H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Disclaimers / Terms and Conditions Physics needs tons of practice. This note gets you the U grade if you only read it. g on Earth is defined as 9.81ms-2 unless specified otherwise. There might be errors. Please use some discretion when reading through. This note is definitely not the best. Definitions are given in boxes Even at A levels, due to the nature of the subject, only concepts appear here. Drawing and graphs are equally important in terms of scoring. It is after all, representations and interpretations of our real world. The use of the any calculator is not covered in this note. It is assumed that you have prior knowledge on its use. I dont believe in strong O level concepts because I learnt little in my high school years. This note tries to include the basics. All content in this set of notes may or may not be accurate in the real world since most of it comprises classical mechanics. These notes serve main as a concept check. Applying the concepts is another issue. Distribute only to students by email or thumbdrive. The usage of these notes by any school or tuition teacher is strictly prohibited. This is meant for J1 students only. I strongly recommend all J2 students to practice on problems instead of wasting time here. If you bought a copy of this, please ask for a refund. It is free!

Foreword I feel that amongst all Singapore students, many of us may not have the privilege of receiving quality education in the subject of physics due to differing teaching pedagogies used by various institutions and teachers/mentors. Despite my limited ability, I hope that these notes will assist you in your learning journey for physics, be it the A you are aiming for, or to sustain your genuine interest in the subject. Unlike many other subjects, physics has apparently been one where many misconceptions arise. Furthermore, being an applied subject, it is one where memorizing gets you the U. It is the understanding, deduction and math that count. I do hope you see where physics is around you in this world. From your air-conditioners to cars to infrastructure, physics is everywhere. If you can learn to appreciate the greatness of mankinds inventions, surely you can appreciate the beauty of physics. With that understanding, I wish you all the best for H2 Physics for your promotional exams. Ang Ray Yan Hwa Chong Institution (11S7B)

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) Contents Measurements Physical Quantities and Units Errors and Uncertainties Precision and Accuracy Random and Systematic Errors Scalars and Vectors Rules of Significant Figures Homogeneous Equation Dimensional Analysis

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) Page 3r-6r 3r-4r 4r-5l 5r 5r 6l-6r 6r 6r 6r 7l-9r 7l 7l-7r 7r 8l 8l 8r 8r-9r 9r-14l 9r-10l 10l-11l 11r-12r 12r-13r 13r 14l 14l-15r Waves Work, Energy, Power Definitions Work done Mechanical Energy Conservation of Energy Power and Efficiency

All Rights Reserved 14r-16l 14r 15l 15l-15r 16l 16l 16r-18l 16r-17l 17l 17l-17r 17r-18l 18l-21r 18l-19l 19l 19r-20l 20l 20l 20r-21l 21r 21r 22l-24l 22l 22l-23l 23l-23r 23r-24l 24r-27l 24r 24r-25l 25l-25r 26l 26l-26r 26r 27l

Circular Motion Kinematics of Circular Motion Uniform Circular Motion Centripetal Acceleration / Force Vertical Circular Motion

Kinematics Terminologies Describing Motion with Diagrams Describing Motion with Graphs Equations of Motion Free-fall Bodies Drag Force Projectile Motion

Gravitation Law of Universal Gravitation Geostationary Satellites Gravitational Field Strength Weightlessness Gravitational Potential Gravitational Potential Energy Escape Speed Binary Star System

Dynamics Types of Forces Newtons 3 Laws Conservation of Linear Momentum Collisions Coefficient of Restitution Static and Kinetic Friction

Oscillations Introduction Simple harmonic Motion (S.H.M) Damping Resonance

Forces Hookes Law Upthrust / Buoyant Force Translational Equilibrium Moments Rotational Equilibrium Static and Dynamic Equilibrium Three-force Systems Couples

14l 14l-14r 15l 15l 15l 15l 15r 15r

Introduction (Terms and Graphs) Wave Equation Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves Phase Difference Electromagnetic Waves Intensity of Waves Polarization

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) Superposition Principle of Superposition Interference Diffraction and Huygens-Fresnel Principle Youngs Double Slit Experiment Diffraction Grating Stationary Waves Stretched Strings Air Columns

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 27r 27r 27r-28l 28l-28r 28r-29l 29r-30l 30l-30r 30r-31l 31l-31r 33l-34l 33l-34l 34l

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Chapter 1: Measurements
1.1 Physical Quantities and Units Physical quantities are properties that can be measured/calculated and expressed in numbers.

1.1.1

International System of Units (SI)

Miscellaneous Useful Knowledge / Summary

Established in 1960 by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the following are the 7 SI Base Quantities and Units: Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol length metre m Length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/(299,792,458) of a second. Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Mass kilogram kg Mass of the international prototype of kilogram (made of platinum-iridium, kept at BIPM) Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Time second s Duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between 2 hyperfine levels of the ground state of the Casesium 1333 atom. Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Electric Current Ampere A The constant current which, if maintained in 2 straight, parallel, 1m apart conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross section, would produce between the conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Nm-1. Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Thermodynamic Kelvin K Temperature It is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Amount of mole mol Substance The amount of substance in a system containing as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012kg of carbon-12.

Credits

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.1.3 Rapid Estimation

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Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Luminous Candela cd Intensity Candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source emitting monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 Hz having a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 Wsr-1

Known as Fermi problems, estimation uses simple numbers (e.g. 2, 5) with the correct order of magnitude (e.g. 10-3 or 104): This goes by a 3-step process: First, identify the unknown:

From the base quantities and units, we can obtain derived quantities and units: Quantity Volume Density Velocity Acceleration Force Momentum Pressure Energy Moment Power Electric Charge Voltage Resistance Frequency Note: Actual area of Singapore is 682.7km2. 1.1.2 Prefixes (Common Ones only) Prefix pico nano micro milli centi deci kilo mega giga tera Symbol p n M C D K M G T 1.2 Errors and Uncertainties The experimental error in measuring a physical quantity can be interpreted as the difference in the measured and true value of it. Lastly, find relation between known and unknown: Formula Units Usual Units Next, identify the known:

Factor

Do note that we usually do not know what the true value is. (Hence the need to measure)

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 1.2.1 Absolute Uncertainty

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.3 Precision and Accuracy

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Hence, we express values as such:

Precision refers to the closeness of a set of measurements.

Where is the measured value and is the estimated certainty. In this case, is the absolute uncertainty of .

Accuracy refers to the agreement between the measured and true value of a quantity.

The following illustrates the idea: Do note that each reading taken has its own estimated uncertainty. Do note that all absolute uncertainties should have 1 significant figure and should have the same decimal places as . Target Accurate no Precise yes

yes

no

yes 1.2.2 Fractional / Percentage Uncertainty no

yes

no

1.2.3

Combining Uncertainties 1.4 Random and Systematic Errors Random errors occur as a scattering of readings about the average value of measurements. They have varying signs and magnitudes. It can only be reduced by combining measurements (e.g. thickness of 100 A4 paper, not 1) or by repeating measurements and taking averages. Systematic errors occur as a shift of value from the true value of measurements. They have similar signs and magnitudes. It can eliminated by accounting for it (e.g. zero errors in instruments, calibration etc.) Page 5 of 34

| | For any other functions, we calculate as follows:

Examples of Z include sine, cosine, and any function with a maximum and minimum.

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 1.5 Scalars and Vectors Scalars only have magnitude.

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 1.5.2 Resolution of Vectors

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Vectors have magnitude and direction.

As shown above, a vector can be resolved into the vertical and horizontal components. This is to ensure that they the components are perpendicular and independent of each other. The parallelogram law of addition (left) demonstrates how to sum 2 vectors, and the polygon law of addition shows how to sum all vectors, giving the resultant vector. Also, Usually, rightwards and upwards is positive and leftwards and downwards is negative. However, the question definition takes priority. 1.6 Rules of Significant Figures This is generally summarized into 3 rules: 1.5.1 Finding Resultant Vectors | | For multiplication/division, use least s.f. for result. For addition/subtraction, use least d.p. for result. For logarithms, the number of s.f. we take logarithms is the number of d.p. for the solution:

1.7 Homogeneous Equation* To find the resultant vector (green): Homogeneous equations are equations where units on LHS=RHS.

There are 2 reasons why a homogeneous equation may not be physically correct: Coefficient Missing terms

1.8 Dimensional Analysis* ( ) Dimensions correspond directly with base units. For instance:

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 2.2.2 Vector Diagrams

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Chapter 2: Kinematics
Kinematics (Greek: ) is the branch of mechanics that describe motion. 2.1 Terminologies

Vector arrows are used to depict direction and relative magnitudes of an objects velocity. Thus, we see the top object travels at a constant speed, whilst the bottom is accelerating. 2.2.3 Stroboscopic Photographs

Distance [x] (red) is the total length travelled by a moving object irrespective of direction of motion. The displacement [s] (black) from a reference point, O, is the linear distance and direction of the object from O.

The speed of an object is the rate of change of distance travelled by an object with respect to time. The velocity of an object is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.

Stroboscopic photographs are photos taken by cameras with an open shutter. With a flashing light at fixed frequencies, a fixed duration between illuminations produces the different positions of the object. 2.3 Describing Motion with Graphs 2.3.1 Displacement Time Graphs (s-t) The gradient of the graph gives the instantaneous velocity (reddish-brown at ). The slope of connecting line gives the average velocity. (green between and ). 2.3.2 Velocity Time Graphs (v-t)

The acceleration of an object is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

2.2 Describing Motion with Diagrams 2.2.1 Ticker Tape Diagrams

A ticker places a tick on tape dragged by a moving object. The distance between dots represents the objects position change during a defined time interval (e.g. 0.1s). Hence, we see the top object travels at a constant speed, whilst the bottom is accelerating.

The gradient of the graph gives the instantaneous acceleration (reddishbrown at ). The slope of connecting line gives the average acceleration. (green between and ). The area under the graph gives the displacement.

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 2.4 Equations of Motion

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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All equations here assume a constant acceleration. Hence, we can deduce the equation of velocity:

For Laminar flow (low velocity), the drag force (FD) is given by:

For turbulent flow (high velocity), the drag force (FD) is given by:

Finally, we can integrate to get the displacement:

Hence, applying it to air resistance, we have the following: For a body in free fall with air resistance, the drag force will increase until it is equal to the weight. Since the net force will be zero, the object reaches terminal velocity:

To express displacement in terms of velocity,

2.7 Projectile Motion 2.5 Free-fall Bodies Freely falling objects is any object moving only under the influence of gravity (i.e. ignore air resistance etc.). They accelerate downwards at 9.81ms-2 Using the resolution of vectors, we know that the horiztonal and vertical motions are independent of each other.

2.6 Drag Force When a body moves through liquid or gas, a drag force is experienced. It depends on the velocity of the body. Other factors include shape and dimension of the body and the viscosity of liquid.

Using the equations of motion, Horizontal Vertical

Source:http://www.equipmentexplained.com/images/physics_image s/fluid_images/flow_images/basics/laminar_turbulent_flow.gif

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 2.7.4 Trajectory Equation

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Hence, the impact velocity is given by:

Trajectories are parabolic, as proven below

2.7.1

Maximum Height (H)

( (

) )

At maximum height,

2.7.5

Projectile Motion (with Air Resistance)

2.7.2

Duration of Flight (tflight) On the flight upwards, air resistance acts in the same direction as weight, hence the maximum height is lowered (total downward force larger). On the flight downwards, air resistance acts in the opposite direction as weight. Hence, time to travel up is greater than time to travel down. Also, note that the path is asymmetrical and the horizontal range is lower.

Assuming projectile lands on a level ground as it is initially fired at:

Chapter 3: Dynamics
2.7.3 Horizontal Range (R) This topic studies the cause of motion and changes in motion due to forces. 3.1 Types of Forces There are contact forces and non-contact forces. Contact forces are in physical contact.

For horizontal motion, we know that:

Contact forces are in not in physical contact, and act at a distance. Hence, to get maximum range,

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 3.1.1 Centre of Gravity

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 3.2.2 Newtons Second Law

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The centre of gravity (cg) is the point at which the weight of an object appears to act on.

First we must understand linear momentum. The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.

Suppose we have particles denoted by and their mass is , then it follows that:

Hence, we can now define the following: Newtons second law of motion states that the rate of change of linear momentum is in the same direction and directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it.

3.1.2

Contact Force and Friction

Note that if we differentiate it,

The normal contact force is due to electrostatic repulsion between molecules of the surface and the object. It balances the weight, directed perpendicular to the surface. Lastly, we define a new term: Friction always acts in the opposite direction of relative motion. It will be discussed further in 3.6. 3.2 Newtons 3 Laws 3.2.1 Newtons First Law The impulse a force is the product of the force and the time interval over which it is applied.

Newtons First law states that a body stays at rest or continues to move with a constant speed in a straight line unless a net external force acts on it.

An objects resistance to change in its state of motion is known as inertia. Note that the larger the mass, the higher the inertia.

Impulse is the area under a force-time graph. The average force is represented by a rectangle (e.g. green, left) Do note that large force applied over a short time (yellow) hence the same impulse as small force applied over a long time (green, right).

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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We also have the impulse-momentum theorem: To effectively solve problems, the usage of free body diagrams (below) is crucial. Thus, we label all forces acting on an object (the block). Resolving vectors might be necessary.

3.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum

During collisions, we observe that forces act on opposite bodies without external forces. (e.g. for 2 billard balls as shown above).

3.2.3 Newtons Third Law

Newtons third law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will exert an equal and opposite force of the same nature on body A. Note: both forces must act on different bodies

The principle of conservation of linear momentum (PCOM) states that the total linear momentum of a system is conserved if no net external force acts on the system.

3.4 Collisions 3.4.1 Head-on Collision vs Glancing Collision

Also, note that for all connected components (be it by string, contact, etc.), they have the same acceleration:

A collision is an isolated event where 2 or more colliding bodies exert relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time.

) For head-on collisions, the direction of motion of both bodies before and after collision is in the same line of motion.

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 3.4.2

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 3.4.4

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Elastic and Inelastic Collision

Solving Collision Problems

An elastic collision is when 100% of kinetic energy is being conserved. A completely inelastic collision is when 2 objects coalesce (stick together) and move with common velocity after collision. It represents the maximum possible loss of KE (not loss of all KE). To solve problems, we use PCOM and RSOA/RSOS. Let A and B be 1.0kg and 3.0kg respectively. For elastic collision,

3.4.3

Relative speed of Approach / Separation

For an elastic 2-body head on collision,

Since KE is 100% conserved for elastic collisions, For completely inelastic collision,

That is, for elastic collision, the relative speed of approach [RSOA] (LHS) equals the relative speed of separation [RSOS] (RHS). If 1 of the bodies is initially at rest, then: 3.5 Coefficient of Restitution* The elasticity of a collision is quantified by the coefficient of restitution, | | | |

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 3.6 Static and Kinetic Friction*

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Source:http://images.tutorvista.co m/content/fluids-pressure/liquidpressure.gif

Static friction is the force opposing motion between 2 bodies at rest relative to each other.

Note that the pressure of fluid acts in all directions.

Kinetic friction is the force opposing motion between 2 bodies moving relative to each other.

Source:http://img.sparknotes.com/fig ures/0/0a1c01f07d0a0e51105b2065c1 36cda0/ideal_p1_3.gif

Hence, there is no static friction when there is kinetic friction, and vice versa.

Chapter 4: Forces
4.1 Hookes Law Hookes law states that the magnitude of the force F exerted by a spring on a body attached to the spring is proportional to the extension x of the spring from equilibrium provided the proportionality limit of the spring is not exceeded.

The left diagram shows typical mercury manometers, measuring the difference in pressure. For atmospheric pressure, it is usually at 760 mmHg. The deeper down the tube, the higher the pressure (due to extra weight of column of mercury). in this case gives us the difference in pressure for 2 gases. Now, we move on to understand upthrust: Upthrust is the net upward force exerted by a fluid on a body fully or partially submerged in the fluid.

4.2 Upthrust / Buoyant Force To understand upthrust, we must first know the pressure exerted by a fluid. Using the fluid force acting on the surface bottom that offsets the weight of the water column (dark blue),

Hence, to find the upthrust acting on a cube (dark blue here):

This is Archimedes Principle, stating that a body submerged in liquid has an upthrust equal to the weight of fluid displaced. Page 13 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 4.3 Translational Equilibrium

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 4.7 Three-force Systems

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When a body is either stationary or moving at constant velocity, the body is in translational equilibrium. The condition is that: 4.4 Moments The moment of a force about a point is the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force to the point.

For stationary bodies experiencing only 3 coplanar forces, then the lines of action of all 3 forces must intersect at 1 point. (net about that point must be zero).

Hence, we see that for the bridge to be stable (suspended by the rope), the direction of force acting on the bridge by the hinge must meet the intersection of the other 2 forces. 4.8 Couples

With the example of trying to open a door, we see that the moment about the hinge is given by: A couple is a pair forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose lines of action are parallel but separate.

4.5 Rotational Equilibrium For a body to be at rotational equilibrium, the net moment of the body about any point is zero, i.e.: The principle of moments states that for a body to be in rotational equilibrium,

Couples only produce rotation and no translation. The resultant torque is given by: ( ) ( )

Chapter 5: Work, Energy, Power

5.1 Definitions Work is the transfer and transformation of energy between one body and another. The energy of a system is a measure of its capacity to do work.

must be true for any point on the body.

4.6 Static and Dynamic Equilibrium Static e.g. Hanging Picture Dynamic e.g. Sliding Ice Block

Similar to using momentum and impulse, we can find the change in energy using work done without knowing the time interval when the force is applied. Page 14 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 5.2 Work Done

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 5.3.1 Kinetic Energy

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The work done on a body is the product of the force and its displacement in the direction of the force.

Kinetic energy of a body is a measure of energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion Using the Newtons 2nd Law and kinematics equation for uniform acceleration:

Hence, given the following diagram,

( We conclude that:

)(

Hence, negative work done is doing work in the opposite direction of displacement. (In the above case, it could be work done by friction). Note that the total work done is the area under the force displacement graph: Hence, a decrease in KE is negative work done, and the increase in KE is positive work done. 5.3.2 Potential Energy

Potential energy of a body can be defined as the amount of work done on it to give it the current position it occupies.

For an expanding gas, do note that there is another formula for the work done:

For an object to exist at its current position, it needs to overcome the earths attraction:

Provided pressure is constant during expansion, the force exerted on the piston is constant:

This is also the gravitational potential energy (G.P.E) since the object is in a gravitational field. For an object falling through a distance of :

5.3 Mechanical Energy The total mechanic energy of a system is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in the system: Hence in general for non-uniform fields

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 5.4 Conservation of Energy

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 6: Circular Motion

6.1 Kinematics of Circular Motion 6.1.1 Circular Measure Given this diagram, we know that the arc length (red) is given by:

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy is a quantity that can be converted from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed. The total energy of an isolated system is constant.

It is an effective method for dealing with various problems in mechanics, for instance: Hence, the radian is defined as the ratio between arc length and the radius of the circle. ( To find the maximum compression of spring, )

6.1.2

Angular Displacement and Velocity If an object moves from to , then the angular displacement is the change in angle ( ).

5.5 Power and Efficiency Power is defined as the rate of work done. So similarly, to find angular velocity,

Also note the following relation with velocity: ( ) Efficiency is the ratio of useful output power to total input power, i.e.:

6.1.3

Tangential Speed Knowing that , we differentiate w.r.t time: ( )

The efficiency is usually less than 1 since the input energy is converted to other non-useful forms of energy (e.g. heat energy in light bulbs).

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 6.1.4 Period and Frequency

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Period is the time for 1 complete cycle (or revolution) Frequency is the number of revolutions per unit time.

6.2 Uniform Circular Motion For a uniform circular motion, the tangential speed remains constant, but the direction of velocity is always changing. 6.3 Centripetal Acceleration / Force With changing direction and same speed, there must be acceleration perpendicular to the velocity vector, known as the centripetal acceleration (ac). To derive it,

Source:http://www.borzov.net/Pilot/FSWeb/Lessons/Student/image s/Lesson2Figure01.gif

The above shows the banking of a plane, where tilting the plane gives the horizontal component of lift responsible for turning (centripetal force).

( Since the position and velocity vectors move in tandem, they go around the circle in the same time, equal to the distance travelled divided by the velocity: | | | | By equating both equations, we get: | | | | | | | | | | | | 6.4 Vertical Circular Motion

When dealing with vertical circular motion, the conservation of energy becomes very useful:

Hence, using Newtons 2nd Law, the centripetal force is given by:

For instance, if the roller coaster (blue) and its passengers are 170kg, is travelling at 33ms-1 and the loop is of radius 19m, we can determine the normal contact force at the top and bottom and minimum speed for the roller coaster to pass the loop safely at the top.

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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7.1.1

Weighing the Earth

Since the moon orbits the moon, we can weigh the earth using this law and circular motion.

( ( )

Chapter 7: Gravitation
7.1 Law of Universal Gravitation Newtons Law of universal gravitation states that every particle attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, i.e.:

The same technique applies for the Sun, satellites, moons and various objects in space. Note that this is only an estimation. 7.1.2 Acceleration of the Earth

Using the law, we know that the earth would accelerate towards the apple. Using Newtons d 2nd 3rd Law,

Hence, we see that the Earth has negligible acceleration due to its large mass. Note: Particles are point masses and of negligible dimensions. Objects with radial symmetry can also be treated as a point mass. (Shell theorem). G is the gravitational constant, experimentally determined to be 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 Page 18 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 7.1.3

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Inverse Square Relationship

7.3 Gravitational Field Strength The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at the point.

Since from the previous example we know that: ( )

Keplers 3rd Law helps to explain how the inverse square relationship is derived:

If a gravitational field is set up around M and attracts m which is distance r away from M,

( )

7.2 Geostationary Satellites Geostationary satellites are satellites with orbits such that they are always positioned over the same geographical spot on Earth.

For any spherical body, the acceleration inside it is zero. For these situations, At P, the gravitational field due to solid spherical shell A is zero. However, the gravitational field at P due to spherical mass B (dotted) is given by:

Note that it must be in the same plane as the equator such that the orbits centre and centre of the Earth is concentric. Assuming a circular orbit and that the radius of the earth is 6.58 x 106m and the mass of the earth to be 5.98 x 1024 kg,

However, since B is a mass in the shell,

Hence, if we were to sketch g against r,

With such high altitudes, the whole Earth disk is viewable, but the spatial resolution (amount of details) is poor. Places further away from the equator have poorer resolutions.

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Note that all gravitational field lines are perpendicular to the gravitational field vector g. Also, when g is large, the gravitational field lines are closer. However, it is important to note that g is not uniform on earth. First, the earth is an imperfect sphere. Since we know that:

7.6 Gravitational Potential Energy

Assume that point A is infinity, then to move mass from point A to point B:

Also, note that the density of the earth is not uniform. With the earth rotating, the gravitational pull has to also provide for the centripetal acceleration, lowering g. 7.4 Weightlessness We know that the weighing balance measures the normal contact force acting on the object. Hence, there are 2 types of weightlessness. True weightlessness is when there is no net gravitational force acting on an object. We realize that by Newtons 2nd Law,

At infinity, the gravitational potential energy is 0,

The gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.) of a mass at a point in a gravitational field is the work done by an external force in bringing the mass from infinity to that point.

Since increasing separation distance results in a gain in G.P.E (gravitational force is attractive in nature), and infinity is the reference point (U=0), hence G.P.E is always negative. 7.6.1 G.P.E of a system To find the number of G.P.E. of a system with n masses, we have the following: For 3 mass, we see that:

However in this case, since , . Thus, the reading on the weight machine is zero. Apparent weightlessness is observed when an object exerts no contact force on its support.

7.5 Gravitational Potential The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit mass by an external force, in bringing the mass from infinity to that point. This represents the G.P.E. between every 2 point masses. Hence, for n masses, ( )

Note: Points of equal distance away from the centre of the Earth are equipotential. Page 20 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 7.6.2 G.P.E. near Earths Surface

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 7.7 Escape Speed

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At the Earths surface, the change in G.P.E is:

) The escape speed is the minimum speed to project a mass to escape a gravitational field.

7.6.3

Relationship between G.P.E. and Fg 7.8 Binary Star System A binary star system contains 2 stars. We know that the force acting on each other is: ( )

To move a point further from mass M,

7.6.4

Total Energy By using circular motion, we can equate them: ( ) ( )

For any mass m (e.g. satellites) moving in circular orbit around spherical M, the total energy is:

An object at P experiences true weightlessness. (g=0 as shown from the . Hence, to reach from , we only need K.E. sufficient to reach P: ( )

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 8.2.1 Equations in S.H.M

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Chapter 8: Oscillations
8.1 Introduction Oscillation is the repetitive variation of some measure about a point of equilibrium or 2 or more different states.

Free oscillations are systems oscillating at the natural frequency of the system, the frequency characteristic of the system.

The above graph plots

against

Here are some examples of free oscillations. In the real world, they are subjected to dissipative forces, known as the damping effect. 8.2 Simple harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

Hence, we can now define simple harmonic motion (S.H.M): Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion where an oscillator is subjected to a restoring force directed towards the equilibrium point.

Also, note that to express

Assuming we have a particle vibrating along the lines of XY and the displacement is recorded to the right. (In a displacement-time graph) Observing the above, we make some observations using trigonometry:

( )

Hence, we have the following graph (v against x):

Hence, given this generic displacement equation, we can begin to work out the rest. Note: the red graph moves in the clockwise direction (think about the motion) [For instance, when , the next moment must have ] Page 22 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 8.2.2 Energy in S.H.M

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 8.3.1 Light Damping

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Given the previous mentioned equations, we can derive the energy in the oscillator:

Oscillating under resistive forces, the amplitude decreases by the same proportion after each cycle. Note that the period is slightly longer than that of the undamped value. 8.3.2 Critical Damping

Plotting energy against time gives the following:

Larger resistive force results in critical damping, where the oscillator returns to the equilibrium point in the shortest time without overshooting. This is used is balances, ammeters/voltmeters to indicate readings in the shortest time. 8.3.3 Heavy Damping

In essence, it is a sine squared graph (for P.E.) and cosine squared graph (for K.E.). 8.3 Damping The progressive decrease in amplitude of any oscillatory motion caused by dissipative forces is also known as damping.

An even stronger damping force will cause the oscillator to take a longer time to reach equilibrium. For instance, over-damped car fuel gauge indicators are used to give reasonable indications despite car movement. 8.4 Resonance Firstly, we must know what forced oscillations are: Forced oscillations are oscillations under the influence of an external periodic force with a driving frequency.

Examples include attaching cardboard (for more air resistance), immersing oscillators in fluids (more viscous) and eddy currents.

Next, we move on to investigate resonance. Page 23 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only)

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Resonance is the phenomenon in which an oscillatory system responds with maximum amplitude to an external periodic force when the driving frequency equals natural frequency of the driven system.

Chapter 9: Waves
9.1 Introduction (Terms and Graphs) Wave is a disturbance of some physical quantity. As the disturbance propagates through space or medium, energy and momentum can be transferred from 1 region to another.

The graph shows various degrees of damping (light, heavier, and even heavier). Hence, we see that amplitude of lightly damped systems is very large at resonance. Damping lowers resonant frequency to below natural frequency. With increasing damping, we realize that: 1) 2) 3) 4) The amplitude of oscillation decreases The Resonance peak becomes broader The resonance peak shifts leftwards The graph does not cut at 0. This is because driving frequency of 0 means there is 1 swing.

Source:http://rpmedia.ask.com/ts?u=/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7 /77/Waveforms.svg/350px-Waveforms.svg.png

Waves can come in many waveforms (above). We will use only sinusoidal waves for simplicity. 9.2 Wave Equation
source: http://www.alevelphysicstutor.com/images/wa ves/sinus-graph01.jpg

Examples of useful resonance include: 1) Microwave cooking (microwave frequency is natural frequency of water), cooking food without heating plastic containers too much. 2) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) allows analysis of energy absorption using strong EM fields to produce images (similar to X-rays). Examples of destructive resonance include: 1) When an opera singer projects a high-pitched note matching the natural frequency of glass, glass vibrates at large amplitudes, breaking it. 2) Collapse of bridges (e.g. Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge). High winds results in resonance. Hence, the bridge vibrates at exceptionally large amplitudes and collapses.

The left shows the displacement-time graph (1 particle, above) and displacementdistance graph (whole wave, below) Period is time taken for a point on the wave to complete one oscillation Frequency is the no. of oscillations per unit time made by a point on the wave. Wavelength is the distance between 2 adjacent points that are in phase. Displacement of a particular point is the distance and direction of that point from its equilibrium position. Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a point on the wave. Crests are points with maximum, positive displacement. Troughs are points with maximum, negative displacement. Page 24 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 9.3.2 Longitudinal Waves

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For a periodic wave, it travels one wavelength during 1 period. Hence, we can determine its speed:

Waves can be categorized into the following: Mode of Vibration Motion Medium Longitudinal Transverse Progressive Stationary / Standing Mechanical Electromagnetic Matter

http://sciencecity.oupchina.com.hk/npaw/student/supplementary/i mages/graph-1b_7.jpg

Longitudinal waves are waves where the displacement of particles is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

It is important to note that waves usually transfer energy and not matter. Some waves require a medium (e.g. sound and air/water) whereas others can occur in vacuum (e.g. light rays from Sun).

Sound is a good example of longitudinal waves:

9.3 Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves 9.3.1 Transverse Waves

Source:http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/imgsou/lwav2.gif

9.3.3

Progressive Waves

Source:http://sciencecity.oupchina.com.hk/npaw/student/suppleme ntary/images/graph-1b_8.jpg

Transverse waves are waves where displacement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

The displacement-distance graph shows the same wave travelling left to right when t=0, t=1 and t=2. Hence, by analyzing the particle at t= , we can plot the displacement-time graph for the single particle:

Transverse waves are similar to their wave profiles and they can (obviously) exist in many planes. Examples include all electromagnetic waves.

The same technique can be applied for longitudinal waves by analyzing its wave profile. Page 25 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only) 9.4 Phase Difference

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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This table contains some uses of EM waves: Name Radio Micro Infra-Red (IR) Visible Light Ultra Violet (UV) X-rays Gamma ( rays Detection Radio Aerials Tuned Cavities Photography / Heating Effect Eye / Photography Fluorescence, solid state detectors Fluorescence Scintillation counter Uses Communications Communications and cooking Satellite, TV controls Sight, communication Food sterilization Diagnosis Radiotherapy

The phase of an osicillation is the stage of oscillation that is represented by the phase angle, where 2 radians or 360 represents one complete cycle.

Note: points chosen must be in phase (black): ( ) ( )

9.5 Electromagnetic Waves

9.6 Intensity of Waves

Source:http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/wavebasics/basicw avesjavafigure1.jpg

Source:http://toonz.ca/bose/wiki/images/1/1e/IntensitySurfaceSphe re.gif

Electromagnetic (EM) waves consist of the electric (E) and magnetic (B) field oscillating perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. No medium is required. They travel at the speed of light (which is an EM wave), where .

The intensity is defined as the power per unit area that passes perpendicularly through a surface area, i.e.:

Since intensity is the energy per unit time per unit area, we can thus conclude that: The EM spectrum classifies various EM waves:

Also, the diagram shows that we can apply the inverse square law for intensity:

Source: http://amazingspace.stsci.edu/resources/qa/graphics/qa_emchart.gif

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H2 Physics (J1 Only) 9.7 Polarization

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Chapter 10: Superposition

10.1 Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition states that when 2 or more waves of the same kind overlap, the resultant displacement at any point any instant is given by the vector sum of individual displacements that each individual wave would cause at that instant, i.e.:

Source:http://www.exo.net/~pauld/summer_institute/summer_day 8polarization/polarizerfencemodel600.jpeg

Polarization is the phenomenon where a transverse wave is made to oscillate in a single plane, the plane of polarization.

10.2

Interference

The first polarizer is known as the polarizer and the second is known as the analyzer . All polarization filters only allow planes in the plane of polarization to pass. Hence, we can resolve the electric field to give a vertical and horizontal component.

Inteference is the combination of waves in the same region of space at the same time to produce a resultant wave.

10.2.1 Constructive, Destructive Interference There are 2 types of interference, constructive and destructive interference:

10.2.2 Path Difference and Phase Difference ( ) ( )

Hence, we observe the following:

Source:http://roncalliphysics.wikispaces.com/file/view/nodal_lines.g if/233899502/nodal_lines.gif

If the polarizer and analyzer have planes of polarization perpendicular to each other, then no light passes through.

Plotting lines that join constructive interference (red, anti-nodal lines) and destructive interference (blue, nodal lines), we obtain the above diagram. Page 27 of 34

H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Path difference is defined as follows: | | | |

The following shows how it can apply to waves, for both refraction and diffraction.

For instance, the above diagram shows that: | |

The new wave front is thus the envelope of wavelets (green). Hence, for smaller apertures, the envelope of wavelets is more spherical. 10.4 Youngs Double Slit Experiment

If they are in phase, constructive interference occurs (as above). However, if they are anti-phase, then destructive interference occurs. Generalizing, we have the final phase difference, given by:

Hence, for constructive interference,

Hence, for constructive interference, ( )

10.3 Diffraction and Huygens-Fresnel Principle Diffraction is the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.

Thomas Young used the double-slit experiment in 1803 to show that light was a wave by demonstrating intereference patterns predictable by wave theory after his paper was rejected in 1799 by the royal society. The single slit ensures the coherency of the wave. 2 waves are coherent if they have a constant (not necessarily 0) phase difference between them.

And we use the Huygens-Fresnel principle to explain that phenomenon: Huygens-Fresnel principle states that every point of a wave may be considered a secondary source of wavelets spreading out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the wave.

Coherent waves have the same wavelength and frequency, and hence the same speed. In order to determine maxima and minima, we must first observe that for this experiment:

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) 10.5 Diffraction Grating

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After seeing the double slit experiment, we now use diffraction grating, adding many more parallel, closely spaced and equidistance slits. Diffraction grating usually involves hundreds or thousands of slits.
Source:http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mas13/draft4.310_files/image03 4.jpg (left)

First, we make the following observation:

For bright fringes (maxima),

For dark fringes (minima), ( )

To find the exact positions of dark and bright fringes (as shown in the initial experimental setup diagram):

Source:http://nothingnerdy.wikispaces.com/file/view/diffraction_gra ting_geometry.jpg/213547792/diffraction_grating_geometry.jpg

Source: http://www.a-levelphysicstutor.com/wav-light-diffr.php

The above diagram represents the various interference patterns with varying slits. We observe that: ( ) ( )( ) Hence, using property 3, we can adapt the equation for Youngs experiment to find the nth order maxima for a diffraction grating, i.e.: 1) Maxima increases (more slits) 2) Better contrast in fringe pattern 3) Position of maxima is the same

Hence, the fringe separation, distance between 2 adjacent bright or dark fringes, is given by: ( )( ) ( )

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Source:http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/imgpho/diffgrat.gif

It is important to observe that different wavelengths of light have different maximas (e.g. that of red and blue. This is demonstrates that small angle approximation does not hold (due to increasing angle). Since fringes are irregularly spaced, ( ) Commercially, gratings are labelled by no. of lines per unit length, N.

Hence, when we have 2 identical waves moving in opposite direction, we have a stationary wave (red) that is being formed. Stationary waves obviously have no translation of energy. It has the following properties compared to a normal wave:

Nodes are points that never move and antinodes are points having the greatest amplitude of vibration. 10.7 Stretched Strings

10.6

Stationary Waves
Source:http://learn.uci.edu/media/OC08/11004/OC0811004_Standi ngWave04.jpg

A string that is fixed on 2 ends can vibrate (above). Like in simple harmonic motion, when the string vibrates at its natural frequency, it obtains the resonant modes of vibration (below):
Source:http://tap.iop.org/vibration/superpostion/324/img_full_4680 0.gif

Firstly, we note a phenomenon that when a wave hits a fixed / denser surface (e.g. mirrors), they undergo a phase change of radians. This is because the wave exerts an upward force (above diagram) on the fixed surface. Hence, by Newtons 3rd law, the wall exerts an equal and opposite (downward) force on the medium (e.g. string), resulting in a negative displacement.

Source:http://www.miqel.com/images_1/jazz_music_heart/harmoni cs.jpg

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

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Harmonics are all resonant frequencies of vibrations that can be generated.

Generalizing, we can deduce that:

10.8.2 Closed Pipes

( )

Note: the 1st harmonic is known as the fundamental frequency. Overtones are frequencies that can be produced by an instrument accompanying the 1st harmonic that is played.

Generalizing, we can deduce that:

10.8.3 End Corrections

10.8

Air Columns

There are 2 types of air columns: 10.8.1 Open pipes End corrections occur because in practice, the open end of a pipe is set into vibration and the displacement antinode occurs at a distance c (above). From the above,

Source:http://labspace.open.ac.uk/file.php/7027/ta212_2_015i.smal l.jpg

It has been found that end correction is approximately 50-60% of the radius of the cross sectional area of pipe. It might be better to take them into consideration for large pipes.

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B) Forces

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Chapter 11: Miscellaneous

11.1 Useful Knowledge / Summary *

11.1.1 List of Useful Formulas by Topic This list is non-exhaustive: Physical Quantities and Measurements Work, Energy, Power | |

Kinematics

Circular Motion

Dynamics Gravitation

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

Prepared by Ang Ray Yan (HCI 11S7B)

All Rights Reserved Superposition

Gravitation (Continued)

| ( )

Oscillations / Simple Harmonic Motion

11.1.2 List of Useful Constants Waves These are fundamental constants to be used: Gravitation constant Speed of EM Waves Electron Charge Plancks Constant Stefan-Boltzmann Constant Gas Constant Avogadros Constant Boltzmanns constant

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H2 Physics (J1 Only)

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11.1.3 List of any other useful data (for now)

Credits
This set of physics notes is done by Ang Ray Yan, Hwa Chong Institution 11S7B. The following people deserve their due recognition in making this set of notes: Mr Thomas, my physics tutor who rekindled my interest for physics, showing me that physics was useful, interesting, applicable and unlike anything in my high school years. Lim Yao Chong for being a reliable helpline in my weakest topics, particularly dynamics. Phang Zheng Xun for giving more accurate definitions and various explanations. Yuan Yu Chuan for correcting my English, which is of powder-ful standard.

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