge of electricity and electronic seems exigent subject for automobile maintenance and service. . Here it is hoped to become opportunity to understand basic principle and to learn how they apply in automobile, apart from the complicated structure or any academic theoretic. And it is hoped to be a little help in more efficient maintenance and trouble repair..
2. Compositions and essence of electricity
Every material is composed of molecules each of which is in turn chemically composed of aggregates of atoms. Example: water molecule (H2O) = two hydrogen atoms (H2) + one oxygen atom (O) M Orbit Electron Proton Neutron L Orbit Atomic nucleus K Orbit
Atom relationship model

As the above figure, electrons are quickly turning around nucleus in conformity with respective orbits as the earth and planets are turning around sun . Only a certain number of electrons can exist in each electron orbit (K: 2, L: 8, M: 18, . . . ) while each element has its characteristic number of electrons (e . g . hydrogen 1, carbon 6, oxygen 8, . . . ). Generally nucleus has positive electricity (+) and electron has negative electricity (-) while these two have mutually attractive character so that atom becomes electrically neutral (positive electricity quantity = negative electricity quantity). Because attractive force from atomic nucleus to electrons These electrons of outermost orbit (valence electrons) is the weakest , these electrons are easy to escape from orbit due to external stimulus (heat , electricity, light , ...) and may move to other orbit , got out of orbit are called free electrons which are essence of electricity. electrons directly becomes electric current . electron started signifies that electric current flows, Movement of these free
Namely, it means that movement of these free
3. Conductor & nonconductor
If materials are electrically classified , they may be divided into conductor which transmit electricity well, nonconductor which do not transmit electricity and semiconductors in middle between the two while these characteristics are determined by electronic configuration according to atomic structure of material . 1) Conductor : where electricity flows well Here fall most metals where free electrons may well move in the interior of material . Order of good conductance of electricity : silver copper gold aluminium tungsten zinc nickel .... 2) Nonconductor : where electricity does not flow well It is called insulator where free electron is not easily generated e . g . ceramics, glass, rubber, plastics, wood etc . 3) Semiconductor : which has medial characteristics between conductor and nonconductor Here fall silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), selenium (Se) etc . which are used as raw material of electronic part. As for automobile wiring, multistrand type is contained inside a clothing of cord where copper (alloy) is mainly used as stuff material . load, continuity, temperature etc . Cord thickness is determined by electric current value, The larger the electric current , the longer the cord and the
longer the electric current flow time , the thicker the electric cord shall be . General Specification Table Area (mm ) 0.5 0.85 1.25 2 3 5 8 15 20 Strand Diameter 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.45 0.45 0.8 No. of Strands 7 11 16 26 41 65 50 84 41 Electric Wire OD 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.5 7.0 8.2 Allowable Current (A) 9 12 15 20 27 37 47 59 84 2.2 mm 0.32 mm
0.5 sq (Allowable electric current =

9 A)
MEMO
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4. Semiconductor
4.1 What is semiconductor? In material, there are conductors easy for electric current to flow and nonconductor difficult for current to flow by the electronic property. conductor nor difficult as in nonconductor. and nonconductor. Semiconductor denotes material of medial property Semiconductor is material that has such peculiar between conductor and insulator. Namely, here electric current is neither easy to flow as in electric property. So semiconductor is material that has medial type character between conductor
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4.2 Semiconductor material The specific resistance of copper used as electric conductor is 10 -6 cm that is lowest and even the specific resistance of Ni-Cr used as electric resistance wire is 10-4 cm while these materials are called conductors because they conducts electricity well . If specific resistance is more than 1010 cm then little electricity is conducted there so that such material is used as insulator. Meanwhile material in between such conductor and insulator, not belonging to conductor and nonconductor, are called semiconductor where belong germanium and silicon used in manufacturing the diode and transistor.
State
Specific Resistance 10-6

-4
Material Silver, copper Platinum
10 Conductor 10
Nichrome Carbon electrode
-2
Pyrite 1 Germanium 102 Silicon 104 106 10 Semiconductor

8
Copper dioxide
1010 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1018
Bakelite
Mica , diamond
Glass
Quartz glass
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Semiconductors play role of conductor or nonconductor according to specific condition (relationship between voltage, electric current , temperature etc . ). semiconductor. The main elements that are most frequently used are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) while such conductor of high purity is called as intrinsic Silicon and germanium respectively have four electrons on outermost orbit . Because of such covalent bond, the material becomes an electric Namely in their respective crystal structures, the form becomes that each atom shares its own four electrons with its partner atom. semiconductor. insulator and has little electrical utilization value so that it cannot independently be used as Therefore it is used as a form of impurity semiconductor by adding small proportional quantity of other element atoms to these intrinsic atoms of valence 4. 4.3 Classification of semiconductor Semiconductor is largely constituted of two forms. Here are iintrinsic semiconductor that does not utterly contain impurity in material crystal and impurity semiconductor that is added of specific impurity material into intrinsic semiconductor in order to improve conductivity. Generally diode and transistor belong to this impurity semiconductor. And this impurity semiconductor is also classified into two according to role of added impurity material . Roles of impurity material are to increase in semiconductor the number of Increase free electron of semiconductor inside Increase hole of semiconductor inside
Therefore among impurity semiconductors, that added of impurity to increase the number of free electron are called negative type semiconductor while that added of impurity to increase the number of hole are called positive type semiconductor.
Outer block Orbit
i
Si S S S
i
S
i
<Silicon atomic structure> 13 <Silicon covalent bond> Chonan Technical Service Training Center
4.3.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor This is intrinsic semiconductor containing no impurity material at all in its crystal structure . Purity of intrinsic semiconductor has been refined about 99.999999999 % (over ten-nine) with 11 nine. For example germanium and silicon belong to this kind . 4.3.2 Impurity semiconductor This is impurity semiconductor added of specific impurity material into intrinsic semiconductor to improve conductivity. General semiconductors of diode or transistor belong to this impurity semiconductor. Classification of impurity semiconductor a. N type semiconductor is that added of impurity to increase number of free electron in semiconductor. b . P type semiconductor is that added of impurity to increase number of hole in semiconductor. 1) P Type Semiconductor This is made by adding the material (Ga : gallium ; In : gallium ; B : boron ) having three valence electron in intrinsic semiconductor. Though silicon has four outer layer electron, if these two kinds And it is of material meet each other, then silicon atom from these two kind of atoms cannot share one electron so that electric current can flow easier while this vacancy in octet is called hole. called P (positive) type semiconductor because it assumes positive (+) electricity by electron deficiency. When voltage is applied, electron fills the hole site so that the hole continuously moves down, electric current is said to flow by means of hole in P type semiconductor.
Hole Structure of P type semiconductor 14 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
2) N Type semiconductor This is made by adding the material ( P : phosphorus ; As : arsenic ; Sb : antimony ) having five outermost layer electron in intrinsic semiconductor. If element of valence 5 is added to bind with silicon then one electron remains as surplus in octet so that electric conduction may be accomplished easier by means of free activity of this remainder electron. And it is called N (negative) type semiconductor because it assumes negative (-) electricity. Electric current flows by means of electron in N type semiconductor (carrier : electron ) .
Superfluity electron
Structure of N type semiconductor 3) P-N Junction If P type semiconductor and N type semiconductor are chemically bonded with each other, there is made portion where carrier does not exist as hole and free electron are bonded together at narrow part of junction surface. This junction surface is called depletion layer while semiconductor bonded thus is called PN junction semiconductor or diode. Accordingly there exists electric charge of different polarity from each other on either side of depletion layer and there is generated a little amount of electric potential difference which is called electric potential barrier.
Electron Hole Depletion layer
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MEMO
16
5 Diode (Diode for rectifier circuit)
5.1 Diode general Diode is semiconductor part substance flowing the electric current always in only one direction . to say, semiconductor is called as such because it has intrinsically this kind of property. flow always in only one direction . As Although
transistor is also a kind of semiconductor, diode specifically purports thus that electric current shall Silicon is most frequently used as semiconductor material whereas besides there are used also germanium and selenium for this purpose
Anode()
Cathode()
5.2 Diode usages and symbol representation Main function of diode is to rectify electric current to flow it always in only one direction. also used in many other functions so that main functions may be summarized as follows : Usage as electric current rectifier to change the alternating current to the direct current in electric supply facilities Use as detector to take out signal from radio frequency Usage in switching to control electric current ON/OFF Prevention of backward current flow Usage in protective circuit But it is
Besides it is used in variety of wide range according to diode sort and usage.
Anode Diode symbol
Cathode Diode Polarity
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5.3 Diode operation Forward diode for forward bias Forward diode for backward bias 5.2.1 Forward diode for forward bias Diode has form to have connected terminals on both sides of P-N junction semiconductor to have characteristics to flow electric current always in only one direction . In forward direction as in figure if positive (+) voltage is applied at P type semiconductor and negative (-) voltage is applied at N type semiconductor, hole and electron repulse to electric source so that electric potential barrier is lowered and also depletion layer is narrowed. flows by movement of hole and electron . Depletion layer Consequently hole and electron may move to each other across junction surface. Accordingly electric current
Current flow
<Occasion that supply forward voltage / Electric current is flowing>
Forward direction circuit of diode Lamp turns on because diode has been connected in forward direction in circuit below. Anode() Battery Cathode()
Lamp ON
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5.2.2 Backward diode for reverse bias This time let us in reverse direction apply negative (-) voltage at P type semiconductor and positive (+) voltage at N type semiconductor. Then hole of P type semiconductor is attracted to negative (-) side of electric supply while electron of N type semiconductor is attracted to positive (+) side of electric supply. Consequently electric potential barrier is heightened and accordingly depletion layer is also widened so that electron movement cannot arise between the two kinds of semiconductor. As the result , electric current does not flow Depletion layer
No current flow
< Occasion that supply backward voltage / Electric current is not flowing >
Backward direction circuit of diode Lamp turns off because diode has been connected in backward direction in circuit below.
Cathode() Battery
Anode()
Lamp Off
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5.4 Characteristic of diode It can be seen that , when forward voltage is gradually increased from 0 V, electric current abruptly flows if a certain voltage is reached. Namely electric current only becomes to flow if voltage is And if backward voltage is applied, electric applied over about 0.6~0.7 V (Ge diode: 0.3~0.4 V). Voltage at this instant is called breakdown voltage. Namely diode is broken down if it is connected in reverse direction and voltage above breakdown voltage is applied. ID(mA) Forward direction
current does not flow up to some voltage but abruptly flows at voltage over some definite value.
Breakdown voltage VD(Volt) Silicon: 0.6~0.7 volt Backward direction Characteristic curb of diode Voltage-Current characteristicsGraph of Forward Voltage-Current Characteristics Diode : Diode Current Flow to Applied Voltage When forward bias voltage is applied below 0.7 V micro current flows : diode does not operate When forward bias of threshold voltage of 0.7 V is applied diode operation current flows : diode operates
[mA] 60 40 20
Diode forward direction Spiritual enlightenment point
Forward direction voltage characteristic of silicon junction diode
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 Volt
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5.5 Rectification operating of diode An alternating current signal may be rectified to a direct current by using characteristic of electric current in diode to flow always in only one direction. half wave rectifier circuit and full wave rectifier circuit . 5.5. 1 Half -wave rectifier circuit When applying an alternating current to the circuit , at moment when positive (+) side signal comes in, electric current flows in forward direction, but at moment when negative (-) side signal comes in, electric current does not flow because it becomes the reverse direction. This kind of circuit to flow electric current for only one side is called half wave rectifier circuit . Rectifier circuit may largely be classified into
Volt Diode IR Input voltage
A.C Time
Input Voltage
A.C
Output Voltage
R VR = D.C Volt Output voltage Half -wave rectifier D.C Time
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5.5.2 Full-wave rectifier circuit Next for other device also when applying an alternating current to the circuit , electric current flows through D1 and D4 during moment of positive (+) half cycle period of alternating current signal while the current flows through D2 and D3 during moment of negative (-) half period. This kind of circuit to flow electric current for both of half periods is called full wave rectifier circuit . ( *Although particularly here is represented a full wave rectifier using a bridge, there are also full wave rectifier circuit using the center tap of transformer, voltage doubler rectifier circuit etc . )
Volt Time
D2 D1 Input Voltage
V= A.C
D3 D4
V= D.C Volt Time

Output Voltage
Bridge circuit full-wave rectifier
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5.6 Example of diode use in automobile Alternator rectifier AC voltage generated at stator coil is transformed to DC voltage across the diode Voltage of A : DC 13.7 volts Voltage of B: AC Pick-to-Pick voltage 13.7 volts 2 = 27.4 volts AC voltage of Pick-to-Pick voltage of B is outputted only in + voltage after passing the diode so that only 1/2 voltage of 27.4 V is outputted. Namely AC voltage after passing the forward diode is outputted in accordance with vanishing of voltage. To Battery From fusible link From charging lamp
Alternator internal circuit
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Diode installed in relay to prevent surge voltage
A B C Battery A Relay
Motor
Controller 1) If power transistor of controller turns on, then the relay turns on . 2) Motor operates as the relay turns on . 3) When power transistor turns off in controller, a high surge voltage about 80volts is instantaneously generated between A and B according to Lenz law so that it becomes + voltage. 4) If this surge voltage of 80 volts flows in the controller, the controller may be damaged . 5) In order to prevent this problem , diode is installed in the relay so that the surge voltage generated between A~B shall digress in direction from A to C across diode to be extinguished for controller damage prevention . Diode connection in forward direction and reverse direction in electric circuit Forward bias direction connection Anode() Battery Cathode()
Lamp ON
Backward bias direction connection Cathode() Battery Anode()
Lamp Off
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5.7 Diode check method by using a multi-meter If we had understood that diode is PN junction semiconductor where electric current would flow in case of forward direction but would not flow in case of backward direction, we can judge it whether good or bad in accordance with the following. 5.7.1 How to check by using a Digital Multi-Meter 1) Select resistance or diode mode for the select switch of digital meter. 2) It is normal if resistance value is small when red lead wire has been connected to diode anode (+) and black lead has been connected to cathode (-). 3) And it will be rather good if resistance value is higher when connected inversely. Short condition : normal if value is near 0 ohm when measuring in forward direction a n d backward direction . Open condition : normal if value is near infinity ohm when measuring in forward direction a n d backward direction . When checking by using digital multi meter = Normal condition
Anode Cathode Cathode Anode
++
0 Red lead wire
Black lead wire
Red lead wire
+
Black lead wire
Resistance : 0
Resistance :
5.7.2 How to check by using an Analog Multi-Meter 1) Select at resistance range 100 for the select switch of analog multi meter. 2) It is normal if resistance value is small when black lead wire has been connected to diode anode (+) and red lead has been connected to cathode (-). 3) And it will be rather good if resistance value is higher when connected inversely. Short condition : normal if value is near 0 ohm when measuring in forward direction a n d backward direction .
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Open condition : normal if value is near infinity ohm when measuring in forward direction a n d backward direction . When checking by using analog multi meter = Normal condition
Anode Cathode Cathode Anode
+
Red lead wire
Black lead wire
Red lead wire
+
Black lead wire
Resistance : 0
Resistance :
6. Special type of semiconductor diode

Diodes are used for a number of purposes. Voltage rectification, voltage regulation, and even light production are some of their various uses. Following is a brief description of some diode type you might encounter. 6.1 Zener diode 1) Zener diode symbol Cathode() Anode()
2) Zener diode characteristic When the diode is forward biased, it acts like reverse diode or a closed switch. However, the zener diode has unique reverse bias qualities that make differ from the typical diode. The zener diode goes in to reverse bias at various voltages. The amount of voltage required for reverse bias varies according to the zener diode selected. Some typical reverse bias voltages are 2.4V, 5.1V, 6.0V, 9.1V, 12.0V, ect. At this point, when the applied voltage increased, the forward current increase.
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This small reverse current flows until the diode reaches the zener breakdown point, V2 in figure. At zener breakdown point, the zener diode is able to maintain a fairy constant voltage as the current varies over a certain range. Because of this attribute, the diode provides excellent voltage regulation.
Forward bias
Zener breakdown
region
V2 Voltage remains constance over large current Reverse range bias 0
Voltage
Current
Zener diode characteristic
3) Zener diode usage An electronic device that can be used as a voltage regulator is the zener diode. 4) Example of circuit that use zener diode - Zener diode breakdown voltage of circuit below is 12 V. - Supply voltage to controller through C1 in circuit diagram below shall never exceed 12 V. - If supply voltage exceeds 12 V then it is earthed through zener diode. So, because current is extinguished through earth for voltage above 12 Volts any voltage above 12 Volts is not supplied to controller.
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Supply Voltage R3 R1 R4 Controller C1
ZD 12Volts
Condenser TR
R2 Earth Earth
6.2 Photo diode 1) Photo diode symbol
Cathode()
Anode()
2) Photo diode characteristic Electric current flows if lighted on PN junction surface under condition where certain voltage is applied in backward direction. And if light irradiation dose is changed, electric current changes in proportion to the light quantity. Electric potential barrier is made on PN junction surface and If light is becomes greater if reverse voltage is applied so as to become a complete insulator.
shed on PN junction surface under this condition, change arises on the junction surface. Respectively electron and hole are activated by external light energy along with positive (+) ion in N side area and negative (-) ion in P side area . electricity transformation circuit . Whence if voltage is maintained constant , electric current flowing in circuit gets proportional to the light quantity received by element . Hole and free electron separated from Thus diode is used in light respective ions move along so that electric current gets to flow.
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3) Example of circuit that use photo diode Photo diode has been connected in backward direction in circuit below. If light irradiates on photo diode, then because battery voltage is supplied, the lamp turns on . It is much used as a switching circuit .
Photo diode Battery 12 volts Lamp
Photo diode circuit
6.3 LED (Light emitting diode) 1) Photo diode symbol
Cathode()
Anode()
2) Light emitting diode characteristic This diode is that which illuminates as electric current flows by applying forward voltage at PN junction diode. Its characteristics are as follows : It has longer life and electric power consumption is smaller in comparison to incandescent electric lamp. Response is speedy. It illuminates even with low voltage of 2 ~3 V. Power consumption is small (about 0.05 W ) , Response of turning on and off is quick (by unit of millionth second). As for illumination color, there are red, green, yellow etc. according to semiconductor material.
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3) Example of circuit that use zener diode - If switch is closed in circuit below, then electric current flows so that LED illuminates. - As for role of resistance, it was used for voltage drop to apply a voltage of 3 V at LED.
LED
9 Volts. Battery
3 Volts Switch
Photo diode circuit
4) Trip computer display using a LED
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7. Transistor
7.1 Whats transistor? PNP type transistor is that where thin N type semiconductor in a semiconductor crystal has been inserted between two P type semiconductors while NPN type transistor is that where thin P type semiconductor has been inserted between two N type semiconductors. For symbols in semiconductor, E denotes emitter terminal, B denotes base terminal and C denotes collector terminal Each Part Symbol and Sorts of Transistor
Transistor according to association of semiconductor, there are PNP type and NPN type. And, transistor according to usage and type, following name is attached. 2SA ----- For high frequency transistor of PNP type 2SB ----- For low frequency transistor of PNP type 2SC ----- For high frequency transistor of NPN type 2SD ----- For low frequency transistor of NPN type
D: For low frequency

transistor of NPN type
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P type Collector(C ) N Type N Type Emitter (E) Collector(C ) P Type
N type P Type Emitter (E)
Base (B)
Base (B)
Collector(C )
Emitter (E)
Collector(C )
Emitter (E)
Base (B) NPN type transmitter structure & symbol
Base (B) PNP type transmitter structure & symbol >
7.2 Basic operation of transistor 7.2.1 Basic operation of NPN type transistor This type has been connected in opposite case to PNP type; but in this NPN type, as shown in figure below, a few holes are supplied from positive pole of electric source so that these make a small portion current of base current IB. collector current IC. becomes IB. NPN type Emitter(E) Collector(C) Ib [uA] Current Ic Base(B) Current Ib Vcb Ic [mA] <Base electric current and collector electric current> And electrons that come from emitter as not having been able to join with base holes move to collector side owing to VCB of collector side so that these make Ordinarily 95~98 % among emitter current IE becomes IC but remainder 2 ~5 %
Vbe
Forward bias of NPN type transmitter: Emitter's electron most moves by collector
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7.2.2 Basic operation of PNP type transistor If forward voltage VBE is applied between emitter and base, electric potential barrier in between PN junction surface becomes low. And at P type side of emitter side, many holes are being generated because impurity material concentration has been heightened, And as for base N side, because this is very thin so that impurity material concentration becomes lower, there are only few electrons. Accordingly holes in emitter cross over the electric potential barrier and enter the base side by diffusion so as to vanish by bonding with a part of base electrons there. But because these few electrons are continuously supplied by negative - pole of electric source, these make the small base current IB. If backward voltage VC B is applied between base and collector, electric potential barrier is heightened at PN junction surface so that electric current does not flow between base and collector. Holes that could not join with base electrons but come from emitter now move to collector side owing to VCB of collector side. These make collector current I C . Emitter holes are gradually supplied from positive pole so that these make emitter current Ic. Accordingly most IE becomes IC but very little portion becomes base current IB. 7.2.3 Amplification function of transistor As we have already discussed above in `Basic Operation', most electron (no less than 95 %) move to collector but only a few electrons (no more than 5 %) join with base hole. collector current I C and base current I B , the following equation holds : So as electron current and electric current direction are ordinarily defined oppositely while emitter current I E is divided into
I E I B IC
Like this, big collector current may be deduced from small base current so as to be called electric current amplification while relationship (ratio) between I B and I C are called electric current amplification factor (h F E ). For calculation example, if I B is 1 mA and I C is 100 mA then h F E is 100. transistor that can amplify input signal by hundred times. transistor varies according to usage, sort etc . ) Namely it means
( *Electric current amplification rate of
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hFE
IC IB
100 100 1
hFE=100 C B E Ib=1mA Ic=100mA
Meanwhile in how to use transistor, there are three earth methods of emitter earth, base earth and collector earth among which the emitter earth method as in circuit above is most used. . Output C B E Input Output (Ic=mA) Input (Ib=uA)
And generally amplification means that of alternating current component , which we shall deliberate in the following example : In circuit shown in figure here, if AC signal is applied between base and emitter, base current I B flows only when it is in forward direction (same as in diode). Whence collector current I C also appears as output while being amplified only of half wave. Namely transistor does not operate during negative (-) half cycle because here it is in backward direction between base and emitter.
Here let us apply DC between base and emitter.
If AC is applied onto DC, AC component is added
upon DC so as to appear like what is shown in the following figure.
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Voltage at this time is called bias voltage. connecting a condenser at output terminal. Now for the first time we can see completely amplified output waveform. Also we may obtain the amplified AC waveform only if we remove DC component by
Output C B Input E Input (Ib=uA)
Output (Ic=mA) Bias voltage
To avoid inconvenience of using two electric supplies due to bias voltage as in the depicted circuit , actual circuits use various forms adequate to purpose of each circuit by such as an electric current feedback bias, a fixed bias using a resistance, condenser etc. on the supply electricity source connected to the output terminal..
* For reference to say, there is limit area where collector current does not increase any more even
though transistor base current continues to increase so as to be called the saturation region. Accordingly transistor 's amplification action is accomplished only in specific area where collector current increases in accordance with base current increase so as to be called the active area . So far we have learned electric current amplification but now let us think case of voltage amplification . According to the above explanation, we learned that collector varies proportionately with base current . Let us think this as a variable resistor to control electric current . equivalent circuit . Then we can think the following
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E R Output (Eo) C B Current Ic E <Equivalent circuit> Current Ic
E R Output (Eo)
Input current (Ib=uA)
Output Current (Ic=mA)
Output voltage (Eo=E-(Ic*R)
Under condition as above, output voltage to the base input waveform shows up reversely as may be seen in figure. It is explained as total voltage E = voltage drop between collector and emitter (Eo) + Namely, if electric current Ic increases, voltage drop due (Output voltage Eo = E voltage drop due to resistance R (Ic R). (Ic R))
to resistance R also increases so that the output voltage Eo decreases.
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Now let us learn base earth and collector earth methods along with transistor 's switching action . Base earth circuit Method of base earth is type of circuit as shown in figure to take base as earth and apply input signal to emitter. E C Output
B Input
<Base earth circuit
If there is no electric potential difference between emitter and base, emitter current does not flow as well as their flows no electric current at collector where voltage is applied in backward direction through resistance. If forward voltage is applied between emitter and base as in circuit shown by figure, collector current may also flow through resistance. In this case, because sum of base current and collector current is equal to emitter current , ratio of collector current to emitter current is below 1 so that electric current is not amplified. In case of voltage amplification, if we suppose for example that 10mA flows in emitter, then some 1mA and 9mA flows in base and collector respectively so that voltage drop occurs, through resistance, in collector that is the output . Accordingly it becomes 9mA resistance [k] = output voltage so there is accomplished voltage amplification to the input signal .
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Collector earth circuit Method of collector earth is type of circuit as shown in figure to take collector as earth , send input signal to base and send output from emitter. In emitter earth circuit , collector current greatly varies according to base current while variation of value of load resistance connected to collector does not give large effect to electric current . emitter current (from collector to emitter) flows so as to be applied at load resistance as it is . Accordingly emitter current is controlled by small base current as well as emitter current varies directly also by load resistance variation . As above, we learned three types of earth methods according to terminals used in common . may be explained by the following characteristics table. . Characteristic of earth methods Emitter Earth Circuit High High High Mid Mid Antiphase Bad Collector Earth Circuit Mid Low Low High Low Inphase Good Among But in collector earth circuit , because forward voltage is applied between emitter and base for output circuit ,
them the most general and usually used method is emitter earth method whereas to summarize it
Item Electric current amplification degree Voltage amplification Electric power amplification Input impedance Output impedance Phase of output to input High frequency characteristics
Base Earth Circuit Low Mid Mid Low High Inphase Best
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To understand amplification circuit that use transmitter
R1=1 Collector 12V Base
M Motor D235 (NPN TR) Emitter
1~100 variable resistor
Circuit description - The R1's resistance changes NPN transistor base and bias that is approved to emitter voltage to 3 volts. There is serving resistance - Variable resistor is thing to control NPN transistor's bias voltage by 0 ~ 3 volt - That is, become transistor's base and emitter bias voltage high if variable resistance value is high, and resistance value two. If is low, bias voltage becomes low - Therefore flowing electric current is passed much to collector and emitter according to bias voltage - Therefore, can control turning number of motor according to position of variableness resistance passing as motor's electric current by bias voltage differs.
I E I B IC
IB:Base current, Ic:Collector current)
h F E
IC IB
hFE:The electric current amplification rate,
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7.2.3 Switching function of transmitter In explanation of amplification action, we learned that if to electrify between emitter and collector, it would do making the base current Ib to flow. Namely it will do if we supply base current up to saturation state where collector current will not almost increase any more. (Nevertheless in small signal amplification circuit or ordinary home appliances, usually use is made of amplification action not in saturation region but in active area . ) We can turn on / off circuit between emitter and collector by on / offing the base current Ib under this condition . among transistor 's amplification action.. We can make role like of relay if using transistor 's switching action as shown in figure. Batt
ON/OFF input signal
This is called transistor 's switching action
Batt
Load
ON/OFF Input signal
C
Current Ic
Load
B E
Switching relay
Switching transmitter
Transistor 's base current corresponds to relay 's excitation current so that transistor may act as the relay while not using mechanical contact as in relay 's contact point . And if load increases then electric current Ic also increases, whereas, when we cannot supply sufficient electric current by a transistor, we can make use of electric current amplification by means of connecting transistors in multistage in accordance to load capacity. So transistor 's switching action has the following advantages to the relay. - Switching speed is fast (more than thousand times per second). - Operation is stable and there is no chattering when on / offing the contact point as that in relay because there is no mechanical contact . It is small type with less electric power consumption . It has longer life than mechanical relay.
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To understand transistor switching circuit 1. In below circuit, when ignition key switch does ON, power is supplied to the ignition coil. 2. If supply power to power TR Base from ECM through Pin No23 ignition coil of electric current passes by ground G11. 3. Again ECM transmitter's base power when coil's electric current is shut off because connection between collector and emitter becomes open if do Off in coil high tension generate become. From ignition key switch
Ground G11 Pin No 23
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7.3 Judgment of good / b ad transistor As may be seen in figure, it will be fine if we think transistor to have been connected with part of emitter and base considered as a PN junction diode and part of base and collector considered as another diode..
Collector
Emitter
Collector
Emitter
Base
Base
NPN Transmitter
Base
1. When multi-meter measures between B~E and B~C in forward direction under normal condition, it is electrified ( showing ordinarily some hundred mV in case of digital meter but a low resistance value in case of analog type meter). Inversely when measured in reverse direction, it is not electrified so that there is little change in indication value of multi-meter (by which there is displayed a voltage same as for case when measuring rod was not connected in case of digital meter while there is displayed an approximately infinite resistance value is displayed in case of analog meter). 2. Next if also measured for interval of E~C forwardly and backwardly with the measuring rod, there is little change in indication value of multi-meter for both of the reciprocal cases because it is not electrified for both cases. Whereas in some cases according to transistor sort and characteristic when red (+) rod is connected to collector and black (-) rod is connected to emitter (in case of NPN, but reversibly in case of PNP), quite a high resistance value may be displayed even though it would not be infinite ( so namely a little current may flow). For reference to say, when testing transistor or diode, if measuring under condition where it has been connected to circuit , it may be affected by connected circuit resistance value, it is desirable to measure under condition isolated from circuitry. And in case where generally transistor or diode has been broken , it is displayed as primarily short circuit form .
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Polarity distinction of transistor 1. In case of using analog multi-meter. 1) Put mode switch in Analog multi meter at R100 or R1000 with in measurable range. 2) First connect a lead wire to any pin in transistor. Then connect left 2 terminals in transistor respectively, using other lead wire. 3) At this moment, if the direction becomes CW, which resistance measuring becomes nearly O, black lead wire connection becomes base line in NPN transmitter and red lead wire connection becomes base line in PNP transmitter. 4) If you set mode switch in R1000 at circuit tester, result in CW direction after measuring other two pins resistance respectively, red lead wire connection becomes collector in NPN and black lead wire becomes collector in PNP.
Multi Meter Base
Multi Meter
1 2
1 : Collector 2 : Emitter 3 : Base
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2. In case of find polarity to use transistor's lead wire.
When saw flat side that printed of part name.
In case of 2SC1815 transistor (NPN type transistor for high frequency) - Right side lead : Base - Center side lead : Collector - Left side lead : Emitter
Emitter Collector
Base
In case of 2SD880 transistor (NPN type transistor for high frequency) - Right side lead : Emitter - Center side lead : Collector - Left side lead : Base
Base
Emitter
Collector
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8. Thermistor
To semiconductor element that use change of resistance according to temperature, there are NTC thermistor and PTC thermistor 8.1 NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) thermistor) - Characteristic If temperature rises, there is characteristic that resistance decreases Resistance
Temperature
- Usage in car Engine coolant temperature sensor, Air intake temperature sensor, and Low fuel-warning sensor
Engine coolant temperature sensor
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- To understand circuit usage PTC thermistor. NPN transistor's bias voltage depends on NTC thermistor in below circuit If temperature rises, voltage between base and emitter is raised. Therefore, TR does ON and lamp turned ON.
Lamp R1 12 Volts Battery NPN TR NTC Thermistor
8.2 PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistor) - Characteristic If temperature rises, there is characteristic that resistance increases - Usage in car Central door lock actuator - To understand circuit that use NTC thermistor. In below circuit, lamp turned ON when switch ON. If excess current is passed to ramp, heat by excess current is occurred to thermistor At this time, thermistor's resistance increases and decreases electric current. Therefore, prevent over current in circuit.
Lamp Battery
Thermistor
Switch
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9. Photoconductive cell
According to brightness of light, value of resistance changes.(increase or decrease) . Material that convey light is Cds (Cadmium sulfide) and CdSe (Cadmium selenide) - Characteristic Resistance decreases if brightness of light is strong, and there is Characteristic that resistance increases if light becomes feeble
K 10,000 1,000 100 10 1
10
100
1,000 Lux
- Usage in car Auto light sensor, FATC air conditioning system - To understand circuit that use CDS 1) If transmitter1 does ON, lamp turned ON. 2) For TR1 does ON, TR2 must do ON 3) TR2's ON operates according to cds's resistance value 4) If receive a lot of raises in CDS, TR2 does ON because TR2's bias voltage rises 5) If quantity of light decreases, TR2's bias voltage decreases, because cds's resistance increases lamp Off
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R1=10
R2=4.7 Lamp R3=1
cds
12 volts BATT. NPN TR1 2SC372
NPN TR2 R4=4.7 Circuit that use Photoconductive cell 2SC372
10. Piezo-electric element

If receive pressure, if electromotive force happen, and supplies voltage, there is special quality that cause transformation Material : Titan acid, Barium Usage in car : Knock Sensor Knock sensor waveform
Knock sensor
a. Cylinder Pressure Signal b. Filtered Cylinder Pressure Signal c. Knock Sensor Signal
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11. Hall effect
When you put hall IC in magnetic field at concentric position with current flowing, both hall IC end can produce some voltage. In the following picture, if you put any conduct in magnetic field and make some current flow through this, A1 and A2 can produce some voltage out.
A1
Iv Current I A2
If you simulate the magnetic field then the output voltage between A1 and A2 becomes on and off. When tone wheel destroy the magnetic filed the output voltage between A1 and A2 in the following picture, becomes on. When this tone wheel reaches without any damage to the magnetic field the output voltage becomes off
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- Usage in car CMP sensor, CKP sensor, Speed sensor ect.
- Signal waveform
Volt
Time
Hall IC type CMP sensor
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12. Integrated Circuit (I.C)
12.1 Integrated circuit general An integrated circuit or IC is several hundreds of resistors, transistors and other elements formed on a substrate to function as if they were single device. When reading a circuit with an IC, understanding of the operating conditions as indicated by the timing chart or table is important. In this chapter, how a circuit with an IC should be read will be described.
Type of I.C Classification by Scale of Integration SSI (Small Scale Integrated Circuit) : Less than 100 elements MSI (Medium Scale Integrated Circuit) : 100 to 1,000 elements LSI (Large Scale Integrated Circuit) : 1,000 to 100,000 elements VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit) : 100,000 or more elements Classification by Application and Structure Analog IC I.C amplifying or controlling analog quantity (continuous quantity) Output signal always changes linearly with the input signal This type of ICs is widely used in units using analog circuits.
Input
Output
Digital IC
I.C that performs switching only. According to input ON/OFF signal conditions, the output is obtained as ON/OFF switching signal.
Input
Output
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Features of I.C. Size reduced to minimum by integration High reliability thanks to integrated structure Low price thanks to volume production Low power consumption 12.2 Analog I.C The IC shown here is one called comparator. a is the power supply terminal and b is the ground terminal, both are required to supply power to the comparator for its operation but are not directly associated with the operation itself. The comparator compares the potential at terminal c and terminal d and in this operating conditions shown, it gives output va[v] at point e only when the potential at point c is higher than the potential at point d. Of the two input terminal voltages, one that remains constant is called the reference voltage and one that changes is called the comparison voltage which of the two input terminals has the reference voltage can be known from the circuit connected to the comparator.
A (Va)
d Vc
Operating conditions Vd b (Vb) Output(Va volt) is made when VcVd Output(Va volt) is not made when VcVd
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12.3 Digital I.C Logic circuit In a digital circuit, two signals are used, that is, signal with high voltage (H) and signal with low voltage (L) or presence of signal and absence of signal. And as a convention, these two signals are represented by 1 and 0. For example, when the transistor is off in this figure, Vce is 12V and this state of voltage is taken as 1. When the switch is set to ON to turn on the transistor, VCE becomes 0V and this state is taken as 0. In a digital circuit unlike an analog one, various information is expressed by combination of only two signals that can have only two states, namely, 1 or 0. A logic circuit is a circuit that gives an output 1 or 0 when input signal that is combination of 1 and 0 is applied.
Switch
12 volts Battery
Vce
Vce
OFF
OFF
OFF
12 volts 0 volts
ON
ON
ON
TR
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12.4 Various logic circuits 12.4.1 AND circuit (logical product) And operation is the operation that gives a result only when all conditions are met such as the brake warning lamp lights up when the ignition switch is ON and the parking brake switch is ON. Namely, the AND circuit is a circuit of which output signal becomes 1 when the input signals are all 1. Representation Actual Circuit Logic Symbol Input/Output relation A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 1 0 C 1 0 0 0
This figure shows an example of AND circuit using transistors. When both input signals A and B are 1(H), 1(H) voltage is obtained at output C. For output C to be high, it is necessary that both Tr2 be off and for these two transistors to be off, it is necessary that Tr1 and Tr2 be on. And for Tr1 and Tr2 to go on, high (H) voltage must be applied to inputs A and B so that base current may flow to both transistors.
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12.4.2 OR circuit (logical sum) OR operation is the operation that gives a result when at least one condition among various conditions is met such as when any one door is opened, the door ajar indicator lamp lights up Namely, the OR circuit is a circuit whose output becomes 1 when at least one input signal is 1. In contrast to the AND circuit whose output is 1 when all inputs are 1, the OR circuit may be considered as a circuit whose output is 0 when all inputs are 0.
Representation
Actual Circuit
Logic Symbol
Input/Output relation A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 1 0 C 1 1 1 0
This figure shows an example of OR circuit using transistors. When either input A or input B is 1 output C becomes 1.
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12.4.3 NOT Circuit (negation) The NOT circuit is a circuit whose output is inverse of the input, such as when the input signal is 1, the output signal is 0 or vice versa. For this reason, the NOT circuit is sometimes called an inverter.
Representation
Actual Circuit
Logic Symbol
Input/Output relation A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 1 0 C 1 1 1 0
Note : The relationship between transistor base voltage (VBE) and collector voltage (VCE) is NOT relation. Namely, when the base voltage is high, the transistor goes on and hence the collector voltage becomes low. On the other hand, when the base voltage is low, the transistor goes off and hence the collector voltage is high.
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12.4.4 NAND and NOR circuits The NAND circuit is an AND circuit followed by a NOT circuit and for this reason, it is called NAND (meaning NOT + AND)
Logic Symbol
Input/Output relation Input A L L H H B L H L H Output Y H H H L
12.4.5 The NOR circuit is an OR circuit following by a NOT circuit. In either circuit, the output is the inverse of the AND or OR circuit. Logic Symbol Input/Output relation Input A L L H H B L H L H Output Y H L L L
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MEMO
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13. Microcomputer
The microcomputer is a kind of computer. Lets now review briefly the history of development of computers. The first computers ever produced were mechanical ones using gears and other mechanical parts, which was followed by electric ones using relays and them by electronic computers using vacuum tubes. An electronic computer using vacuum tubes was large enough to occupy an entire room of a building, with an many as 20,000 tubes in use. These vacuum tubes were then replaced by transistors and then by integrated circuits (IC). The degree of integration of these Ics then became increasingly higher, developing to LSI (large scale integration) and VLSI (very large scale integration) With these developments, computers also changed from vacuum type to transistor type to IC type and then to current LSI type, with their size becoming increasingly smaller. Lets now see how microcomputers were born. When development was under way to make electronic portable calculators more compact and more sophisticated, every design change required redesign of LSI, which required very large cost and time. This problem was coped with by the use of LSI that allowed free change of internal functions by program. Namely, with such LSI, you can change the programs to allow development of new calculators. And such LSI whose internal functions could be freely changed by program modification was a microcomputer. In other words, a microcomputer is an LSI with functions that are described in the following. 13.1 Three elements of microcomputer A microcomputer consists of three elements, CPU (central processing unit) memory and I/O (input/output unit) 13.2 I/O unit (Input / output unit) Through this unit, the microcomputer communicates with external units (sensor, switch, actuator, etc.) In the case of ECU for instance, the intake air amount is input to the microcomputer as a sensor signal and the result of calculation by the CPU is output from this I/O as the fuel injection amount control signal. 13.3 Memory The memory stores the program (set of directions for operation, judgment, data exchange, etc.), data (reference voltage for ECU air/fuel ratio comparison, for instance) and signals that are input while the CPU is busy with calculation processing. The memory is generally classified into the following two types.
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13.4 ROM (Read Only Memory) A Memory for read only. In the case of a microcomputer for automotive application, only one fixed program needs execution and for this reason, the program is permanently stored in a ROM. The ROM is nonvolatile. The contents are held permanently even after power is turned off. This nature makes ROM optimum device for storing programs. 13.5 RAM (Random Access Memory) Memories that can be write in and read from. It is used for temporarily storing data. Normally it is volatile and the contents stored are lost once the power is turned off. Note : Nonvolatile RAM is also available that is called NVRAM. It is used in electronic odometer, for example. 13.6 CPU (Central Processing Unit) The part of a computer, that performs operation, interpretation and data exchange according to the program stored in the memory. Take the O2 sensor of ECM as an example. When the voltage signal indicating the air/fuel ratio arrives at the I/O unit from the O2 sensor, the CPU makes processing according to the program stored in the memory in the following manner. The CPU compares this signal with the reference voltage stored in the memory and if the signal voltage is higher, it judges that the air/fuel ratio is higher than the theoretical air/fuel ratio and outputs the signal for lowering the fuel injection rate to the I/O. Then, the I/O sends out this signal (to the injector) so that the fuel injection rate is reduced. 13.7 Types of microcomputer The microcomputers can be divided into two types depending on whether separate LSI implements its three elements or all these elements are implemented by a signal LSI. The former type is called a multi chip microcomputer and the latter type is called a one hip microcomputer. The microcomputers used in a car mostly belong to the latter category.
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13.8 Basic operation of microcomputer The basic internal operation of a microcomputer is addition and subtraction of binary numbers and the internal circuits are basically logic circuits. Namely, the microcomputer is essentially digital IC and its internal circuit can be represented by logical symbols. The internal circuits of a microcomputer for automotive application are complicated but they are relatively easy to understand if you have basic knowledge of logic circuits. Note : Binary number The numbers 0 through 9 we use in our daily life are decimal numbers. Binary numbers, on the other hand, consist of only two numbers of 0 and 1. These two numbers correspond, as you will be aware, to the two signals of a logic circuit. In other words, a microcomputer is a digital IC that processes binary data by its logic circuit.
13.9 Microcomputer in a system 15.9.1 Use as a controller In a system formed by transistor, IC, LSI and other individual parts, a microcomputer is introduced as a controller. Typical examples are TV and radio sets and other household electric and electronic appliances. 15.9.2 Use as a computer Application with emphasis placed on its calculation function. Personal computers and word processor belong to this category.
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15.9.3 Combined use as controller and computer Use of a microcomputer not for simple control of machine, but for optimum control. Namely, the microcomputer judges conditions that are constantly changing and controls the machine adequately. Microcomputers used in a car belong to this category. 15.9.4 Example of application As an example of practical application of microcomputers to cars, the computer unit for ECM will be descried. This computer unit of ECM computers the optimum fuel supply rate to the engine, etc. with its microcomputer. Signals from various sensors are input via the I/O unit and calculated by the CPU according to the program stored in ROM. In memory (RAM), data and calculation results are stored temporarily as necessary.
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14. To understand electronic circuit
Blower motor speed control circuit
Blower Motor R1 1 C
IC
M
TR D235
IB
Battery 12volts VR 1~100
Explain process that blower motor's speed is controlled according to value of VR (variable resistance).
Room lamp delay control circuit 63 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Diode 1 10D1 12Volts Battery
R1 330
Condenser 33/25Volts B Diode 2 10D1 R2 15
C Room Lamp TR 1 A1015 E B C 12Volts/1.2W
Door Switch
R1 10
TR 2 D471 E
Explain process that room lamp operates according to ON/OFF of door switch in above circuit.
Auto lighting circuit 64 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
R3 10
R1 4.7
LED
cds
R2 1 B C B TR 2 2SC372 E
C TR 1 2SC372 E
Battery 6V
R4 4.7
Explain process that LED lamp operates in above circuit diagram.
MEMO
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APPENDIX
Electric unit symbols 67 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Quantity Current Voltage Electric Resistance Conductivity Unit Ampere Volt Ohm Mho Coulomb Quantity of electricity Ampere-hour Electric power Watt Joule Work of electricity Watt-hour Static capacitance Electromagnetic induction Coefficient Magnetic flux Magnetic field intensity Magnetic force Magneto motive force Frequency Sound level Attenuation or gain Farad He Weber Ampere-turn Meter Ampere-turn Hertz Phon Decibel AT Hz P dB Wh F H Wb AT/m Ah W J C Unit Symbol A V
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Multiplier fraction 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Prefix Mega or Meg Kilo Deci Centi Mili Micro Nano Pico or Micro n. p. Symbol M K d c. Mm
PREFIX MEGA KILO MILLI MICRO NANO PICO
SYMBOL M K m
RELATION TO BASIC UNIT 1 000 000 1 000 .001 .000 000 001 .000 000 001 .000 000 000 001
EXAMPLE 8 M = 8 000 000 20 Kv = 20 000 V 500 mV = .5 V 500 A = .000 5 A 20 V = .000 000 02 V 20 V = .000 000 000 02 V
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13. Microcomputer 59 14. To understand electronic circuit 63 APPENDOX 67

6. Special type of semiconductor diode 26

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Atom relationship model

Namely, it means that movement of these free

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0.5 sq (Allowable electric current =

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Specific Resistance 10-6

Material Silver, copper Platinum

Nichrome Carbon electrode

Pyrite 1 Germanium 102 Silicon 104 106 10 Semiconductor

1010 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1018

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Hole Structure of P type semiconductor 14 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Electron Hole Depletion layer

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Anode Diode symbol

Cathode Diode Polarity

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<Occasion that supply forward voltage / Electric current is flowing>

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Forward direction voltage characteristic of silicon junction diode

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Volt Diode IR Input voltage

R VR = D.C Volt Output voltage Half -wave rectifier D.C Time

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V= D.C Volt Time

Bridge circuit full-wave rectifier

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Alternator internal circuit

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Backward bias direction connection Cathode() Battery Anode()

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Black lead wire

Red lead wire

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Black lead wire

Red lead wire

6. Special type of semiconductor diode

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Zener diode characteristic

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6.2 Photo diode 1) Photo diode symbol

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Photo diode Battery 12 volts Lamp

Photo diode circuit

6.3 LED (Light emitting diode) 1) Photo diode symbol

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Photo diode circuit

4) Trip computer display using a LED