wyler department of dryland agriculture

Clockwise from upper left: Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) grown in the Negev are exported to European markets. The extensive root system of Schismus arabicus Nees (Poaceae) enables the plant to survive and to colonize between rainfall that engenders germination until the next rainfall, even if this period lasts for as long as two weeks. Dryland lanscaping with cacti and succulents minimizes water consumption. Intercropping: Feed crops, planted between Acacia saligna trees and irrigated with runoff water in an experimental field.

Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture

Dr. Pedro Berliner, Chairperson

The Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture develops technologies for improving agricultural practices in drylands, which cover approximately a third of our planets land area and are populated by some 1.8 billion people. The socio-economic conditions and the climatic and edaphic (soil) factors prevailing in these areas vary greatly. The agricultural development strategies for various types of arid regions must therefore be individually tailored. In addition, dryland ecosystems are extremely fragile and the introduction of new agricultural activities may affect local biodiversity, leading in the long run to desertification. It is therefore necessary to elaborate new approaches to agricultural development that take conservation of biodiversity into account. Worldwide, dryland agriculture is generally rain-fed. Because of low precipitation, special farming techniques and well-adapted crops are needed to ensure successful, stable and sustainable agriculture. An appropriate, interesting and sophisticated 2000-year-old technique was studied and refined in our department: the harvesting of water for agroforestry systems that provide firewood and fodder, two important commodities in the arid zones of developing countries. Runoff generated during rainfall events flows by gravitation into the lower-lying parts of the landscape and is retained in walled plots. In these plots crops are planted and have an adequate water supply. The advantages of this irrigation system are that it is cheap, simple to implement, and does not require a sophisticated infrastructure. Some of the more specific topics we are dealing with are optimizing planting density, soil amendments, mulching, supplementary irrigation, irrigation with brackish water, efficiency of runoff production and the implementation of agroforestry systems. In extensive dryland agriculture, animals are an integral part of the production system. Their fodder requirements can be met by the production of fodder in the previously described systems. However, runoff agroforestry cannot be implemented everywhere. Dryland farmers are traditionally pastoralists, using livestock grazing on noncultivated areas, including runoff-contributing slopes. Where runoff agroforestry cannot be implemented, livestock grazing is the only source of sustenance. Understanding the interaction between animals, native plant population communities, and the physical structure of the landscape as affected by human land-use is critical to ensuring the sustainability of pastoral systems. Our work involves extensive basic and applied studies in plant and animal physiology, animal nutrition, plant population dynamics and biodiversity, rangeland ecology, agricultural physics, and soil fertility and chemistry. In some areas, capital and infrastructure are available and they allow the introduction of extremely sophisticated intensive production systems. The introduction of greenhouses in arid regions has allowed farmers to market their produce very early in the season, thereby increasing their incomes. The development of appropriate greenhouse management techniques for arid zones requires the understanding of the complex interactions between the external and the internal climate of the greenhouse and the response of the crop to these changes. Moreover new fertilization techniques have to be devised in order to capitalize on the potential advantages of the system. We are intensively studying methods of controlling the growing environment in greenhouses to optimize agricultural production and developing techniques to grow flowering bulbs, exotic cacti and other crops for marketing abroad. Brackish water is frequently available in arid zones and its use may help improve the economics of dryland agriculture. We are studying the long-term consequences of irrigation with brackish water and its effect on various field and greenhouse crops, paying special

Runoff water can be directed to agricultural fields for improved dryland agricultural production.

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attention to the changes in soil properties due to the use of brackish water. In addition to the laboratory facilities at Sede-Boqer, the department has two experimental farms: the runoff-farm in Wadi Mashash and the Even-Ari Farm for Ecology and Runoff Research in the Desert at Avdat. The latter is one of the ILTER (international long-term ecological research) field sites for studies of rangeland ecology and management at the low end of the rainfall range (in cooperation with the MDDE). The Katif Research Center for the Development of Coastal Deserts is a regional R&D center affiliated with the department. Phone: 972-8-659-6758 Fax: 972-8-659-6757 E-mail: berliner@bgumail.bgu.ac.il
Pteranthus dichotomus Forssk (caryophylaceae), one of the most salt-resistant annuals in the Negev highlands, emerging on loess soil.

Academic staff
Ben-Asher, Jiftah Berliner, Pedro Boeken, Bertrand Degen, Allan A. Ephrath, Jhonathan E. Gutterman, Yitzchak Silberbush, Moshe

Associate Staff
Carmi, Genadi Chauser-Volfson, Elena

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES Ecophysiology

Afterripening rain requirements for germination and seedling drought tolerance of wild barley Gutterman

Wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) is a winter annual grass found in the Irano-Turanian steppes, the Saharo-Arabian desert, and the Mediterranean region. Because the small amounts of rain required to trigger germination may be followed by long dry periods, the ability of young seedlings to dehydrate, survive until the next rainfall, and recover their ability to grow and develop new roots, is vital for survival. The survival strategies of dried seedlings of H. spontaneum were studied in the laboratory. We found that the percentage of dried seedlings that developed normally depended significantly on their genotype, root length, and the length of the period of drought. We also found that there are great genetic differences among local genotypes from the same general area. There are even differences within one plant population, and among patches of plants that grow on different types or depths of soil in a particular location. As part of a research project financed by the DIP Foundation, 150 hybrids, totaling more than 200,000 plants, are being grown at Sede-Boqer under water stress conditions of about 130 mm/season with a control area receiving the equivalent of 350 mm of water per season in 4 replicates. These hybrids are derived from crossing cultivated barley Mona, which is not drought resistant, with Hordeum spontaneum genotypes from Sede-Boqer and Wadi Kelt, which are highly adapted to drought. Ecophysiological features are being studied to determine the genetic segregation and combinations with the highest drought tolerance. These features include branching, flowering, plant biomass, seed yield, seed afterripening and seedling drought tolerance of future generations.
With: E. Nevo, Haifa University; P.Neumann, Technion Israel Institute of Technology; D. Yakir, Weizmann Institute; Z. Eyal, Tel Aviv University

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Complementary sets of survival strategies in one of the most common annual plant in the Negev Schismus arabicus Gutterman

During 1999 we studied two more fascinating survival strategies of the complex already studied in the past: 1) The phenotypic germination plasticity of Schismus arabicus affected by seed size. On young plants more large seeds (caryopses) mature and on older plants relatively more small seeds mature. The larger the seeds, the faster their germination, and the wider the range of temperatures required for germination; 2) Seedling drought tolerance (point-of-no-return). It has been found that roots of young Schismus arabicus seedlings, even if they reach the length of over 20 mm, can survive after a drought of up to 30 days and continue to grow into normal plants. Such a unique phenomenon has not yet been found in any other desert plant. In this study we found that soil factors inhibit seed germination and affect the distribution of plant species in desert environments. We studied the inhibition of Plantago coronopus seed germination in petri dishes on cyanobacterial soil crusts and on soils collected from below shrubs in the Negev desert. Soil samples originated in regions along the annual rainfall gradient from 50-325 mm/year. We found that germination inhibition is greater on soils from areas receiving higher than average annual rainfall and on soils with higher total carbon content. Moreover, the higher the average rainfall and the thicker the soil crust (from 1 to 15 mm), the stronger the inhibition of germination. We also observed that along the rainfall gradient investigated, the amount of carbon in the soil samples was higher in samples from areas with higher rainfall. The relationship between soil carbon and germination is not yet understood, but there is a clear correlation between the amounts of carbon in the soil crust and the inhibitory effect along the rainfall gradient. Germination inhibition and its control by soil carbon content may be important for the distribution and dominance of plant species in the Negev desert.
With: M.Shachak, E. Zaady, BIDR

Germination inhibition by soils of the Negev Desert Gutterman

Rangeland Vegetation Ecology

Dynamics of the abundance and incidence of annual plant species during colonization Boeken

The colonization of annual plants in small-scale disturbances and undisturbed soil was investigated for four years in the northern Negev desert. The experiment consisted of twenty-four 1/m2 patches: eight undisturbed patches; and eight 30 cm-deep pits and eight 20 cm-high mounds, from which the seed banks were removed. Annual rainfall varied from 97.5mm to 283.0mm. For each of the ca. 100 species, abundance (the average local density in patches occupied by the species), and incidence (the proportion of patches occupied) became stronger with time. A few species rapidly colonized all patches with their abundance increasing exponentially over the years of study; these species were hardly influenced by the variations in rainfall. Most of the species, however, experienced frequent local extinctions, colonized in few patches, and responded strongly to rainfall. The incidence and abundance values of the species, and their changes in time, signify constraints on local population growth, on colonization, and on population persistence. We found that the less common species in our experiment had incidences and abundances that varied strongly with rainfall. This indicates a site-dependent limitation of local populations and their spatial distributions. Some species may be limited by dispersal, in conjunction with their dispersal mode, and by patch-specific seed capture. In contrast, the common species have weak constraints and experience density-independent population growth, which is only seed-limited. In conclusion, determination of abundance/incidence data is a useful tool for investigating assemblage dynamics.
With: M. Shachak, BIDR

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Colonization of annual plants in an experimentally altered desert landscape Boeken

In order to determine how plants colonize in shrublands, we compared the colonization by annual plant species in a natural landscape and in experimental patches. We prepared eight sets of experimental patches consisting of pits and mounds, clearing them of vegetation, soil crust and the existing seed bank. In the first growing season, a similar number of species colonized both pits and mounds in the experimental patches. However, the total number of individual species was higher in the pits than on the mounds. Most of the early colonizing species became resident in the patches, but some colonization of new species occurred during the second year. From the second year on, adjacent natural patches of undisturbed crusted soil were also colonized, primarily from experimental pits and mounds. We concluded that the ability of patches to support colonization (the so-called sink function) increases with removal of vegetation, soil crust, and the existing seed bank. Our experiments show that the sink function of pits and mounds represents a powerful tool for linking vegetative communities and landscape processes.
With: M. Shachak, BIDR

Responses of annual plant communities to the density of small-scale soil disturbances Boeken

Measuring plant responses in small-scale soil disturbances.

The effect of the density of small-scale experimental soil disturbances on plant diversity and productivity were investigated. In our study, we used soil diggings (similar to foraging diggings made by porcupines) from four densities. In the spring of three years, we measured plant density, species richness, and plant productivity in the diggings and in adjacent, equal-sized, undisturbed control areas. We found that: 1) annual plant community parameters were higher in the diggings than in the adjacent undisturbed matrix; 2) these parameters decreased in the diggings as digging density itself increased, but not in the undisturbed matrices; 3) in the last year of study, seed densities captured in the diggings from outside the digging, decreased with increasing digging density; 4) at the highest digging density, there was no down-slope decline of plant density and species number in the diggings, as would be expected if intercepting runoff flow was responsible for the digging-density effect. The additional resources and seeds in diggings increased plant density, as well as species richness and productivity, relative to the undisturbed matrices. However, the contrast between the diggings and the undisturbed matrix diminishes at higher digging densities, indicating that when in close proximity, the beneficial effects of the diggings are canceled out. The lack of a down-slope effect indicates that the interference is due to interception of the wind-driven, nondirectional flow of seeds.
With: N. van Rooyen, University of Pretoria, RSA

The role of patchy litter distribution in dry shrublands Boeken

The effects of litter on the distribution and flow of water, soil and organisms (annual plants and termites) in shrubland ecosystems were investigated in experimental units containing a crust and a shrub patch. Leaf litter was added in single or double quantities to either, both or neither of the patches. The variables measured were surface water runoff, seedling density, and the biomass and species richness of annual plants. Litter addition decreased runoff, regardless of the location or amount of litter applied. Litter on the crust increased seedling density of sparse species, but not of dense species. Adding a double litter layer to the crust increased biomass and species number, while the single layer had no effect. Litter addition to the shrub patch affected neither biomass nor species richness. Litter addition to both patches at both levels caused a large increase in termite activity. Termites turned over topsoil and disrupted the crust, which may reduce runoff and, via seed flow, alter annual plant biomass and richness. On the crust, annual plant productivity and species richness are limited, because few structures are available to stop the outflow of water, soil and seeds. Shrub patches which already had litter were not affected by the additional litter. Production, accumulation, and patchiness of litter can have considerable impact on landscape-wide annual plant productivity and diversity, and should be viewed as important factors in shrubland management.
With: M. Shachak, BIDR

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Plant Physiology and Crop Development

Developing techniques for raising cacti for landscaping Gutterman

A combination of lighting conditions, soil treatment, irrigation regimen, and a novel method of pruning has enabled us to produce ornamental cacti with an improved ability to send out peripheral branches. The new technology reduces the time necessary to obtain a marketable commodity and decreases the costs of production. In addition, production rates under greenhouse conditions are favorable as compared to conventional approaches. (Funding: Rashi Foundation). Barbaloin, which is a secondary phenolic metabolite, is apparently distributed in Aloe arborescens as a peripheral defense strategy. We found that the youngest leaves have the highest barbaloin content. The more times a leaf is cut, the higher the barbaloin content in the new growth that sprouts from the leaf base that remains on the plant. This may deter animals such as elephants and kudu from eating the new growths. This may allow damaged plants to renew themselves before their leaves are eaten again. Secondary metabolites are widely used in the medicinal and cosmetic industries. We plan to use Aloe plants with the highest potential as a new crop for supplying metabolic compounds to these industries. This species grows very well in the Negev, is easy to propagate, and requires very little water to thrive; Aloe is, therefore, an ideal crop for kibbutzim and other farmers in southern Israel. Dramatic progress was made during 1999 when we found that the three or even four secondary phenolic metabolites (SPM) are distributed in relative amounts to the amount of barbaloin in the leaves. These act as a cocktail of defense materials that may prevent mutations of the plant consumers such as insects. In a seven-year study we tested agrotechniques, the economics and storage aspects of growing Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) plants, which produce a cross-shape cluster of four flowers, for blossoming during the Christmas season as an export crop. We also developed an economical method for raising virus and disease-free bulbs suitable for export. The techniques resulted in a reduction of the growth period from two and-a-half years to one year, and a change in the flowering time from May to the Christmas season. We achieved a considerable savings in production methods, especially in heating the soil, with an innovative heating method and by controlling surface temperatures of the soil. Changes in amount and make-up of fertilizers led to a rise in the rate of bulb growth. Raising the concentration of CO2 in the greenhouse reduced the need to heat the soil and increased the rate of bulb growth. We fertilized the crop by means of drip irrigation lines with alternating capacities so that they provide an identical amount of water and varying amounts of fertilizer. Virus-free bulbs were developed by propagating tissue culture from virus-free materials imported from overseas. (Funding: Rashi Foundation).
(Also, see below, Katif Research Center for the Development of Coastal Deserts)

Leaf barbaloin variation as an antibrowsing peripheral defense strategy of

Aloe arborescens
Gutterman, Chauser-Volfson

Optimization of amaryllis (Hippeastrum) bulb production Ben-Asher, Ephrath, Silberbush

The effect of salinity on corn yield using the Ceres-maize model Ben-Asher

The Ceres-maize model, used by agricultural experts to estimate corn yields, simulates the effects of plant genotype, weather, and soil properties in order to predict harvests. In most case, when calculating water availability, soil water is taken into consideration, but the effect of soil salinity on plant wilting is neglected. A revised model takes account of this formerly overlooked problem. It showed that nitrogen fertilization increases the salinity threshold value (the maximum average salt concentration in the root zone that does not reduce yield) and the sensitivity of yield to salt salinity. It also showed that forage corn is more sensitive to salinity than is grain corn. In soil that is not leached, the heavier soil texture results in a higher salinity threshold value, but if it is leached, soil texture has no influence on the salinity threshold. In sandy soils, the yield is less sensitive to salinity.

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Modeling of nutrient uptake and salt buildup in soilless cultures and hydroponics Silberbush, Ben-Asher

Growth of cash crops in modern agriculture requires intensive plant growth with precise management in artificial and hydroponic cultures. Yet, high inputs of fertilizers and salinity buildup due to transpiration by plants might introduce an environmental risk of soil and groundwater chemical contamination. A dynamic model was developed to predict the performance of a hydroponic system with nutrient solution and plant growth. The model can predict the rate of nutrient uptake by the plants, the change in chemical composition of the solution including salt accumulation, and the efficiency of liquid fertilizer amendment. Nutrient uptake by plants from soils is sometimes restricted because of the soil characteristics and plant adaptation. Foliar fertilization was suggested as an alternative way for plants. Two commercial foliar fertilizers were compared to mineral forms of the major nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). The fertilization was applied either to the soil or to the leaves of maize plants grown in pots with the typical desert soil of Sede-Boqer. The trial indicated that plants more effectively absorb nutrients from the soil via their roots than via their leaves. Yet, combining soil and foliar fertilization may improve plant nutrition more than by using each method alone.
With: Fan-Ling, Ben-Gurion University

The relative efficiency of soil vs. foliar NPK fertilizers for maize growth Silberbush

Physiological Characterization of Strawberry Cultivars with Differential Susceptibility to Iron Deficiency Silberbush

Strawberry genotypes vary widely in their sensitivity to leaf chlorosis caused by iron-deficiency when grown in calcareous soils. Five cultivars, originated from California, Turkey and Israel, were tested in a nutrient solution culture with deficient and sufficient levels of iron for their uptake efficiencies. There was a correlation between the genotypic sensitivity and leaf iron and chlorophyll contents in iron-deficient plants. The hypothesis that these differences are due to organic acid exudation by the roots (phytosiderophores) is currently being tested. The results of this study show how strawberry plants overcome iron deficiencies. These qualifications may be introduced into high-quality cultivars that are sensitive to lime-induced chlorosis when grown in calcareous soils, either by cross-breeding, gene-transfer or by fertilization.
With: Yasa-Faskas, Chukarova University, TUrkey

Correlation between soil characteristics and their reflected spectrum Silberbush

To test the usefulness of remote sensing as a tool to map soil surface, a series of soils were sampled along the Zikim (semi-arid, Mediterranean) -Beersheva (arid, desert) transect. The soils were characterized for texture, color, and contents of organic matter, iron oxides and carbonates. For comparison, these soils were surveyed by X-ray defraction for mineral contents. High correlation was obtained between soil color components and their reflectance. Soil moisture was correlated with the reflectance at 1900 nm; Iron oxide content was best correlated with (in decreasing order) 1986 and 1373 nm; Organic matter content with 2200 and 1402 nm; calcium carbonate was best correlated with reflectance at 1746, 1912, 1743, 1714 nm. It was concluded that these soil properties could be quantified by their reflectance spectra using remote sensing techniques.
With: D. Blumberg and B. Kelhamer, Ben-Gurion University

Response of Acacia

saligna to irrigation
with brackish water Berliner, Ephrath

The effects of the interactions of irrigation at three frequencies (twice a week, once a week and twice a month), water quality (1 and 6 dSm-1) and simulated runoff application during winter on the productivity of Acacia saligna were evaluated for the fifth consecutive year. Cross sectional area of trunks (CSA), predawn leaf water potential, transpiration (using the sap flow technique), nondestructive monitoring of root development (using the minirhizotron), water uptake patterns, salt distributions in the soil profile and soil surface properties were monitored throughout the whole year. The shrubs were pruned in October and November to determine yields of the various components. Allometric equations were derived and compared to those obtained for the same species at different locations. It appears that irrigation frequency affects the biomass/CSA correlation. The plots irrigated with brackish water began to show a significant decrease in biomass production. A detailed statistical analysis is presently being carried out.
With: E, Garcia and W. Zegada, Ben-Gurion University

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Field monitoring root development using the minirhizotron technique Ephrath, Silberbush, Berliner

Roots, often referred to as the hidden half of plants, play a key role in crop development and adaptation to harsh environments. Understanding root dynamics is important for understanding how crops grown on stored water interact with the environment and, in particular, for explaining the observed competition between species, as is the case in a runoff agroforestry system. Conventional root sampling techniques, such as coring, are destructive and require a large number of replicates in order to follow the development of a complex root system. Such labor-intensive work is not always feasible. The minirhizotron system is a viable and promising alternative for root studies. Root growth and development is followed along a clear tube inserted in the soil and is recorded with a miniature video-camera. In order to implement this technique the immediate surroundings of the clear tube must be representative of the bulk soil. This key issue is presently being evaluated.

Below and right: Acacia roots photographed using minirhizotron technique. Roots with nodules: #1 before and #2 after a flood. In #2 the black color shows destroyed nodules.

#1

#2

Evapotranspiration of a row crop irrigated with brackish water Berliner

The estimation of fluxes above crops planted in rows presents several problems, the most serious one being to find the minimum height above which there is horizontal homogeneity. We built a multiple height Bowen ratio machine and carried out a series of measurements above a tomato crop grown in the field and irrigated with locally available brackish water. The results indicate that the minimum height depends on the direction of flux and wind speed. The computed evapotranspiration indicated that the field was being over-irrigated.
With: P. Figuerola, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina

Animal Physiology and Husbandry

Improved breeding of ostriches Degen

In order to improve ostrich breeding in the Negev, a lighting regime was developed that increases female ostrich fertility. By providing additional lighting during the breeding season, hens produced greater numbers of eggs of which a larger proportion were fertile. A method for collecting ostrich semen based on sexual starvation was designed. Using this system, semen collected from a number of ostriches was evaluated for quality, the number of abnormal sperm, and pH levels. Improving the preservation and storage of ostrich semen is being pursued in order to make possible artificial insemination. Studies of the hormonal basis of female ostrich fertility is under study in order to identify ostriches with a high breeding potential. (Funding: Rashi Foundation). Projects dealing with improving techniques of animal husbandry in the desert include: 1) the determination of optimal water temperature for relieving stress in poultry raised in the desert; 2) the use of legume trees and shrubs as fodder for sheep and goats; and 3) cattle raising and marketing by the Maasai in Kenya. (Funding: NetherlandsIsrael Research Program).

Animal husbandry in the desert Degen

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metabolism and reproduction of wild desert animals and birds Degen

Investigations of desert mammals and birds deal with: 1) field metabolic rate and reproductive success in free-living mammals (supported by the U.S.-Israel Binational Science Foundation); 2) the cost of reproduction in desert rodents; 3) the fat sand rat as a new tourist and educational resource in the Arava valley (supported by the Israel Science Fund); and 4) energy expenditure and water flux in free-living Arabian babbler birds (Turdoides squamiceps). (Funding: Israel Science Foundation).

Water Harvesting and Agricultural Physics

Water harvesting can be used to cultivate crops in areas that would otherwise yield only meager and sporadic harvests. Since global food production must double during the next century, it is essential to examine the possibility of expanding the use of arid and semiarid regions for farming. Sparse precipitation in dry regions is not the only factor limiting agriculture, for soils in these areas are usually unstable and prone to crusting as a result of rainfall. Water infiltration into the soil is, therefore, severely reduced and runoff is generated. If the runoff is conveyed to low-lying areas, trapped in dyke-surrounded plots, or allowed to form ponds, such plots can be used for agriculture once the water subsides. Understanding the physical processes involved in the generation and transport of runoff and the biological processes that determine the efficiency with which the stored water is used by annual and perennial crops is crucial for the successful implementation of runoff desert farming. A five-year study was undertaken to investigate the water relations and photosynthetic rate of Acacia saligna under various levels of water availability. Biomass production and water-use efficiency (the ratio of biomass produced to water used) were characterized under various runoff irrigation regimes. During two seasons, water relations, photosynthetic rate, stomatal resistance, leaf-water potential, osmotic potential, and biomass production were examined for two situations: 1) well-watered (control treatment, irrigated every two weeks); and 2) water-stressed treatment, with no irrigation throughout the growing season. Preliminary analysis of the data indicates that the trees appear to adapt to water stress. The possibility of supplementing erratic runoff water with brackish water is being investigated. Field and pot trials have been carried out that measure the effects of good-quality water, brackish water, and a combination of brackish and good-quality water on Acacia saligna development. The influence of fertilization on biomass production has also been evaluated. The results obtained from pot trials indicate that salinity stress can be mitigated with appropriate fertilization. Field trials indicate that the effect of salinity on biomass is minor, if at all present.
With: S.H. Lips, BIDR; and J.O. Nyabundi, Maseno University College, Maseno, Kenya
Water balance of selected components of the Auroville watershed in India Berliner

Acacia saligna growing in runoff pond.

Water relations and photosynthesis of Acacia saligna using runoff irrigation in an arid zone Ephrath, Berliner

Coordinated use of marginal water in arid regions Berliner

The rational use of available rainfall and aquifer water relies on the knowledge of the input and output of the water system as a whole. Quantification of the different fluxes (transpiration, evaporation from the soil, runoff, drainage into the water table, etc.) requires a multidisciplinary approach, involving hydrology, soil physics, agrometeorology, and plant physiology. The following aspects are under study in Auroville: 1) transpiration of selected tree species using the heat-pulse technique; 2) water-table recharge; and 3) the effect of water availability and climate on water use by the tree species being investigated.
With: A. Greaves, Auroville Sustainable Development Center, Tamil Nadu, India

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Water and CO2 cycling in desert environments using stable isotopes Berliner

Using conventional micrometeorological techniques and isotopic measurements, we are attempting to estimate the fluxes of carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere above a runoff agroforestry system. The use of isotopes allows us to partition the net fluxes into their components and is easier to implement than the micrometeorological approach. Measurements carried out over a number of crops seem to confirm the superiority of the isotope approach.
With: D. Yakir, Weizmann Institute of Science

Estimating the effect of dew on field water balances Berliner

Dew provides a major part of the water supply in the Negev highland, accounting for about half of the total precipitation. Few measurements have been carried out to determine the amount of dew absorbed by soil and the energy fluxes involved. Extremely sensitive microlysimeters (soil moisture measurement devices) coupled with one-dimensional sonic anemometry (air speed measurement) and a Bowen ratio system are being used to quantify and parameterize these fluxes.

One of the 120 species of Aloe introduced from South Africa. These plants are well-suited for landscaping in dryland gardens.

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Katif Research Center for Development of Coastal Deserts

Prof. Jiftah Ben-Asher, Director

New agrotechnigues for growing Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) resulted in reduced growth period, and change in flowering time from May to December. Its cross-shaped flower cluster makes it an ideal export crop for marketing during the Christmas season.

The Katif Center is located in a region of coastal desert on the Mediterranean Sea. The Centers research focuses upon issues of climate, soil and water that are unique to coastal deserts. In heavily populated areas, where shallow fresh water aquifers and meager soil resources may be depleted and/or contaminated, agricultural production must be carefully controlled. The main goals of researchers at the Center are to develop sustainable agricultural techniques for the purpose of enhancing Israels agricultural production, and to develop new agricultural products in the Katif region. Established as a regional R&D facility in 1984 by the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Katif Research Center is an extension of the BIDRs laboratories; farmers and scientists work together to develop practical, economic applications from laboratory investigations. The research is carried out by eight permanent, full-time staff members, five part-time members and ten scientific consultants from other research institutions in Israel (including the Faculty of Agriculture of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) and the Technion, Haifa). Research project leaders serve as consultants in projects related to their fields of expertise. Our research focuses on the following areas: ! Improving agricultural practices in the Katif Region. ! Studying desertification causes in coastal deserts and prevention methods. ! Developing new agricultural and ecological approaches. Phone: 972-8-684-7477 Fax: 684-7565 E-mail: benasher@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

Academic Staff
Ben-Asher, Jiftah Ephrath, Jhonathan E.

Associate Staff
Alekperov, Chingis Brikman, Vladimir

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Improving Agriculture in the Katif Region

Flowering Bulbs

Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) bulbs, which produce large, attractive flowers, are in high demand for gardening and commercial farming. At the Katif Center, Hippeastrum plants were grown under controlled conditions of soil temperature, enriched carbon dioxide atmosphere, and expanded levels of soil nitrogen and potassium. As a result of the field tests, we were able to recommend methods for enhancing bulb growth. The virus-free bulbs produced were grown in half the time usually required for amaryllis bulb production, and were available for shipping after only one and a half years. (Funding: Rashi Foundation)
(Also, see above, Plant Physiology and Crop Development).

Improved Productivity for Growing Vegetables in Greenhouses

We are developing a conveyance method for growing vegetables in greenhouses. In this approach the greenhouse is divided into a contributing area, and a main growing area. The contributing area, where plants are grown in pots at a very high density, is relatively small. When the plants become bigger they are moved by conveyors into the main growing area, which is much larger, to accommodate the space requirements of mature plants. The contributing area is then ready for the next set of plants. This setup enabled us to double the number of growing cycles, thereby doubling the yield, and it is very labor-saving; using the conveyance system, one or two people can maintain one hectare, reducing manpower requirements by 75%. The Katif region has about 250 ha of screened greenhouses, a substantial percentage of which are used to grow products marketed as insect-free. The method used is primarily the extensive application of insecticides. However, this method is not always effective, and growers cannot always market the produce. The heavy use of pesticides has a number of negative consequences: residue on produce; development of resistance to insecticides by pests; annihilation of beneficial insects and adverse effects on the plant. We are developing alternative methods to control insects which include: the use of nets and double doors on greenhouses; adhesive strip-traps which attract the insects; and treated plastic tarpaulin traps in colors that attract insects. Greenhouses make it possible to supply export markets with off-season produce year-round a potentially profitable aspect of desert agriculture. The conditions under which the plants grow inside the greenhouse will determine the quality of the product and its economic viability. We developed a computer program which adjusts climatic conditions in greenhouses according to the needs of the plants by the use of sensing monitors. The ability to tailor greenhouse conditions to the needs of the plants by use of heating, cooling, shade covers, fans and humidity control, optimizes the yields while reducing manpower requirements. We developed a new approach for identifying factors that influence yield levels of agricultural products. Our method is based on state space analysis, and replaces the old random block agricultural experimental method. We used advanced portable devices to survey the entire Katif region, and identified the advantages and disadvantages of existing agricultural techniques.

Insect-free Greenhouses with a minimum of pesticide use

Climate control in greenhouses

Identifying Ecologically Sound Agricultural Techniques

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Problems of Climate, Soil and Water, Unique to Coastal Deserts

Salinization of the Water Sources in the Gaza Strip

There is an essential need in any agricultural development of coastal deserts to take into account the increased use of water which often leads to the salinization of fresh water aquifers in this case, caused by over-pumping (which leads to the seepage of sea water into aquifers), and the intrusion of fertilizers into the aquifers. Our preliminary research indicates that by using salt-uptake plants we will be able to reduce the amount of salt leached, and to rehabilitate neglected soils. This method is known as phytormediation. In order to field test the use of salt-uptake plants we are undertaking a project financed by the EEC to study the process of salt absorption, to define measurable parameters and to characterize a group of plants that can be used as salt-removal plants. In the heavily populated Gaza Strip there is an increasing demand for food and a consequent increase in demand for water for both agriculture and domestic use. This study analyzes: 1) the process of ground water contamination from both sea water and sewage, and 2) its impact on agricultural productivity. The theoretical models and empirical methods being applied in the Gaza Strip can serve as practical tools for policy planning in coastal deserts in general. The processes of desertification of coastal deserts were studied by several Ben-Gurion University students at the Katif Center. These studies showed that the process of salinization of the ground water resulted in an increase of electrical conductivity from 0.5 dS m in 1925 to 3 dS m in 1994. This increase was accompanied by a decrease of 60% of the agricultural capacity in this region.

Impact of Ground Water Contamination on Agricultural productivity in Coastal Deserts: the case of the Gaza Strip

Katif Center Laboratories

Chemical Laboratory for services connected with soil solutes , water and fertilizer quality and chemical composition. This lab operates in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture. Plant Disease Laboratory for services in the identification of several diseases mainly in geranium varieties. This lab uses a state of the art UV-microscope with a video camera, connected to a computer and self-developing image analysis software. GCMS Laboratory In 1998, with the acquisition of a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer, the Katif Center opened a lab for assessing chemical residues (mainly herbicides and insecticides) in vegetables.

adjunct staff
Dr. Avraham Amiel Aviva Cohen Zipora Cohen Laura Dangian Dr. Avichail Grinberg Avraham Hagag Mordechai Shomron Uri Chayun, Head of Growers Committee Hana Sender, Administrative Manager

Research Project Leaders

Prof. Zvi Plaut Dr. Ehud Dayan Prof. Yehoshua Dayan Prof. Beni Bar-Yosef Dr. Moshe Silberbush Dr. Dan Zutra Dr. Philis Weintraub Dr. Rami Horowiz Yigal Bar-Ilan Dr. Shmuel Wolf Volcani Center Volcani Center Technion, Haifa Volcani Center BIDR Volcani Center Volcani Center Volcani Center MEIGAL Hebrew University Climate control in greenhouses Climate control in greenhouses Climate control in greenhouses Fertilization Fertilization Phytopathology Plant protection Plant protection Plant protection Bulb plants

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RESEARCH INTERESTS
Jiftah Ben-Asher

Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1973; Professor Incumbent of the Gerda Frieberg Chair in Agricultural Water Management Soil-plant-atmosphere continuum under desert conditions. Phone: 972-8-659-6747 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: benasher@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1989; Researcher Grade B Water movement in the soil-plant-atmospheric continuum; Energy balances of agroforestry systems; Modeling of agroforestry systems, runoff generation and use in arid and semiarid zones; Agroforestry for firewood and fodder production in arid and semiarid zones; Optimization of runoff agroforestry systems; Microclimate of desert cities. Phone: 972-8-656-9755 Fax: 972-8-659-6757 E-mail: berliner@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Ben-Gurion University, 1987; Lecturer Diversity and productivity of desert plant communities as influenced by landscape structure, natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and ecosystem processes; Seed movement and desert annual plant recruitment; Desertification, desert landscape management and restoration; Demography of woody and herbaceous desert perennials. Phone: 972-8-659-6893 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: bboeken@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technology, Moscow, 1977; Researcher Grade C Biochemistry of vitamins, purine nucleosides, and organometallic chemistry; Plants as sources of cosmetic and medicinal products, particularly Aloe. Phone: 972-8-659-6891 Fax: 972-8-659-6704 E-mail: fgilmour@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Tel Aviv University, 1976; Professor Physiological responses of desert animals; Livestock production in the desert; Energy and water budgets of desert animals; Reproduction and endocrinology. Phone: 972-8-646-0515 Fax: 972-8-646-0515 E-mail: degen@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1988; Researcher Grade C Root physiology; crop physiology; Crop simulation modeling; Soil-plant-atmosphere relationship. Phone: 972-8-659-6756 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: yoni@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1969; Professor Ecophysiology and introduction of desert plants; Seed germination, flowering, and seed dispersal strategies in desert plants of the Negev; Effects of patch disturbance and microhabitats in a desert community; Fast growth and vegetative propagation of succulents; Distribution of useful phenolic compounds in plants, and seasonal changes in Aloe desert species; Soil temperatures and plant germination; Seed banks in desert soils. Phone: 972-8-659-6890 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: gutterma@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Tel Aviv University, 1980; Senior Lecturer Soil fertility; Nutrient uptake by plant roots; Root respiration; Root growth; Root exudation; Nutrient uptake modeling; Effect of afforestation on soil properties; Remote sensing of soil; Tolerance to iron deficiency in strawberry cultivars. Phone: 972-8-659-6748 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: silberbu@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

Pedro Berliner

Bertrand Boeken

Elena Chauser-Volfson

Allan A. Degen

Jhonathan E. Ephrath

Yitzchak Gutterman

Moshe Silberbush

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PUBLICATIONS
Ephrath, J.E., M. Silberbush and P.R. Berliner. Calibration of minirhizotron readings against root length density data obtained from soil cores. Plant and Soil 209:201-208 (1999) Berliner, P. Runoff harvesting for firewood and fodder production in Israel. Proceedings of the VI International Rangeland Congress. Townsville, Australia 2:693 (1999) Gozlan, S. and Y. Gutterman. Dry storage temperatures, duration, and salt concentrations, affect germination of local and edaphic ecotypes of Hordeum spontaneum (Poaceae) from Israel. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 67:163-180 (1999) Gutterman, Y. and S. Gozlan. Afterripening, amounts of rain for germination, and seedling drought tolerance, of local and edaphic ecotypes of Hordeum spontaneum from Israel. In: Evolutionary Theory and Processes: Modern Perspectives. Festschrift in honour of Prof. E. Nevo. (Ed. S.Wasser) Kluwer, Dordrecht pp 419-439 (1999) Gutterman, Y. Genotypic and phenotypic survival strategies of annual plant species in the Negev Desert of Israel. In: Flore et Vegetation Tunisiennes. Vol. 8. Adaptations des vegetaux au milieu aride. (Ed. M.A. Nabli). Faculte des Sciences de Tunis, Laboratoire de Botanique Fondamentale et Applique, Tunis. pp 151-193 (1999) Huang, Z. and Y. Gutterman. Germination of Artemisia sphaerocephala (Asteraceae), occurring in the sandy desert areas of Northwest China. South African Journal of Botany 65:187-196 (1999) Huang, Z. and Y. Gutterman. Water absorption by mucilaginous achenes of Artemisia monosperma: floating and germination as affected by salt concentrations. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 47:27-34 (1999) Krasnov, B., M. Hastriter, S. Medvedev, G. Shenbrot, I. Khokhlova and V. Vaschenok. Additional records of fleas (Siphonaptera) on wild rodents in the southern part of Israel. Israel Journal of Zoology 45:333-340 (1999) Pearlmutter, D., A. Bitan and P. Berliner. Microclimatic analysis of "compact" urban canyon in an arid zone. Atmospheric Environment 33:4143-4150 (1999) Sauerhaft B.C., T. Thurow and P. Berliner. Spacing and green manure effects on biomass yield in an arid land water catchment agroforestry system. Proceedings of the VI International Rangeland Congress. Townsville, Australia 2:697-8 (1999) Shem-Tov, S., E. Zaady, P.M. Groffman, and Y. Gutterman. Soil carbon content along a rainfall gradient and inhibition of germination: A potential mechanism for regulating distribution of Plantago coronopus. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 31:1209-1217 (1999) Shen, Z.,, Z-h. Hu and Y. Gutterman. Morphological and anatomical studies on the leaves of four species of Aloe. Acta Botanica Boreali-Occidentalia Sinica 19:688-693 (in Chinese with English Abstract) (1999) Shenbrot, G., B. Krasnov, and I. Khokhlova. Notes on the biology of the bushy-tailed bird, Sekeetamys calurus, in the central Negev, Israel. Mammalia 63: 374-377 (1999) Spinu, M., O. Spinu and A. A. Degen. Haematological and immunological variables in a domesticated and wild subspecies of ostrich (Struthio camelus). British Poultry Science 40:613-618 (1999) Weil, S., A. A. Degen, M. Friedlander and A. Rosenstrauch. Low fertility in aging roosters is related to a high plasma concentration of insulin and low testicular contents of ACTH and lactate. General and Comparative Endocrinology 115:110-115 (1999) Weil, S., I. Rozenboim, A. A. Degen, A. Dawson, M. Friedlander and A. Rosenstrauch. Fertility decline in aging roosters is related to increased testicular and plasma levels of estradiol. General and Comparative Endocrinology 115:23-28 (1999)

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Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture

Technical staff

Suliman Abu-Zaabut Shlomo Feingold Joseph Goldstein Michael Kam Lilia Medvedev David Mezig Claudio Wexler Frieda Gilmour Odette Levi Carol Baskin, University of Kentucky, USA Jerry Baskin, University of Kentucky, USA Derek Bewley, Guelp University, Canada Imre Friedman, Florida State University, USA Serra Hepaksoy, EGE University, Turkey Zhenghai Hu, Northwest University, China Batyr Mamedov, National Institute of Desert Flora and Fauna, Turkmenistan Joachim Pretz, Large Scale Plant Project, Germany Qiuyun Qu, ShaanXi Research Institute, China Konstantin Rogovin, Russian Academy of Science Prof. Michael Barbour, University of California at Davis, U.S.A. Prof. Costas Thanos, University of Athens, Greece. Prof. Johannes van Staden, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa Prof. Jan Hoorweg Adit Arazi, Hebrew University of Jerusalem Patricia Figuerola, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina Avner Anava Hadasa Cohen Shirley Cohen-Gross Klaus Droppelman Emilio Garcia Zhenying Huang Efrat Joel Bat-Sheva Kelhamer Fan Ling Nurit Nin-Ari Shachar Shem-Tov Zonggen Shen Zhao Wenguang Ebru Yasa Walter Zegada Zhang Zhen Meirong Zhou

Secretarial staff

Visiting Scientists

Postdoctoral fellows

Graduate Students

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Albert Katz Department of Dryland Biotechnologies

Clockwise from upper left: Integrated polyculture system for intensive dryland aquaculture. Plant tissue culture laboratory carries out independent research in tissue culture and micropropagation of plant tissue in projects relevant to desert agriculture. Virus-free potato plantlets, produced in the tissue culture and propagation laboratories, support local farmers. Astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus is induced by environmental stress conditions that inhibit cell growth, causing a morphological and biochemical transformation, turning normally green, motile cells into inert red cysts.

Albert Katz Department of Dryland Biotechnologies

Prof. Sammy Boussiba, Chairperson

The discipline of biotechnology employs living organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify products, and develops techniques for altering living organisms for specific uses. It offers efficient and cost-effective methods for producing an array of novel value-added products. Biotechnology is of special value in arid lands, where special adaptations are necessary, as traditional or conventional methods of agriculture are difficult or impossible to implement. Scientists at the Albert Katz Department of Dryland Biotechnologies investigate the nature of life and ecosystems at the molecular level in order to improve production methods and diagnostic tools used in arid-land development. In pursuing this research, our approach is based upon the sustainable development of desert regions. Some of the biotechnologies designed in the Katz Department have potential for increasing food production, reducing the dependence of agriculture on environmentally damaging chemicals, lowering the cost of raw materials, and reducing the ecological impact of traditional manufacturing processes. Phone: 972-8-656-6796 Fax: 972-8-659-6802 E-mail: ilanasa@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

A flat, modular photobioreactor for mass cultivation of microalgae, constructed from transparent glass. The dense, deep green algae culture between glass plates gives the modules their dark color.

ACADEMIC STAFF
Appelbaum, Samuel Birnbaum, Elliott Boussiba, Sammy Cohen, Zvi Gale, Joseph Golan-Goldhirsh, Avi Guy, Micha Heimer, Yair M. Levi, Shalom Lips, S. Herman Richmond, Amos Volokita, Micha Vonshak, Avigad

ASSOCIATE STAFF
Khozin-Goldberg, Inna Orlovsky, Nicolai Wolwich, Liobov (Luba)

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RESEARCH ACTIVITIES AQUaCULTURE

Sea bass (Lates calcarifer) is one of the species being introduced into a rearing chain in this integrated polyculture system.

In the aqualculture laboratory researchers investigate the biology, nutrition, and behavior of fish. New and improved aquaculture equipment and techniques have been developed, many of which have commercial applications. Environmentally and ecologically appropriate commercial enterprises are being designed and established, using systems which are affordable for even the small-scale fish farmer. Under study are carp, eel, Tilapia, catfish, sea bream, barramundi, shrimps, and ornamentals. Research and development emphasize the design of low-cost, simple devices which require little maintenance and retain water quality without use of excessive amounts of water. The group provides active assistance in the establishment of fish farms utilizing the unpolluted brackish water of the Negev desert, and is involved in high-density fish husbandry in closed systems. The laboratory also provides a regional fish veterinary service and carries out research on: (a) Pasteurell (pseudotuberculosis), a gram-negative bacterium (b) Oodinium, a dinoflagellates parasite (c) Mycobacterium, a gram-positive bacterium.
Effect of water temperature on growth and survival of

Litopenaeus vannamei
postlarvae and juveniles reared in geothermal brackish water Appelbaum

This study was undertaken to determine the effect of three water temperatures, 26, 31 and 36C, on growth, feeding and survival rate of Litopenaeus vannamei postlarvae and juveniles of three sizes. The postlarvae and juveniles were stocked at a density of 710 PL/m2 and reared indoors in brackish water of 3ppt salinity. The experiment was divided into three trials, each with three different feeding regimes. The dry feed used in the trials was a commercial, dry shrimp feed (Zeigler Bros, USA, crude protein 45-50%, crude fat 15%). In trial I (63 days), postlarvae of initial body weight x=0.0600.32g, received dry feed only. In trial II (35 days), postlarvae of initial body weight x=0.060+0.21g, received freeze dried cells of the algae Nannochloropsis sp (moisture 8-10 %); and in trial III (28 days), postlarvae of initial body weight x=0.946+0.23g, received a combination of 80% dry feed and 20% freeze dried Nannochloropsis cells. The dry shrimp feed was given manually four times a day at the feeding rate recommended by the feed manufacturer. Growth and survival rates for postlarvae and juveniles were significantly higher (p>0.05) at 31C than at the other temperatures. Weekly growth rate of the postlarvae and juveniles reared at 31C was found to be the highest (0.675+0.454g). Food conversion ratio remained lower at 31C than at 26 and 36C. Furthermore, 36C negatively affects the survival rate and specific growth rate of juveniles larger than 2 g.

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Introduction of the sea bass (Lates calcarifer) into Israeli desert aquaculture Appelbaum

The sea bass (Lates calcarifer), has recently been introduced into our laboratory from Australia for study. The sea bass, (also called barramundi), is raised in open ponds and sea cages in southeast Asia and Australia, where it is considered a high quality fish. In general, sea bass are opportunistic predators throughout their life cycles. However, in captivity they readily accept pelleted food. This euryhaline fish needs warm water for accelerated growth and is therefore most suitable for desert aquaculture. Our preliminary observations indicate fast growth at 28C to 29C; fish reach a table size of approximately 0.5 kg from fingerlings in about 6 to 7 months. However, the sea bass is a very sensitive fish needing high water quality and most careful handling. Larger fish are prone to grading and transport damage. In addition, the sea bass is a viscious, cannibal which, in captivity, can cause high losses by feeding on its own siblings. The investigations on the sea bass are concentrating on: (a) Introduction of yolk sac larvae (TL 2.0) and their rearing under intensive conditions by shortening the use of live food and extending the use of dry feeds; (b) Feeding strategies under different light conditions at postlarval stages to minimize losses caused by cannibalism; (c) Artificial reproduction via induced spawning, in collaboration with a marine station; (d) The position of sea bass in an integrated polyculture system. Under the project 'integrated polyculture system', a study is being conducted on the use of the introduced sea bass and other species into a rearing chain where the water effluent from a tank holding one species flows to a tank holding another species which can utilize the organic material suspended in the water. Our preliminary observations clearly indicate that by growing various fish species in a chain, each species at a high stocking density in different tanks, one species can benefit from the other when tanks are placed in the proper sequence. The suspended organic material of one species, which is otherwise wasted, is, in this way, utilized by the other species, reducing feed costs and minimizing environmental pollution by the water effluent from the system. Our Fish Veterinary Laboratory will investigate the health impact of one species on the others in the chain, as, though kept separately, one species could be detrimentally affected by another via the permanently circulating water. On the basis of NO2 discharges into the wastewater and the retention of active microorganisms, the University of Hamburgs Department of Microbiology developed a novel, single-stage process for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater with a high ammonium load. The technology is based on lithoautotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria that are capable of active removal of ammonia from the water. A mobile, 2m3 pilot plant was operated in an intensive fish rearing system in the aquaculture laboratory. After several months of operation with effluent water heavily loaded with ammonia from the fish growing system, 80% of the ammonia could be removed. BIOSTRESS RESEARCH Work in the Biostress Research Laboratory focuses on the productivity of crops and other plants under suboptimal conditions characteristic of arid lands. We are probing the mechanisms of plant adaptation at the physiological and molecular levels, with the aim of providing rapid screening methods for wild and cultured stress-tolerant genotypes, and to pinpoint specific genes capable of enhancing sustained crop production in stressful environments. The effects of stress on various enzymes and cellular organelles are being investigated in roots, shoots, and developing seeds. We are applying these basic studies to specific problems of crop production in arid areas. Research is funded by a number of institutions, including US-AID (US Agency for International Development), GIF (German-Israel Binational Fund), ICA-Israel, BSF (US-Israel Binational Science Foundation), Israel Ministries of Science and of Agriculture, EU-INCO (European Union INCO-COPERNICUS program), and the Fohs Foundation.

Development of a polyculture technology suitable for desert conditions Appelbaum

A novel, single-stage process for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater Appelbaum

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Molecular mechanisms of stress-enhanced ABA production Lips

Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is required for the production of ABA under stress conditions. Previous work has shown that the level of the enzyme increases upon application of stress (salinity or drought) and when ammonium is the sole N source in the nutrient medium. Work has been carried out to determine the mechanism of AO gene activation by stress and ammonium. It was determined that the 3 main isoforms of AO are composed of two different monomers, each of them produced by a different gene, which are being cloned at the moment. Actual synthesis of ABA correlates with the production of the three isoforms, contrary to the situation under nonstress conditions when only one of the AO bands is clearly evident and the other two yield faint activity bands. Work has been carried out to determine the mechanism of AO getion products.
With: R. Omarov, Bach Inst. of Biochemistry, Moscow.

Cloning of barley AO genes Volokita, Lips

Molecular cloning and sequencing of a cDNA fragment of 850 bp encoding barley AO have been performed using sense and antisense degenerate primers designed by deduced amino acid sequences of known aldehyde oxidases from bovine maize. The cDNA library of ammonium grown plants was constructed and subsequently screened. Eight single plaques were isolated giving a positive signal. These were used for the in vivo excision to transfer the insert in a plasmid. The digestion of these with restriction enzymes (EcoRI, XhoI) gave information on the size of the cloned inserts. 6 different clones with an insert size between 1 3 kb were isolated . Full-length AO genes sequence is currently being performed.
With: R. Omarov, Bach Inst. of Biochemistry, Moscow; R.Tischner, Inst. of Gottingen, Germany

Substrate specificity of AO protein bands and stress-induced enhancement of AO transcript. Volokita, Lips

Substrate specificity of AO protein bands in native gel after PAGE was determined using several aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes. It was shown that abscisic aldehyde was a preferential substrate for two AO isoforms in barley roots. The activity of abscisic AO was also found in roots and leaves of barley. Subunit composition of AO dimers and molecular weight were estimated by SDS-Western blot procedure using polyclonal AO specific antibodies. Ammonium grown plants revealed a higher level of AO transcript as compared to nitrate-fed plants. Roots of ammonium-fed plants contained considerable levels of three AO bands after PAGE (AO2, AO3 and AO4) of which nitrate-fed plants exhibited only traces. Western blots revealed enhanced levels of AO proteins in extracts of ammonium-grown plants. We conclude that ammonium enhances the transcription of the gene-coding for two unequal monomers of the AO enzyme.
With: R. Omarov, Bach Inst. of Biochemistry, Moscow.

Stress-induced cysteine synthesis in two plants potentially useful for phytoremediation Lips

Two ubiquitous plant species: Phragmites australis (Cav.)Trin ex Steud and Typha latifolia (L.) were used in our experiments (performed with intact plants and/or detached leaves) the objective of which was to study the effects of stress conditions on cysteine synthase (CS or o-acetylserine thiol lyase - OASTL) activity and some possible related metabolic and protective pathways in plants. The synthesis of cysteine represents the final step of sulfur assimilation and also is the almost exclusive entry of reduced sulfur into organic compounds in plants. Thiolic compounds are clue factors in stress defense mechanisms. Cadmium (0.1- 100 M) and salinity (100 mM) as well as NH4+ 2mM (as nitrogen source) induced OASTL activity. In detached Typha leaves the response was very significant in shorttime Cd treatments (2, 4, 6 h) and later decreased gradually (8, 24, 48 h). The response was maintained 48 h at a higher level in Cd treated Phragmites as compared to controls, but lower than Typha. The induction of OASTL activity in intact plants was significant after 3 days treatment in roots and, after 1 week, in shoots too. Salt stress and NH4+ induced OASTL activity in Phragmites intact plants, mainly by NaCl. Changes in the GSH (a cysteine containing tripeptide) pool of Typha plants correlated inversely with the activity of OASTL. These results are also consistent with the finding that plants overexpressing cysteine synthase do not significantly accumulate GSH. Previous results showed that the total reduced thiol pool in Typha plants increased very significantly in Cd stress. Considering that the difference between total reduced thiol and GSH suggest its incorporation into phytochelatin (PC) and

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we assume that Cd binds very rapidly free GSH in Cd-thiol complexes (PCs). We have found also enhanced expression of aldehyde oxydase (AO) in Phragmites, while this enzyme was not detectable in Typha. This result suggests that a) OASTL could act as the sulfurylase required for the activation of AO or b) Both sulfurylating enzymes are regulated by similar factors (NH4+, salinity, and heavy metals). We have started the extraction of total RNA from test plants in preparation for cDNA probes (for OASTL) amplification needed for northern blotting assay in the future, to study the effects of stress conditions at the transcription of OASTL.
With: Erica Fediuk, University of Cluj, Romania.
Biodiversity: germination and growth of leguminous plants (Onobrichis

transcaucasica and Astragalus villasimus) of

the Kyzil Kum desert in Uzbekistan Lips

Germination of Astragalus villassimus: Several germination pretreatments were used: H2SO4, boiling water, KNO3, gibberellic acid, temperature fluctuations and combined treatments. Several supports were used: filter, sea sand, dune sand and vermiculite. None of these methods yielded positive results. After an apparent beginning of germination, root growth stopped and the seed died. Germination of Astragalus villassimus: Several germination pretreatments were used: a) H2SO4; b) boiling water; c) treatments with KNO3. After all these treatments it turned out that the seeds germinated best with distilled water, contrary to their initial behavior. We concluded that with dormant seed, optimal germination was achieved after pretreatment for 1h in H2SO4 followed by 0.02 mg/ml gibberellic acid. When the seeds were not dormant, distilled water was enough to obtain a germination rate of 90-100%. Growth of Onobrychis transcaucasica: Seedlings were transferred to vermiculite and we studied their subsequent development. Four types of nutrient solutions and different kinds of supports were tested. Onobrychis plants do not survive in mixed support that contains local soil. The best support was 1:1 (v/v) vermiculite and organic soil. It is too early to see results of the nutrient solutions used: 4 mM NO3, 2 mM NH4NO3, 1mM NH4NO3, no nitrogen sources. The low concentration (1mM) mixed nitrogen source may be the best for growth of these seedlings.
Alexender Fediuk, University of Cluj, Romania

Biodiversity: isolation and characterization of salt tolerant N-fixing bacteria selected in the Kyzil Kum desert of Uzbekistan Soares, Lips

Selection of isolates: A large collection of nodule bacteria was isolated from root nodules of leguminous shrubs and trees growing in the Kyzil-Kum desert (Uzbekistan). From this collection, a total of 219 isolates from different nodules were used to select salt tolerant symbiotic nitrogen fixing nodule bacteria for further studies. Bacteria were isolated from (a) Amodendrum connollyi (sandy Acacia). Leguminous tree. 50 isolates. (b) Astragalus unifoliolatus. Leguminous shrub. 62 isolates. (c) Astragalus vilosissimus. Leguminous shrub. 107 isolates. In order to select appropriate bacteria for further studies, the bacteria were tested for the following: (a) The presence of nif, a gene essential for nitrogenase. (b) The presence of nod, the gene that establishes the symbiotic association, and (c) their capacity to grow in a high salt concentration. Nif and nod genes: This test represents a molecular approach to assess whether the bacteria will be capable of establishing symbiotic nitrogen fixation. The test is necessary since it is very frequent to isolate soil rhizosphere bacteria during isolation of nodule bacteria, even though nodules are sterilized before isolation of bacteria. Presence of these genes was assessed by hibridization of total DNA from bacteria to labeled DNA probes. The DNA probes chosen were the following: (a) nifHDK genes. These are the structural genes for the enzyme nitrogenase, which are highly conserved among free living or symbiotic nitrogen fixing organisms. These genes from Klebsiella pneumoniae. (b) nodABC genes. These are the so-called common nod genes, which are the most conserved nod genes among nodule bacteria. These genes come from Rhizobium meliloti. The 219 isolates were analyzed by this procedure. Using the nif probe, 88 isolates produced a positive signal in the screening, while just 71 were considered as positive in the screening using the nod probe. Salinity: Out of the 219 initial isolates, 15 strains were found able to grow on solid medium containing 1.25 M NaCl or higher, which produced a positive signal with both the nif and the nod probe. All of them grew fast in liquid medium, with a doubling time between 21 and 35

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min. Of these selected strains, 4 were isolated from Amodendrum connollyi (sandy Acacia) nodules, 4 from Astragalus unifoliolatus, and 7 from Astragalus vilosissimus. The selected strains were used for further studies. Strain characterization will continue. Determination of whether the different strains from each plant are really different or they are just "brothers" will be carried out.
With: S. Khakimov, Z. Shakirov, Academy of Science, Tashkent, Usbekistan; E. Santero, Univ. of Sevilla, Spain
Determination of sites of ABA synthesis in mono and dicotyledones in response to stress Lips

Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a key enzyme in abscisic acid biosynthesis, a hormone regulating growth and development of plants especially under stress conditions. Changes of AO activity as well as organ distribution of AO gel electrophoretic bands were analyzed in some moncotyledons (barley, maize, ryegrass) and dicotyledons (pea, tomato) species under salinity, ammonium and nitrogen deficiency treatments. Increases of AO activity after stress application were observed mainly in leaves of dicots and roots of monocots. Activation of AO during stress is characterized by the production of multiple isoforms (polymorphism), one of which seems to have an especially high affinity for abscisic aldehyde, the substrate oxidized by the enzyme to ABA. Studies on organ specific distribution of AO activity showed this AO polymorphism in gel electrophoretic bands in roots (3 bands) of monocots or shoots (3 bands) and shoots (3-1 bands) of dicots. The characteristic proliferation of AO gel electrophoretic bands in response to stress which occurs in roots of barley, maize and ryegrass (monocots) and leaves of tomato and pea (dicots) may be indicative of the main site of ABA synthesis in stressed plants.
With: E. Zdunek, Warsaw Agricultural Univeristy, Poland

Root to shoot interchange of slow down and speed up signals Lips

Plant adaptation to stress is mediated by interacting multiple signaling pathways that coordinate growth and primary assimilation activities of shoots and roots. Abscisic acid (ABA) and cytokinins are plant hormones that act as signals of distress and wellbeing, respectively, describing the activity status of the root. Changes of the concentration and xylem loading rates of ABA and cytokinins in response to salinity, ammonium and nitrogen deficiency in pea plants were studied. Increase of ABA xylem delivery rate during early stage of stress response was observed only in salinity treatment (50 and 100 mM NaCl). Ammonium and low nitrogen treatments produced a reduction of cytokinin supply by the roots but little change in the level of ABA export by the root through the xylem. The signals defining the capacity of the root to supply water and nutrients to satisfy the growth potential of the shoot may also include the balance between organic and inorganic nitrogen compounds in the xylem sap. A low organic/NO3- ratio in optimal growth conditions changed under all stress condition to a high organic N/ NO3- ratio.
With: E. Zdunek, Warsaw Agricultural Univeristy, Poland

cDNA of barley roots

Volokita, Lips

Starting with total RNA, mRNA was isolated. Cloning was carried out with a Stratagen kit. After receiving a high titer of cDNA-library, amplification was performed and screening resulted in 8 isolates that were screened in a second round. These were used for in vivo excision to transfer into plasmids resulting in 32 isolated colonies. Digestion of these with appropriate restriction enzymes gave initial information on the size of the cloned inserts. At least 6 different clones with inserts ranging between 1-3 kb have been isolated and will be sequenced shortly.
With: R. Omarov, Bach Inst. of Biochemistry, Moscow; R. TischnerUniv, of Gottingen, Germany

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The behavior of flacca tomato mutants in grafting experiments Sagi, Lips

Grafting experiments were carried out to investigate the interactions between shoots and roots of the flacca tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) mutant with those of the wild type. The flacca genotype is an ABA-deficient wilting mutant, characterized by high stomatal conductance during day or night, high transpiration rate, marked tendency to wilt, and limited biomass production. Flacca scions grafted on to wild-type root stocks (Fs / Wr) exhibited higher ABA levels, lower transpiration rate, higher water content and slightly higher dry weight production rates than those of control grafts (Fs / Fr ), but still with lower ABA level, xylem exudate rate, ABA xylem loading rate, and dry weight production than the wild-type control grafts (Ws / Wr ). Flacca root stock grafted on to wild-type scion (Ws / Fr) showed higher ABA level, xylem exudate rate, ABA xylem loading rate, dry weight production and length than Fs / Fr. It did not bring about significant changes in the wild-type scion comparing with Ws / Wr. The growth of flacca root was increased to the level of wild type roots, while its shoot growth was not significantly enhanced in reciprocal grafts. However, in double grafts, flacca scion and wild-type scion grafted on to flacca rootstock (Fs+Ws / Fr ) or wild-type rootstock (Fs+Ws / Wr ), flacca shoot growth in fresh weight was significantly enhanced. Conclusions: a) Ws/Fr the shoot growth is much higher than Fs/Fr, meaning that Fr can support Ws. b) Ws/Fr root growth greatly improved, meaning Fr growth is better when supported by Ws than by Fs. c) Ws sends to the Fr a factor other than ABA that releaved growth inhibition of the flacca root. d) Fs/Wr - Endogenous ABA of Wr seems to accumulate and inhibits wild type root growth, at the same time improving Fs growth. e) Root ABA increased water uptake or decreased root resistance to water transport. f) Endogenous ABA transport could be observed from shoot to root and from root to shoot.
With: C. Guaziong, Ben-Gurion University

Xylem sap changes in pH and composition triggered by salinity Sagi, Lips

Xylem sap changes in pH and composition were studied in tomato plants. The working hypothesis is that a rise in xylem sap pH, reflecting composition changes, and signals water deficiency in the roots to the shoot and reduces water loss by transpiration via stomata. The tomato mutant, flacca, has a shortage of ABA and is not able to close stomata. Flacca plants were used in the experiment to mimic the conditions of water deficiency in plant roots without actually exposing the plant to stress. Exposing tomato plants to drought by stopping irrigation caused a rise in xylem sap pH from about 5.2 to 5.8 over 5 days. The total cation concentration of the xylem sap increased significantly during drought development. Total cation concentration of xylem sap in the flacca plants was two-fold higher than that in wild-type plants under well-watered conditions. Exposure to salinity did not cause a rise but rather a drop in xylem sap pH of tomato plants even if the plants suffered from water deficiency as indicated by the lower leaf water potential and plant transpiration. Accordingly, salinity did not cause a drop in the rate of stomata opening over a day-night observation. On the other hand, the flacca root system had a lower xylem sap flux rate than that of the wild-type plants, expressed on a plant or a unit root length. It is concluded that a rising xylem sap pH signals root water deficiency under drought conditions but not salinity conditions. Transpiration decrease by salinity is a result of lower leaf water potential rather than decreased stomata opening.
With: X. Fu, Ben-Gurion University

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Regulation of cytokinin oxidase in roots of plants grown in ammonium (slow growth) or nitrate (fast growth) Lips

The transport of cytokinins and ABA shows a considerable correlation with the growth rate of plants. Under stress conditions the xylem cytokinin flux is almost completely eliminated with the concomitant increase of ABA. The reverse situation may be observed in fast-growing plants under suitable environmental conditions. At the same time, the pools of ABA and cytokinins in the roots of the stressed plants remain remarkably steady, suggesting a tight regulation of the pool size through the balance of synthesizing and oxidizing events. Much has been learned recently about the synthesis of ABA and cytokinin but less is known about the regulation of oxidizing enzymes affecting these hormones. This recently-begun study follows changes in the activity and molecular levels of the enzymes oxidizing ABA and cytokinins during stress (salinity and drought) and in plants grown in ammonium or nitrate nitrogen sources. The research included the following studies: (A) Study of cytokinin oxidase activity and cytokinin content (trans-zeatin riboside) in the roots and leaves of barley seedlings in dependence with time course in the presence of nitrate ions; (B) Study of cytokinin oxidase activity and cytokinin content (trans-zeatin riboside) in different organs of barley seedlings as a function of time course and as affected by ammonia ions; (C) Elucidation of the role of cytokinin oxidase in the regulation of phytohormone content in barley seedlings grown in nitrate and ammonia in combination with salinity; (D) Investigation of the glycosylation pattern of cytokinin oxidase by using Con A-Sepharose 4B column chromatography. (E) Purification of the cytokinin oxidase of the barley seedlings and study of the catalytic properties of the enzyme.
With: I. Yakubov, Institute of Microbiology, Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Phytoremediation: The regulation of phytochelatin synthesis and accumulation in plants Lips

Some plants respond to exposure to heavy metals by producing SH-rich polypeptides (phytochelatins) with the capacity to bind heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, and Zn. We have estimated the level of GSH synthesis in roots and leaves of pea and barley as the precursor of phytochelatins during different growth period treatments with different concentrations of heavy metals. The content of phytochelatins was measured by atomic absorption. Cadmium was a stronger inducer of metal-binding peptides than Cu and Zn. The phytochelatins (PCs) appear in both plants after 2-3 days by treatment of Cd, while synthesis of PCs after treatment with Cu and Zn occurred after 1 week. The highest level of phytochelatins was found in roots of barley and pea. Pea plants had a higher level of Cd ion accumulation than did barley. The partially purified (PAGE) cadmium-binding complex isolated from pea roots by gel-filtration on Biogel P30 had an apparent molecular weight of about 6 kD. This project focuses on conditions suitable for the optimization of phytochelatin synthesis and chelation and absorption of heavy metals.
With: V. Kuzovlev, Kazak State University, Kazakhstan

Cadmium uptake and the induced protective mechanisms in two wetland species,

Phragmites australis
and Typha latifolia Lips

Waterways and wetlands are often contaminated by heavy metals, which may stay and accumulate therein. A challenging task for phytoremediation technology is the use of plants for the removal of toxic metals from the environment. Our objectives were to test the ability of two wetland plant species (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex. Steud and Typha latifolia L.) to accumulate cadmium in roots, its translocation to shoots and the defense mechanisms induced by Cd2+, at the levels of thiol metabolism and antioxidant enzyme activity. About 90% of the Cd2+ taken up was retained in roots of Typha, while essentially no translocation to the shoots occurred in Phragmites. In the roots, accumulation in cattail was 3-fold higher than in reed, reaching 30 mg/gDW, in contrast to 10 mg/gDW in reed. In general, the accumulation of the toxic metal in the root correlated well with the increase of free thiol content and with the stimulation of glutathione reductase activity. Comparing the two species, reduced thiol synthesis in the roots was higher in Typha than in Phragmites resulting in concentrations of about 30 mole/mg protein and 4.5 mole/mg protein, respectively. Glutathione reductase activity was extremely low in Typha (0.04 EU/mg protein) in contrast to 3.0 EU/mg protein in Phragmites resulting in an undetectable level of the oxidized form. Since for thiol (cysteine) biosynthesis the reduced sulfur availability may

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be a rate limiting step, the level of O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase activity was also detected, and shown to be inducible by heavy metals and salinity. Concerning the antioxidant enzymes, catalase and guajacol peroxidase activities were determined. Interestingly, the two species gave an inverse response in contrast to that obtained for thiol levels: about 4 times higher catalase and 30-fold higher peroxidase activities were found in Phragmites than in Typha.
With: L. Erdei, University of Szeged, Hungary, and Erika Fediuk, University of Cluj, Romania
The intracellular localization of aldehyde oxidase in plant roots Lips

The aim of this research is to gain a clearer understanding of the mechanisms regulating the enzymatic machinery involved in causing and overcoming oxidative stress in plants. Oxidative stress is the proliferation of active oxygen species that are part of many phases of the life cycle of organisms, notably of aging, fruit maturation and stress. Oxidants are also an integral part of the reactions of living cells to abiotic (environmental) and biotic (pathogenic) stress and constitute metabolic signals that initiate numerous changes in enzyme activity and gene expression which allow extremely complex but very organized adaptation processes to overcome the stress and survive. The increase of both antioxidant (SOD, POD, GR) and Mo-enzymes (AO, XDH) with ammonium as the sole nitrogen source might imply: a) The ammonium ion constitutes a stress signal that triggers activation of key enzymes important for the adaptation to stress. b) Stress conditions may exert their effect as a result of increased generation of ammonium in roots. This possibility is supported by other work in the Biostress Research Laboratory in which it was observed that stress blocks nitrate xylem transport to the shoot, forcing increased reduction of nitrate to ammonium in the root. The activities of antioxidant and Mo-enzyme were not equally distributed along the longitudinal and transversal axes of maize nodal roots. Generally, GR, SOD and POD activities were higher in more mature parts of the root and cortex, while AO, XDH and NR were preferentially located in the tips and vascular cylinder. These results may suggest that antioxidants in the roots are required mainly in older tissue for antioxidant damage. Mo-enzymes are produced in the root tip and central cylinder from where they can produce and deliver signals to the shoot disclosing the current status of water and mineral nutrient supply capability of the root. Following stress-generated signals by the root, the shoot will shift down its metabolism to adjust to limited soil inputs.
With: K. Flp and L. Erdei, University of Szeged, Hungary

Aldehyde oxidase distribution in maize roots as affected by salinity and N sources. Lips

The distribution of Mo enzymes (nitrate reductase, aldehyde oxidase and xanthin dehydrogenase) was studied along the longitudinal and transversal axes of maize nodal roots as affected by nitrogen sources and salinity. Mo-enzyme activities were enhanced under mild saline conditions (50 mM NaCl). AO and XDH were enhanced by ammonium in the nutrient solution. The increase of AO was due to enhanced synthesis of the enzyme, as revealed by antibodies. Specific activities of the enzymes were highest at the root tips of ammonium-fed plants. On the transversal axis maximal activity was observed in the stele or vascular cylinder. It is concluded that part of the AO polymorphism is related to the location of distinct isoforms in different regions of the root. This compartmentation of AO isoforms may be required to generate ABA either for local root regulation or for transport to the shoot where it is required to perform a number of controls, among them the closure of stomata and subsequent regulation of transpiration.
With: K. Barabas and L. Erdei, University of Szeged, Hungary

Drought resistance of wheat genotypes Lips

Drought-tolerant plants have several mechanisms to adapt to water stress. Changes in nitrogen metabolism are of central importance in adaptation of plants to stress. Amino acid accumulation associated with water stress may actually be a part of an adaptive process contributing to osmotic adjustment. Furthermore, the rise in ammonia levels and its reassimilation may provide an insight into the metabolic capacity to regulate ammonium content of plant tissues and may constitute a mechanism of drought tolerance.

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Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) is abundant in plant tissues, although its function is unclear. Although glutamine synthetase (GS) accounts for most of the assimilation of NH4, its still possible that GDH may have a role in this process. The activities of GS and GDH were measured in drought tolerant and sensitive genotypes under water stress conditions. Substantial increases in the levels of GS, GDH activities (200-300%) were noticed in drought-tolerant genotypes of wheat, Grecum 476, RL-lines, during drought conditions. Temporary increases of GS activities were observed in 23-24 day-old seedlings following mannitol treatment on drought-tolerant varieties. Mannitol had a larger effect on GS activity in Grecum 476 and RL-lines (150%) more than in Omskaya and Kazakstanskaya 4 (80%) varieties. The elevated activities of GS and GDH reduce the potentially toxic levels of free cellular ammonia while increasing the amino-acid pool. Essential variations in the values of GS and GDH activities may be used as markers of drought-tolerant potentials of wheat genotypes.
With: T. Lee, Institute of Botany, Kazakhstan.
Physiological and biochemical basis of salt tolerance in corn Lips

The ability of crops to tolerate saline environment has gained much attention due to the imperative demands for higher crop productivity and optimal land utilization. Understanding the underlying mechanism for salt tolerance is a key step for breeding/engineering crops suitable for areas affected by saline soils and water. The present study focuses on some mechanisms of salt tolerance in corn, on the dry matter production, ion uptake and activity profile of nitrate reductase (NR) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPc). Screening for salt tolerance at the seedling and reproductive stages of growth identified 12 tolerant, 2 moderately tolerant and 6 sensitive entries. Comparison between a salt tolerant (Pi 31) and a salt-sensitive (Pi 11) revealed significant differences in root growth, Cl- and Na+ uptake and NR and PEPc activities between the two inbreds. Extending the analysis to 4 inbreds (2 tolerant and 2 sensitive) generated differential response to NaCl-salinity between the two sensitive inbreds while the tolerant inbreds consistently exhibited low Na+ uptake combined with high K+ uptake. Better growth performance of tolerant inbreds indicated their ability to withstand higher salt concentration than the sensitive genotypes. Significantly high root NR activity was observed in Pi 31 while Pi 21 gave the highest leaf NR activity. High K+ in the cell was suggested to counteract the ionic imbalance due to excess Na+ and Cl- ions while elevated activities of NR and PEPc were postulated to provide a mechanism for the enhanced assimilation of nitrogen and production of organic acids in the roots of plants growing under saline conditions.
With: R. Garcia, M. L. Agtarap, F. Faustino, E. M. Tecson-Mendoza, Institute of Plant Breeding, Los Baos, Philippines

Tissue Culture and Propagation

The plant tissue culture laboratory carries out independent research in tissue culture and micropropagation of plant tissues in projects relevant to desert agriculture and agroforestry, as well as investigations of a more general nature. The lab also complements other research programs at the BIDR, which benefit from the techniques and capabilities of tissue culture technology. In recent years, methods have been developed in our lab for in vitro propagation of disease-free planting material of various species for commercial and ecological applications. These include: Atriplex for revegetation of degraded rangelands in semiarid regions (with P. Malan, and N. Rethman, University of Pretoria, South Africa); Haloxylon persicum and H. aphylum for pasture improvement and sand dune stabilization (see below); Amaryllis bulblets for flower growers and bulb exporters (with L. Lozovsky, BIDR); Aloe arborensis for valued biochemicals used in cosmetic and medicinal preparations (with L. Lozovsky, BIDR); and the woody-shrub Cistus, which serves as a host to a highly regarded, edible truffle (Tuber melanospora) (with V. Tsur, N. Bezerano, Ben-Gurion University).

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An integrated approach to improve production of the yam starch tuber Birnbaum, Lips

Yam is the major staple for over 200 million people in Africa, parts of southern Asia, and the Caribbean. Propagation of this crop by farmers generally involves storing and replanting of whole or pieces of harvested tubers, a procedure that significantly cuts down crops available for sale and perpetuates the viral and bacterial diseases that further reduce tuber yields. We are developing an efficient, low-cost system for micropropagation of yam, which will assist in providing growers with disease-free seed tubers for planting. Through the system developed thus far, disease-free plantlets of select cultivars are produced more rapidly and efficiently than by previously published methods. (Funding: AID/CDR).
With: I. E. Nwana and V. Enzegwu, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria; C. Villalmor, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, the Philippines

Clonal propagation of Haloxylon shrubs for pasture improvement in Central Asia Birnbaum

Due to the scarcity of water, livestock production on rangeland is essentially the only viable form of agriculture in Central Asia and is thus of critical importance to the economies of these republics. Indeed, Central Asia is the principal meat production region for the independent states of the former Soviet Union. Annual and seasonal fluctuations in forage yields bring about considerable livestock mortality and reduce productivity. Throughout much of the winter, for example, low-growing plants are covered with snow and are not accessible. Furthermore, an ongoing process of pastureland degradation in these areas has far-reaching environmental, ecological, and socioeconomic implications. Improved perennial shrub ranges could provide a stable feed base for livestock production. We are developing means of establishing perennial ranges with Haloxylon aphylum and H. persicum, multipurpose shrubs that are endemic to Central Asia. The research focuses on the selection, clonal propagation by tissue culture and cuttings, and prolongation of seed viability of these species. (Funding: AID/CDR).
With: M. Nikolaev, M. Dourikov, N. Mamedova, Institute for Desert Research, Turkmenistan; N. Orlovsky, BIDR.

Cellular and Molecular Biology

Transcription and posttranscription regulation of the glycolate oxidase gene Volokita, Heimer

To better understand the coordinated expression of genes involved in photosynthesis and

photorespiration, we are studying the glycolate oxidase (GLO) gene in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Samsun NN) seedlings. Using Norflurazone to catalyze the photooxidative destruction of chloroplasts, we found that light-dependent increase in GLO transcript and enzyme activity was inhibited in seedlings. Experiments with easily measured glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene driven by the GLO promoter showed that this plastid-controlled inhibition operates at the gene-transcription stage. We adduced evidence pointing to the existence of a light-regulated, plastid-independent, posttranscriptional regulation of GLO expression. In photooxidized seedlings, where transcript level of the GUS gene driven by the GLO promoter was similar to light-deprived seedlings, light-dependent increase in GUS activity was evident. Moreover, GUS mRNA level in light-grown GLO-GUS-engineered seedlings was only 2% of that observed in 35S-GUS seedlings (in which expression of the reporter gene is driven by a constitutive promoter), despite the fact that GUS activity in both transgenic lines was similar. We suggest that GLO expression is regulated by plastid signals at the transcriptional level and by light, in a plastid-independent manner, at the posttranscriptional level.
With: A. Nejidat, S. Barak, BIDR

Screening sweetpotato for drought tolerance in the Philippine highlands; genetic diversity among selected genotypes Heimer

Local germplasm of high yielding traditional cultivars and open-pollinated (OP) progenies of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L.) were screened for drought tolerance in swidden (land cleared by slashing/burning) and post-rice paddy conditions in the Philippine highlands. Several clones obtained from OP progenies and from traditional cultivars displayed a degree of drought tolerance based on the production of marketable storage-roots, while others failed. Under swidden conditions, the local cultivar, Tokano, produced the highest yield. The traditional cultivar, Kalbo-oy also out-yielded others in post-rice paddies. To search for genetic markers that will be used in future breeding, we analyzed the genetic diversity of various germ lines. Genomic DNA from seven sweetpotato genotypes, selected

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from those which produced storage roots under drought conditions, was subjected to Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Twenty decamer primers were tested and 16 yielded DNA-amplification products. Among the 97 scored bands, 77 were polymorphic (79.38%) and genotype-specific DNA markers were also identified. The pairwise marker difference between genotypes ranged from 0.378 to 0.936 indicating a broad range of genetic diversity.
With: B. A. Anselmo, Benguet State University, the Philippines; A. Nejidat, BIDR
The role of antioxidant enzymatic systems in salt tolerance Guy, Volokita

Cultivated tomato varieties and a wild salt-tolerant relative species were used to study the role of the antioxidant systems in the acquisition of salt tolerance. We found that antioxidant enzymes were present in the plants subcellular organelles, chloroplasts (plastids), mitochondria, and peroxisomes. On the basis of total protein, the wild salt-tolerant species exhibit higher antioxidant enzyme activities. This shows that in order to minimize the damage of poisonous reactive-oxygen species, the relevant neutralizing enzymes are concentrated in the sites where these reactive molecules are produced.
With: M. Tal, Ben-Gurion University

transport of nitrate and sugar into plant cells Guy, Volokita

The arginine-modifying reagent phenylglyoxal (PGO) is considered to be a specific inhibitor of the nitrate transport system; however, its mode of action is not clearly understood. It is believed that arginine residues of the nitrate transporter protein have an important role in the transport of nutrients into plant cells. In this study, the action of PGO on the transport of nitrate and several organic solutes, including nonmetabolizable analogs of sugar and amino acid, was investigated. We found in each case that movement through the plasma membrane was inhibited by PGO. In plant cells, the driving force for active solute transport is the proton gradient (pH) existing across the plasma membrane. PGO treatment rapidly destroyed the pH across the plasma membrane. Our results suggest that PGO has two effects on solute transport: an indirect effect on the driving force through pH dissipation and a direct interaction with essential arginyl residues in the transporter. One solution for agricultural practice in drylands is the use of greenhouses, particularly those with CO2-enriched atmospheres. However, several crops undergo acclimation to high CO2 by accumulating carbohydrates and reducing photosynthesis. Since these changes cannot be reversed by adding nitrogen to the environment, acclimation apparently involves a deficiency in nitrogen metabolism. Arabidopsis thaliana is a commonly used model plant for studying plant biology. This plant was genetically engineered to over-express the enzyme nitrate reductase (NR), the first enzyme in the nitrate assimilation pathway. The transgenic lines obtained were found to exhibit NR activity two to four times greater than that of the wild type, depending on the line. While 7-day-old transgenic seedlings showed no increase in fresh or dry weights, they did show up to 200% higher protein content than the wild type, when grown on solid medium. Up to 30% increase in protein content was also obtained when the engineered A. thaliana was grown in peat moss for at least three weeks. The greater protein content was evident in several protein bands, but was most apparent in that of the large subunit of Rubisco. When grown in a CO2-enriched greenhouse atmosphere, the transgenic lines produced higher biomass, more flowers, and up to 40% more seeds than the wild type.
With: A. Nejidat, BIDR; H. Kamilova, Academy of Science, Tashkent; G. Zhang, M. Grinberg, BIDR

Increased protein content in genetically engineered Arabidopsis

thaliana
Heimer

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Desert Plant Biotechnology

The desert plant biotechnology group focuses its activities on identifying and trapping the vast resource of unique proteins and biochemicals found in arid-land vegetation. The increasing commercial interest in utilizing natural plant material for medicinal, food, and cosmetic applications has been traditionally directed toward plants of the tropical and subtropical regions, with desert plants being largely neglected.
Screening for Cytotoxic and Antimalarial Activities in Desert Plants of the Negev and Bedouin Market Plant Products Golan-Goldhirsh

Aqueous extracts of 66 desert plants of the Negev and Beer-Sheva Bedouin market plant products were tested for antitumor, antimalarial (protozoa) and growth inhibition of wheat-rootlet activities. Pteranthus dichotomus Gypsophila arabica, Achillea fragrantissima, Urginea maritima, and Solanum elaeagnifolium exhibited strong cytotoxicity (above 97%) against melanoma cell lines in vitro. Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum, Gypsophila arabica, Hammada scoparia, Trigonella foenum-graecum and Peganum harmala had more than 80% inhibition both in rootlet and melanoma assays. Hammada scoparia, Pulicaria crispa, Centaurea eryngioides, Echinops polyceras, Ephedra aphylla, Teucrium polium, Phlomis brachyodon, Urginea maritima, Ochradenus baccatus, Verbascum fruiticulosum, Corchorus olitorius, and Peganum harmala demonstrated strong growth inhibition (above 96%) of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The plants that were positive for antimelanoma and antimalarial activities have been under further investigation for the isolation and characterization of the anticancer and antimalarial compounds.
With: P. Sathiyamoorthy, BIDR; J. Gopas, and Y. Pollack, Ben-Gurion University.

Larvicidal Activity in Desert Plants of the Negev and Bedouin Market Plant Products Golan-Goldhirsh

Aqueous plant extracts of 63 desert plants collected in the Negev desert and Bedouin market (Beer-Sheva) were screened for larvicidal activity. Larvicidal activity was found in 16 plants, of which seven were reported in the ethnobotanical literature to be either poisonous, vermifuge, abortive, or toxic. Seven species showed high toxicity against Aedes aegypti larvae: Ephedra aphylla, Gypsophila arabica, Anabasis articulata, Mesembryan-themum nodiflorum, Nicotiana rustica, Hammada scoparia, Achillea fragrantissima. Four species showed moderate toxicity: Foeniculum vulgare, Glaucium arabicum, Solanum elaeagnifolium and Peganum harmala. The species with the lowest LC50 values are: Ephedra aphylla, Gypsophila arabica and Achillea fragrantissima and may be candidates for further isolation and characterization of larvicidal compounds, which could be important in controlling disease-causing mosquitoes. Cytotoxicity of aqueous extract of Gypsophila arabica on melanoma cells in vitro showed that screening for larvicidal compounds may be used as a preliminary screening step in the search of anti-cancerous compounds.
With: P. Sathiyamoorthy, BIDR; A. Abu-Rabia, Ben-Gurion University; P. Van-Damme, University of Gent, Belgium.

Genetic Relationships Among Mediterranean

Pistacia Species
Evaluated By RAPD Golan-Goldhirsh

Polymorphisms between Mediterranean basin Pistacia species and ecotypes within species were assessed by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Twenty-nine Pistacia accessions from 7 species, selected from geographically diverse locations in the Mediterranean area, were analyzed. A total of 302 DNA fragments was amplified by 27 primers. There were 264 (87.5%) polymorphic fragments. Of these, 108 (35.8%) were polymorphic for the 12 P. atlantica accessions, and 90 (29.8%) were polymorphic for the 7 P. lentiscus accessions. Ten P. atlantica species-specific and fourteen P. lentiscus species-specific RAPD markers were identified. Cluster analyses of the data showed that these Pistacia species could be clustered into two groups, one group containing all the P. lentiscus accessions and the second group containing all the other accessions. The latter could be divided into two subgroups, one consisting of P. palaestina, P. terebinthus and P. chinensis; the other consisting of P. atlantica, P. khinjuk and P. vera. The latter two species were highly similar as were P. palaestina and P. terebinthus.
With: Z.S. Wang, Beijing University; D.K. Khandka, Ben-Gurion University; V. Kostiukovsky, BIDR; L.J. Rowland, United States Department of Agriculture.

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Characterization of a Dormancy-Abundant Dehydrin-Like Protein from Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Golan-Goldhirsh

Proteins associated with dormancy have been previously isolated from reproductive buds and bark of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). In the present reaserch we have characterized in detail one of these proteins, named Ibp32. Three cDNA fragments were isolated by RT-PCR, with primers degenerate from two internal amino acid sequences of Ibp32. These cDNA fragments were cloned and expressed in E. Coli as fusion proteins with a cellulose binding domain (CBD). One of these cDNA fragments, named As2, expressed a fusion protein which reacted with anti-Ibp32 antibodies, and contained previousely identified amino acid sequences of the protein in an ORF. The deduced protein, encoded by this cDNA fragment has the biochemical characteristics of dehydrins. It has high homology to cold-induced dehydrins of other species. The recombinant fusion protein CBD-As2 has the ability to protect the cold-labile enzyme Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) from freeze-thaw damage, although less efficiently than expected. Ibp32 expression is regulated, at least in part at the transcript level. Ibp32 transcript level was low in the late summer (August-September), slightly increased in the autumn (October-November), and reached its maximum in the winter (December-January). Immunochemical localization of the protein Ibp32 revealed that it accumulates in the inner bark parenchyma. In inflorescence buds it accumulates in the outer leaves, in a tissue homologous to the palisade tissue of real leaves. The results presented here suggest that Ibp32 may play a role in stress tolerance, and particularly in the cold hardiness of pistachio during dormancy. It also shares some properties in common with Vegetative Storage Proteins of other deciduous species, and may function as a nitrogen reserve as well.
With: A. Shachak, BIDR; O. Shoseyov, Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Inflorescence bud protease(s) against dehydrin-like inflorescence bud proteins of Pistacia vera Golan-Goldhirsh

A proteolytic activity extracted from Pistacia vera L. (pistachio) inflorescence buds was identified in male and female tissues. The enzymatic activity reaches a peak at the beginning of bud opening and flowering and is directed against inflorescence bud dehydrin-like proteins of pistachio, IBP32 and IBP27. The effect of protease inhibitors indicated that the protease(s) belong to a serine-protease-like family and are not cysteine or metallo-proteases. The proteolytic activity was strongly inhibited by TLCK and to a lesser extent by TPCK, suggesting mainly trypsin-like specificity or broader serine-protease specificity. It is suggested that the proteolytic activity is important in mobilization of the nitrogen reserves stored in the bud storage proteins during dormancy to support the fast-developing inflorescence in spring after bud dormancy break.
With: R. Matusova, BIDR; P. Smirnoff, Y. Birk, I. Peri, , Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Microalgal Biotechnology
The microalgal biotechnology laboratory develops systems for large-scale production of microalgae for commercial purposes, taking advantage of the high temperatures, brackish water, and solar irradiance that abound in the Negev desert. Research concentrates on algae that produce valuable natural products. They include pigments and food-chain components used in aquaculture, and polyunsaturated fatty acids with applications in infant nutrition and pharmaceuticals. Members of this laboratory investigate the biosynthesis of natural algal products; the environmental factors governing biomass production in outdoor cultures; potential applications of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria as biological vectors to counter environmental problems; and the development of suitable photo-bioreactors for large-scale cultivation of photoautotrophic microorganisms.

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Haematococcus model
organisms for high-value products Boussiba

Because of the relative ease of growing microalgae, these organisms are important resources for various commercial products. Haematococcus is being studied for the production of carotenoid pigments such as astaxanthin, the material that gives salmon its attractive pink color. Astaxanthin can be fed to pen-raised fish to impart a similar hue and improve product marketability. The fundamental aspects of Haematococcus cell morphology and structure, and molecular and cellular aspects of the biosynthesis of this carotene-based natural product, are under investigation. We designed a process for large-scale manufacture of this microalga for use as fish and poultry feed. Astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus is induced by environmental stress conditions that inhibit cell growth. When this occurs, a remarkable morphological and biochemical transformation takes place, turning the normally green, motile cells into inert red cysts. We examined the possibility that this exceptional stress response is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). We are elucidating the role of ROS in the regulation of astaxanthin biosynthesis and seek to determine whether astaxanthin accumulation functions in relieving oxidative stress in this alga. Investigations include: monitoring ROS generated under stress conditions and studying their role in mediating astaxanthin biosynthesis; identification of proteins and genes involved in astaxanthin accumulation and studying their regulation by ROS; subcellular localization of the site of astaxanthin biosynthesis and of ROS generation; clarification of the biological role of astaxanthin and isolation of mutants with enhanced or impaired capacities to synthesize astaxanthin. Elucidation of the role of ROS in mediating astaxanthin biosynthesis in H. pluvialis may contribute to our understanding of oxidative stress responses in other plant systems. It may also contribute to enhancing the commercial production of astaxanthin from Haematococcus.
With: A. Zarka, B. Wang, BIDR

Oxidative stress regulates astaxanthin biosynthesis in

Haematococcus pluvialis
Boussiba

Development of large-scale production system for Haematococcus at Sede-Boqer campus.

Initial studies concerning the isolation and protein characteriZation of astaxanthin rich globules in

Haematococcus pluvialis
Boussiba

The alga Haematococcus pluvialis accumulates the carotenoid astaxanthin on exposure to stress conditions. The astaxanthin is concentrated into oily pigment globules located in the cell cytoplasm. This work reports on attempts to isolate and characterise these globules. Red cells loaded with the pigment were broken and the crude extract was fractionated on sucrose density gradient producing three distinct fractions. Each fraction was repurified on a further gradient resulting in fractions free of contaminating elements. The ratio of astaxanthin to protein increased by a factor of 13 throughout the isolation and was about 3.2:1 in the purified globule fraction. Preparation of samples for SDS-PAGE analysis was carried out by solubilization in NP-40 followed by extraction in methanol:chloroform at a ratio of 2:1. The purified globule fractions were enriched with four low molecular weight polypeptides of about 30, 31, 33, 34 kDa. The possible role of these polypeptides in stabilizing the gobules is under current investigation.
With: A. Zarka, BIDR; U. Pick, Weizmann Institute of Science; A.J. Young, N. Clarkson, Liverpool John Moores University, UK.

The relationships between cell wall and astaxanthin accumulation process in the green alga

Haematococcus pluvialis
Boussiba

The green alga Haematococcus pluvialis undergoes drastic changes when exposed to environmental stress conditions; these changes include accumulatation of the keto-carotenoid astaxanthin, and increases in size and dry weight as may be reflected in cell wall thickening. This work was aimed at testing the connection between pigment synthesis and wall formation. Understanding this correlation may be of further help in the development of the biotechnology for the production of astaxanthin-rich Haemtococcus mass. The results obtained point out that during carotenoid accumulation induced by environmental stresses, a direct correlation between pigment content, cellular volume and dry weight exist. Electron microscope observations show that during the reddening process the wall thickness increased about two- to three-fold, which contributes in part to the increase in the cellular dry weight observed during this process. Enzymatic digestion of green and red cell walls revealed differences in the chemical composition of these two components. We have found that Haematococcus pluvialis contains ARM (acetolysis resistant

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material) probably sporopollenin-like substances also found in cell walls of other members of the chlorophytas. However, no differences in ARM content between green and red cysts were found. Our results indeed support the connection between pigment and wall synthesis, however at this stage one cannot define the nature of this connection.
With: U. Zarfati, A. Zarka, BIDR.
The effect of the herbicide glufosinate (BASTA) on astaxanthin accumulation in the green alga

Haematococcus pluvialis
Boussiba

Herbicides are agrochemicals used to control weeds during crop growth. Essentially, they are enzyme inhibitors affecting basic metabolic reactions essential for plant life. A prominent group includes compounds which block ammonia assimilation via their inhibition of glutamine synthetase (GS), the key enzyme for ammonia assimilation. An example of such an inhibitor is glufosinate also called phosphinothricin, or BASTA in its commercial form. This glutamate analog acting competitively vs. the natural substrate as a transient state inhibitor finally binds covalently to the enzyme at a 1:1 ratio. Our findings indicate that in the unicellular green alga Haematococcus pluvialis, glufosinate efficiently inhibits cell growth, induces astaxanthin accumulation and blocks the activity of GS in cultures and in cell-free extracts. Conversely, methionine-S-sulfoximine (MSX), a well known GS inhibitor, had no effect on either of these parameters. When GS activity was tested in vitro, MSX inhibited activity at high concentrations (mM), while glufosinate was effective in the M range. We provided evidence that in the presence of glufosinate, ammonia may be extruded from the algae. We suggest that the latter process enables Haematococcus cells to escape the detrimental effect of glufosinate, a well-known plant killer.
With: C. Aflalo, Ben-Gurion University, W. Bing and A. Zarka, BIDR.

Changes in the D1 protein subunit of photosystem II during accumulation of astaxanthin in

Haematococcus pluvialis
Boussiba

The role of the ketocarotenoid astaxanthin in the protection against high light irradiance in the green alga Haematococcus pluvailis is still unclear although some suggestions have been made. We have previously demonstrated that singlet oxygen is the main reactive oxygen species (ROS) required in the process of the accumulation of this pigment in Haematococcus. Since most of this ROS molecule is likely produced via PS II, the changes in this complex during exposure of Haematococcus cells to high light were studied. The response of photosystem II to high light intensity is a well studied phenomenon in higher plants and a few algae. In so-called photoinhibition PS II activity is down-regulated and in particular one of the reaction center polypeptides the D1 protein may be degraded. The fate of the D1 protein by immunoblotting in green cultures induced to accumulate astaxanthin by exposure to high light levels (300 E) was investigated. Furtheremore, we also followed the D1 protein in green (low light, 70 E grown) and red (high light 300 E grown) Haematococcus cells when exposed to photoinhibitory light (3000 E). The results show that the amount of D1 protein per chlorophyll is slightly reduced during the astaxanthin accumulation process. Under photoinhibitory conditions the D1 protein level in both green and red cells remains high. Blocking the translation system by chloramphenicol shows that D1 protein degradation was intensive in green but not red cells. This indicates that the D1 protein is turning over rapidly in the green but not in the red cells. The oxygen evolution rates follow exactly the amount of D1 protein present, i.e. they are high in green and red cells and also in red cell + CAP. But oxygen evolution drops in green cells + CAP. In these experiments it was noted that also in Haematococcus the xanthophyll cycle is operating: high light intensity increases zeaxanthin and decreases violaxanthin concentrations. This suggests the operation of other mechanisms for light protection in addition to astaxanthin accumulation in this alga.
With: A. Zarka,W. Bing, BIDR A. Trebst, University Bochum, Germany.

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Potential applications of nitrogen N2-fixing cyanobacteria Boussiba

Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, such as Anabaena PCC 7120, are being studied for use as biological vectors for controlling hazardous environmental agents. In one project, desirable genes are being introduced into this microalga, such as those of the antimalarial-larva toxin found in Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (BTI). When grown together with instar larva of the malaria-carrying mosquito (Ades aegypti), the genetically-engineered cyanobacterium killed 91% of the larvae within 24 hours. The modified Anabaena strains are expected to be as efficient as BTI itself, which has a very short half-life in nature. Related projects involve the use of cyanobacteria for the biodegradation of pollutants, their utilization as biofertilizers and soil conditioners.
With: X.-Q Wu, BIDR

Survival of Spirulina in alkaline environments Boussiba

Spirulina plantensis flourishes naturally in certain alkaline lakes of Africa, Asia, and Mexico. Because of its commercial importance and extremely specific conditions for growth, we are studying the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms facilitating the survival of Spirulina. It was found that sodium ions are essential to the durability of Spirulina in high pH environments and that a special membrane protein (an Na+/H+ antiporter) is involved in keeping the algaes internal pH within an acceptable range.
With: A. Zarka, BIDR

Protection of heterologous

B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis toxin from

UV-B in Anabaena PCC 7120 Boussiba

The larvicidal activity of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti), caused by the insecticidal crystal proteins (ICP) that are produced during sporulation, does not recycle nor is amplified under field conditions; its use as biological control agent is thus limited. To overcome this limitation, a cluster of endotoxin genes, containing cry4A, cry11A and p20, have been cloned into the nitrogen-fixing filamentous cyanobacterium Anabaena PCC 7120. This organism serves as a food source for mosquitoes and can multiply in their breeding sites. In this study we tested the hypothesis that these transgenic microorganisms (containing pSBJ2) protect the expressed Bti heterologous toxin proteins from the damage inflicted by UV-B light (280-330 nm), which is not absorbed by the ozone layer. Exponentially growing culture of pSBJ2-containing Anabaena was UV-B-irradiated in water suspension; residual toxicity against 3-instar Aedes aegypti larvae was determined by bioassays at LC80. Similar larval mortalities between the irradiated and non-irradiated samples were obtained even after 8 hours irradiation. Thus, the high mosquito larvicidal activity of this transgenic Anabaena may be protected from the harmful effects of the UV-B in sunlight that reach the earth surface.
With: X.-Q Wu, E. Ben-Dov, R. Manasherob, A. Zaritsky, Ben-Gurion University.

Production of arachidonic acid from microalgae Cohen, Khozin-Goldberg

The polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid (AA) has been shown to be a major component of human milk lipids, essential for the build-up of brain cells in newborn babies. Various health authorities have recommended its addition to baby formulae. We have discovered an alga that is the worlds richest source of AA, which reaches over 20% of the algal biomass dry weight; the proportion of fatty acids can reach as high as 60%. The research is aimed at elucidating the biosynthesis of AA; understanding the biochemical control on its production; and optimizing its production.
With: C. Bigogno, BIDR

Production of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from the alga

Monodus
Cohen, Khozin-Goldberg

The polyunsaturated fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) was shown to be of immense pharmaceutical importance, particularly in reducing the risk of heart diseases. The major source of EPA is fish oil. However, EPA constitutes only 10% of the oil. In order for EPA to be added to pharmaceutical preparations its purity must exceed 95%. Since separation of EPA from similar fatty acids in fish oil is rather expensive we have been looking for an algal alternative. The alga Monodus is rich in EPA. Furthermore, most EPA is concentrated in one class of lipids, galactolipids. Separation of these lipids would provide high purity EPA of over 50%. The research is aimed at understanding the biosynthesis of EPA in the alga, and optimizing production.

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Efficient utilization of high photon irradiance for mass production of photoautotrophic microorganisms Richmond

Efficient utilization of high irradiance requires cultures of high cell density grown in reactors with a narrow light path. In general, the smaller the light path, the higher the growth rate and the volume output rate (g L-1 d-1) of cell mass. Areal productivity (g m-2 d-1) may be inversely related to the length of light-path (e.g. Spirulina platensis) or directly related to it, as is the case with Nannochloropsis sp., in which the areal output rate increased with the increase in the light path and the areal volume (L m-2). Inhibition of cell growth in Nannochloropsis became evident as cell concentration greatly increased. In such cultures, response in cell growth to elevated irradiance was therefore possible only when the growth medium of ultrahigh cell density cultures was frequently changed. Inhibitory activity to culture growth may be directly involved in determining the optimal cell density (which results in the highest areal output of cell mass) and hence the optimal light path. Under optimal growth conditions, cultures of high cell densities responded well to the rate of stirring, the relative beneficial effect of mixing increasing as cell density increased.
With: Z. Ning, BIDR

An investigation concerning optimization of light path length in photobioreactors outdoors Richmond

The effect of light path length (i.e. reactor width) of flat plate glass reactors on outdoor production of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and cell mass of Nannochloropsis sp. was tested, using a range of light paths from 1.3 to 17.0 cm. Volumetric productivity of cell mass (and optimal, as well as maximal cell density which represents the highest sustainable cell density under the experimental conditions), decreased with increased light path, in contrast with results obtained in similar reactors with Spirulina cultures, in which areal output rates increased when the light path was reduced. Maximal areal productivity of Nannochloropsis sp. (12.8 and 22.4 g ash-free dry weight per day per m2 of irradiated reactor surfaces, in winter and summer, respectively), reflecting maximal efficiency in light utilization, was obtained with long light paths, i.e. 10.4 and 17.0 cm. Increasing the light path from 1.3 to 17.0 cm resulted in an increase in areal EPA productivity, from 66.7 to 278.2 mg m-2 day-1 in winter and from 232.1 to 515.7 mg m-2 day-1 in summer. We concluded that the optimal light path, which must be defined for each algal species, represents an important parameter which determines optimal culture density (i.e. resulting in the highest output rate of cell mass per irradiated reactor surface), and hence productivity of cell mass and cell products. Under our conditions the optimal light path for culturing Nannochloropsis in vertical reactors was ca. 10 cm.
With: Z. Ning, BIDR

Photoinhibition in outdoor cultures of

Monodus subterraneus
induced by suboptimal morning temperature Vonshak, boussiba

Monodus subterraneus has been pointed out as a potential and most promising source for EPA, a therapeutic potential agent of 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). In order to achieve a commercially viable production system the algae has to be cultivated outdoors in specially designed photobioreactors. Outdoor algal cultures are continuously exposed to changes in the environmental conditions, particularly irradiance and temperature, which can fluctuate in a few hours between limiting and potentially inhibiting levels for photosynthesis. While the changes in light intensity may take place in a range of one-two hours, the increase in temperature is a much slower process and takes about four-five hours. This kind of desynchronization between the two most important environmental factors governing photosynthesis and growth of outdoor algal cultures results in a unique stress condition where photoinhibition is induced at relatively low light intensity. In desert areas, where the experiments were carried out, early morning culture temperature in April is usually about 12 - 14 C, and reaches the optimum of 28 - 29C at midday by absorption of solar radiation; further increase in temperature is prevented by using a cooling system. The photosynthetic activity and productivity of two cultures grown outdoors was studied. In one culture the morning temperature was increased by providing extra heating as compared to a nonheated culture. In both cultures the maximal daily temperature was maintained at 28-29 C. In both cultures a fast decline in the maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was observed starting as soon as sunrise. (The decline was faster in the nonheated culture and was to a lower value in the nonheated culture.) A recovery in the Fv/Fm values was observed

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in the afternoon. The time course of the electron transfer rate (ETR) and the change in the nonphotochemical quenching coefficient (NPQ) of the cultures, indicated that the early morning exposure of cells to suboptimal temperature results in a fast inactivation of PSII activity which was reflected in an inhibition of the photosynthetic activity even when the two cultures finally reached the same temperature at midday. Thus, under the same light and midday temperature conditions the ETR was higher in the heated culture and the NPQ was significantly higher in the nonheated one. As a result significant changes in productivity of the cultures were also observed. The potential role of the turnover of D1 protein is under investigation.
With: G. Torzillo, University of Firenze.
Cold acclimation of two strains of the cyanobacteria

Spirulina platensis
Vonshak

Mass culturing of Spirulina is mainly performed in open shallow ponds in which solar energy absorbed by the cyanobacteria is used to fix inorganic carbon. This mode of growth results in a relatively low biomass concentration, requiring large cultivation systems. Culturing Spirulina in mixotrophic conditions could potentially yield a higher biomass concentration. With recent improvements in closed systems for mass cultivation of microalgae, mixotrophic growth of cyanobacteria may become economically feasible in the near future. This study was aimed at comparing the photosynthetic activities and responses to light of photoautotrophic and mixotrophic Spirulina cultures. Spirulina (Arthrospira) platensis cells grown under mixotrophic conditions exhibit a modified response to light. The maximal photosynthetic rate (Pmax) and the light saturation value (Ek) of mixotrophic cultures were higher than those of the photoautotrophic cultures. Dark respiration and light compensation point (Ec) were also significantly higher in the mixotrophically grown cells. As expected, the mixotrophic cultures grew faster and achieved a higher biomass concentration than the photoautotrophic cultures. In contrast, the growth rate of the photoautotrophic cultures was more sensitive to light. The differences between the two cultures were also apparent in their responses to exposure to high photon flux density (HPFD) of 3000 mole photons m-2 s-1. The light-dependent O2 evolution rate and the maximal efficiency of PSII photochemistry declined more rapidly in photoautotrophically than in mixotrophically grown cells as a result of the exposure to HPFD. While both cultures recovered from the HPFD stress, the mixotrophic culture recovered faster and to a higher extent. Based on the above results, growth of S. platensis with a fixed carbon source has a significant effect on photosynthetic activity. Acclimation to low temperature is associated with a modification in the photosynthetic activity as well as a change in enzymes that are associated with oxygen metabolism. The changes in the antioxidant enzymes and photosynthetic activities during cold acclimation in two strains of the cyanobacteria Spirulina platensis marked as Kenya and M2 were investigated. Cells were cultured at 33oC then transferred to either 20oC or 15oC. Growth rate of both strains ceased when the temperature shifted from 33oC to 20oC and resumed at a slower rate after the first 24 h. Similarly when the temperature was shifted from 33oC to 15oC a complete cessation of growth took place but this time the growth resumed only after 5-6 days. The activities of ascorbate perooxidaseperoxides were immediately decreased to about 40-60% in Kenya and 20-40% in M2 when the temperature was shifted to 20oC or 15oC and remained about the same level during further cold cultivation. Superoxide dismutase activity was increased by 100% in both strains after 10-12 days cultivation at 15oC. Further studies on the differences in the ability to acclimate to the low temperature and the modification induced in the enzyme activity and PSII are underway.
With: L.F. Chien, National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan

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Photosynthetic Characterization of a wild type and a DCMU-resistant mutant of the red microalga of

Porphyridium sp.
Vonshak

The photosynthetic pigments of the red microalga Porphyridium sp. consists of chlorophyll and phycobiliproteins, the most important of which is phycoerythrin. Its cells are encapsulated in a wall of sulfated polysaccharide. This polysaccharide is one of the main photosynthetic products of this alga and is recognized to have great economic potential. However any attempt to establish a large-scale outdoor production facility for Porphyridium sp. biomass will require the selection of strains that are capable of adapting to extreme environmental conditions, such as intense light and high temperature. Exposure of photosynthetic cells to high light intensity in excess of the ability of the light harvesting system to dissipate light energy not used by the photosynthetic photochemistry process causes photoinhibition. The primary site of damage is located at photosystem II, where degradation of the D1 protein takes place. The herbicide DCMU (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea) binds to the QB-binding site on the D1 protein and interrupts the electron transport reaction from reduced QA to QB It is suggested that this may prevent photoinhibition by preventing damage in D1 protein. Photoinhibited cells may recover in dim light, a process that may be crucial in preventing the onset of irreversible photooxidation in algal cells subjected to prolonged photoinhibition. Two strains of Porphyridium sp., a wild type and a DCMU-resistant mutant (DC-2)*, were studied for their photosynthetic characteristics and response to high photon flux densities (3000 mol m-2 s-1) in the presence and absence of DCMU. The overall photosynthetic activity was measured by following the rate of oxygen evolution, and the maximum PS II photochemistry was estimated by measuring the variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm). Without addition of DCMU, maximal photosynthesis in the wild type was found to be similar to that in the DC-2 mutant. In the presence of DCMU, photosynthesis practically ceased in the wild type, while decreasing by 50% in the DCMU-resistant mutant. A decline in photosynthetic activity was observed in cells exposed to high light intensities, the rate of the decline being similar in the wild type and the DC-2 mutant in the absence of DCMU. In the presence of herbicide the DC-2 mutant displayed reduced photosynthetic activity whereas the activity was totally lost in the wild type. A decline in variable fluorescence (Fv/Fm) was also observed in both wild type and DC-2 mutant. However, in the DCMU-resistant mutant the rate of decline of Fv/Fm was lower in presence of DCMU than without DCMU.
* With: S. Arad, Ben--Gurion University; K. Manandha-Shrestha, Tribhuvan University; Nepal

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RESEARCH INTERESTS
Samuel Appelbaum

Ph.D. University of Hamburg, 1979; Researcher, Grade A Biology, physiology, nutrition, and behavior of fish; Culture of warm-water fish; Development and invention of aquaculture techniques with commercial applications; Establishment of fish farms utilizing brackish water; High-density fish husbandry in closed systems for the production of seedlings. Phone: 972-8-659-6810 Fax: 972-8-659-6810 E-mail: sappl@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. North Carolina State University, 1972; Researcher Grade A Development of tissue culture methods for mass propagation of root and tuber crops, ornamentals, and woody species, including Amaryllis, Atriplex, Dioscorea, Haloxylon, and Stevia; Applied micropropagation for virus-free potato production. Phone: 972-8-659-6745 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: elliott@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Ben-Gurion University, 1981; Associate Professor Carotenogenesis in Haematococcus from cellular physiology to biotechnology; Haematococcus for production of biochemicals; Survival of Spirulina under alkaline environments; Environmental applications for nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Phone: 972-8-659-6795 Fax: 972-8-659-6802 E-mail: sammy@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Weizmann Institute of Science, 1978; Associate Professor Developing tools for fatty acid studies; Biosynthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA); Production of arachidonic acid (AA) in algae. Phone: 972-8-659-6801 Fax: 972-8-659-6802 E-mail: cohen@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1963; Professor Basic environmental plant physiology, as well as applications to arid region agriculture. Phone: 972-8-659-6815 Fax: 972-8-659-6822 E-mail: yosefgi@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1981; Researcher Grade B Plant transport and bioenergetics; Physiological and biochemical aspects of stress; Effects of CO2 enrichment on plants. Phone: 972-8-659-6743 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: michagu@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. University of Alberta, 1979; Associate Professor Molecular aspects of plant development; Biologically active compounds from desert plants; Plant protein biotechnology. Phone: 972-8-659-6753 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: avigolan@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1970; Professor Metabolic engineering of nitrogen and carbon metabolism in plants; Adaptation of plants to environmental stresses, including high carbon dioxide, mineral imbalances, heavy metals, herbicides; Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in microalgae. Phone: 972-8-659-6740 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: heimer@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1977; Researcher Grade B Liquid radiation filters for heat regulation in greenhouses; Sunlight spectrum modulation in greenhouses for plant growth stimulation; Temperature self-modulated liquid opacifiers (thermo-opacifiers) for greenhouse shading. Phone: 972-8-659-6818 Fax: 972-8-659-6742 E-mail: slevi@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

Elliott Birnbaum

Sammy Boussiba

Zvi Cohen

Joseph Gale

Micha Guy

Avi Golan-Goldhirsh

Yair m. Heimer

Shalom Levi

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S. Herman Lips

Ph.D. University of California, Los Angeles, 1964; Professor Incumbent of the Benjamin Schwartz Chair in Agricultural Biology Regulation of plant growth as modulated by inorganic nitrogen ions; Regulation of the influx/efflux of nitrogen-containing ions and phytohormones by xylem parenchyma cells; Molecular studies of molybdenum enzymes (nitrate reductase, aldehyde oxidase, and xanthine dehydrogenase); Genetic and post-translational regulation of enzyme activity by inorganic nitrogen ions and stress; Determination of the allocation priority of nitrates in greenhouse crops; Physiological and biochemical aspects of salinity and other stresses in plants. Phone: 972-8-659-6749/50 Fax: 972-8-659-6752 E-mail: lips@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1963; Professor Incumbent of the Miles and Lillian Cahn Chair in Economic Botany in Arid Zones Environmental physiology; Mass production of microalgae; Photobioreactor design; Photosynthetic productivity of algae; Industrial biocultivation; Reactor models. Phone: 972-8-659-6797 Fax: 972-8-659-6802 E-mail: amosr@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1985; Lecturer Light regulation of gene expression of photorespiratory genes; Protein transport into peroxisomes; Acclimation of C3 plants to elevated carbon dioxide; Salt stress and antioxidative enzymes. Phone: 972-8-659-6817 Fax: 972-8-659-6838 E-mail: volokita@bgumail.bgu.ac.il Ph.D. Ben-Gurion University, 1980; Associate Professor Reaction of microalgae to light and salt stress; Photoprotective role of astaxanthin in Haematococcus pluvialis; Responses of Spirulina platensis to low-temperature photoinhibition; Biological studies for improving mass cultivation of Spirulina. Phone: 972-8-659-6799 Fax: 972-8-659-6802 E-mail: avigad@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

Amos Richmond

Micha Volokita

Avigad Vonshak

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PUBLICATIONS
Aflalo, C., W. Bing, A. Zarka and S. Boussiba. The effect of the herbicide glufosinate (BASTA) on astaxanthin accumulation in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis. Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung 54:49-54 (1999) Appelbaum, S. and V. Birkan. A live food feeder. Aquacultural Engineering. 20:37-41 (1999) Appelbaum, S., Nervous System and Sense Organs. In: Der Aal (The Eel - 3rd German Edition) (Ed. F.W. Tesch) Parey Buchverlag im Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin pp 67-79 (1999) Appelbaum, S., A. Prilutsky and V. Birkan. An emergency aeration system for use in aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering 20:17-20 (1999) Ben-Dov, E., G. Nissan, N. Pelleg, R. Manasherob, S. Boussiba and A. Zaritsky. Refined, circular restriction map of the Bacillus thuringiensis susbp. isralensis plasmid carrying the mosquito larvicidal genes. Plasmid 42:186-191 (1999) Boussiba, S., W. Bing, A. Zarka, J.P Yuan and F. Chen. Changes in pigment profiles of Haematococcus pluvialis during exposure to environmental stresses. Biotechnol. Lett. 21:601-604 (1999) Braunbeck, T. and S. Appelbaum. Ultrastructural alterations in the liver and intestine of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) induced by ultra-low oral doses of endosulfan. Dis Aquat Org. 36:183-200 (1999) Cohen, Z. Production of polyunsaturated fatty acids by the microaclga Porphyridium cruenti. In: Production of Chemicals by microalgae (Ed. Z. Cohen) Taylor and Francis, London pp 1-24 (1999) Cohen, Z. EPA production potential of Monodus. In: Production of Chemicals by microalgae (Ed. Z. Cohen) Taylor and Francis, London pp 25-40 (1999) Cramer, M. D., Z. F. Gao, and S. H. Lips. The influence of rhizosphere dissolved inorganic carbon on carbon and nitrogen metabolism in salinity-treated tomato plants. New Phytologist 142:441-450 (1999) Golan-Goldhirsh, A. and V Kostiukovsky. Mediterranean Pistacia genus germplasm collection at Sede-Boqer, Israel. Acta Horticulturae, 470:131-137 (1998) Golan-Goldhirsh, A. Developmental proteins of Pistacia vera L. bark and bud and their biotechnological properties. J. Food Biochem. 22:375-382 (1998) Golan-Goldhirsh, A. Seasonal changes in dehydrin-like proteins and proteases of P. Vera inflorescence bud. Acta Horticulturae 470:359-364 (1998) Khozin-Goldberg, I., C. Bigogno and Z. Cohen. Elucidation of the biosythesis of eicosapentaenoic adif (EPA) in the microalga Porphyridium cruentim III: Salicylhydroxamic acid inhibits 6 desaturation in the microalga Porphyridium cruentum. Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1439: 384-394 (1999) Lips, S.H., R.T. Omarov and M. Sagi. Inorganic N ions as signals for the activation of mechanisms of crop adaptation to environmental changes. In: Nutrient Management under Salinity and Stress. (Ed. A.E. Johnston) Israel Institute of Technology pp 31 (1999) Lu, C.M. and A. Vonshak. Characterization of PSII photochemistry in salt-adapted cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis cells. The New Phytologist 141:231-239 (1999) Lu, C.M. and A. Vonshak. Photoinhibition in outdoor Spirulina platensis cultures assessed by polyphasic chlorophyll fluorescence transients. J. Appl. Phycol. 11:355-359 (1999) Lu, C.M., G.Torzillo and A. Vonshak. Kinetic response of photosystem II photochemistry in the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis to high salinity is characterized by two distinct phases. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 26:283-292 (1999) Omarov R.T., S. Akaba T. Koshiba and S. H. Lips. Aldehyde oxidase in roots, leaves and seeds of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) J. Exp. Botany 50:63-69 (1999) Omarov, R.T. and S.H. Lips. The activities of enzymes related to stress adaptation in roots of barley as effected by inorganic nitrogen ions. In: Nutrient Management under Salinity and Stress. (Ed. A.E. Johnston) Israel Institute of Technology. pp. 471 (1999) Peri, I., R. Matusova, P. Smirnoff, Y. Birk and A. Golan-Goldhirsh. Inflorescence bud protease(s) against dehydrin-like inflorescence bud proteins of Pistacia vera. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 37:51-56 (1999) Sagi M. and S.H. Lips. Salinity generated signals activate aldehyde oxidase and the synthesis of ABA. In: Nutrient Management under Salinity and Stress. (Ed. A.E. Johnston) Israel Institute of Technology pp. 485 (1999) Sagi, M., R. Fluhr and S.H. Lips. Aledehyde oxidase and xanthine dehydrogenase in a flacca tomato mutant with deficient abscisic acid and wilty phenotype. Plant Physiology 120:571-578 (1999) Sathiyamoorthy, P., H. Lugasi-Evgi, P. Schlesinger J. Gopas, Y. Pollack and A. Golan-Goldhirsh. Screening for cytotoxic and antimalarial activities in desert plants of the Negev and Bedouin market plant products. Pharmaceutical Biol. 37:188-195 (1999) Schmidt, I., D. Zart, R. Stven, E. Bock and S. Appelbaum. A novel, single-stage process for the removal of nitrogen from wastewater. Korrespondenz Abwasser 46:926-934 (1999) Zou, N. and A. Richmond. Effect of light-path length in outdoor flat plate reactors on output rate of cell mass and of EPA in Nannochloropsis sp. J. of Biotechnology 70:351-356 (1999) Zou, N. and A. Richmond. Efficient utilization of high photon irradiance for mass production of photoautotrophic micro-organisms. J. of Appl. Phycol. 11:123-127 (1999)

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Albert Katz Department of Dryland Biotechnologies

Technical staff

David Ben-Zion Shoshana Didi-Cohen Ben Friehoff Gila Granot Dr. Vladimir Kostukovsky Larissa Lozovsky Ram Musly Nurit Novoplansky Ruth Shaked Guenia Shichman Tamar Sinai Ahuva Vonshak Dr. Aliza Zarka Marie Ben-Zion Dina Fiengold Ilana Saller Dr. Ignasi Batlle Dr. Zhang Cheng-Wu Prof. Laszlo Erdei Dr. Flordeliza Faustino Dr. Jianguo Liu Dr. Surendra Singh Dr. Giuseppe Torzillo Prof. Achim Trebst Prof. Patrick Van Damme Dr. Iskander Yakubov Dr. Barbara Zagdanska Lee-Feng Chien Vladimir Kuzovlev Tamara Lee Arturo Lluisma Zou Ning Rustem Omarov Irena Peri, Zsolt Szegletes Z.S. Wang Katalin Barabas Wang Bing Antonio Castilo Erica Fediuk Alexander Fediux Xiaping Fu Krisztina Flp Roberta Garcia Chen Guoziong Garada Jasobanta Yan Jianshe Genlin Jiao Neena Karmacharya IRTA, Spain Nanjing University of Chemical Technology, China University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary Institute of Plant Breeding, Los Baos. Philippines Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Rani Durgavati University, India CNR, University of Firenze, Italy University of Bocum, Germany University of Ghent, Belgium Institute of Microbiology, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Agricultural University of Warsaw, Poland National Chung-Hsing University, Taiwan Kazak State University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Institute of Botany, Almaty, Kazakhstan University of the Philippines Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Moscow Hebrew University of Jerusalem University of Szeged, Hungary Beijing University, China Deepak Khandka Uttam Manandha Valentina Mittova Anton Montsant Parveen Aida Ramirez Kalpana Manadhar Shrestha Madan Shrestha Osama Sourkhi Wu Xiaoqiang Edyta Zdunek Mirash Zhekisheva

Secretarial staff

Visiting Scientists

Postdoctoral fellows

Graduate Students

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Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies - M.Sc. Program

The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies offers a two-year program leading to an M.Sc. degree in Desert Studies. The faculty includes scientists from the Blaustein Institute, Ben-Gurion University and scholars from the international community. The innovative, multidisciplinary program provides an integrated approach, offering opportunities to pursue basic research and track its application in the field. Students become familiar with a wide range of subjects designed to complement their areas of specialization. Graduates of the School may continue their studies toward higher degrees; they will be qualified to carry out research, take responsible positions in the management of drylands and lead the battle to combat desertification.

Specialization
The program offers five fields of specialization: Agriculture and Biotechnology for Sustainable Dryland Development Ecology of Drylands Solar Energy and the Physical Environment Water Resources and Management People in Drylands

Curriculum
The multidisciplinary program integrates basic and applied research, lectures and field studies. It includes: Introductory Courses: These are designed to familiarize students with areas of desert studies that lie outside their own specializations. Students will take three introductory courses. Specialized Courses: Research Projects: Students will take 6-8 courses in their major fields of study. The core of the program is independent research. Each student will be guided by a faculty member and will submit a written thesis upon completion of the project.

Eligibility
For admission to the Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies in the first four areas above, applicants must hold a B.Sc. in science or engineering. For the fifth, a B.A. in social sciences or humanities, or an academic/professional degree in architecture is required. In order to qualify for acceptance, students must demonstrate proficiency in English. (TOFEL examination will be required). For information regarding the Albert Katz School and application procedure please contact: Prof. Avigad Vonshak, Director Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Sede-Boqer Campus, Israel 84990 Tel: 972-8-659-6733 Fax: 972-8-659-6704 E-mail: dschool@bgumail.bgu.ac.il
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Blaustein Center for Scientific Cooperation (BCSC)

The BCSC conducts several fellowship programs for graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and visiting scientists. It provides support for short courses, workshops, seminars and conferences, and in conjunction with the Department for International Cooperation of Israels Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MASHAV), BCSC conducts two international courses annually. The BCSCs programs attract members of the scientific community from around the world. Researchers, students and professionals come from countries with dry, warm climates including Mexico, Morocco, Egypt and Botswana, and tropical lands like Ecuador, El Salvador and Thailand. They come from the colder climes of Finland and Canada and the temperate lands of Switzerland, France and Turkey. They come from new nations including Kazakhstan, Serbia and the Slovak Republic and long-established countries the UK, Italy and Australia. They come from tiny islands like Malta and Jamaica and from nations encompassing vast areas and varied climes, like China, India and the USA. Some stay for just a few days for short courses on specific topics, for workshops or conferences; graduate students and visiting scientists participate in ongoing research activities at the BIDR. In 1998 the BIDR was awarded the status of Large-Scale Facility by the European Commission. BCSC administers this program, which provides the framework for European scholars to conduct research in desert studies at any of the BIDRs research facilities. The Blaustein Institute for Desert Research is the first Large-Scale Facility in Israel.

Fellowship programs
Blaustein Fellowships

Blaustein Fellowships are the BCSCs most prestigious awards. They are given to young Ph.D.s who are selected on the basis of excellence in research achievements. Blaustein Fellows are fully supported by the BCSC for one or two years of research. In 1999 BCSC supported 33 Visiting Scientists who came to Sede-Boqer from academic and research institutions in Europe, North America, Africa, Australia and Asia all in all some 17 countries. They worked with researchers in every academic department. Thirteen scientists were given fellowship assistance and travel grants for postdoctoral research in 1999. BCSC awarded 53 fellowships to Masters and Ph.D. students in 1999. Graduate students participated in research for periods varying from six months to several years. Including Fellowship recipients, the BCSC rendered assistance to a total of 86 MSc. students, 67 Ph.D. students and 25 Postdocs at the Institute, during 1999.

Visiting Scientists

Postdoctoral Fellows

Graduate Fellowships

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Workshops, Conferences and Courses

Third Sede-Boqer Workshop on Applied and Industrial Mathematics January 5-7, 1999

Organized by Prof. I. Rubinstein and Dr. B. Zaltzman, Department of Energy and Environmental Physics. About 25 scientists participated in this meeting, among them two from abroad: Prof. J. Ockendon, FRS, Oxford University, U.K. and Prof. E. Logak from Cergy-Pontoise University, France. Other participants came from the Hebrew University, Weizmann Inst. of Sciences, Tel-Aviv University and Technion Haifa. The workshop addressed a broad spectrum of applied mathematical topics in the area of nonlinear continuum transport processes relevant to environmental studies. Organized by Prof. Y. Guterman, Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture. The invited guest speakers from abroad were Prof. M. Barbour of the University of California at Davis, CA, USA and Prof. J. van Staden of the University of Natal, South Africa. Israeli speakers came from the Hebrew University, Tel-Aviv University, the Volcani Center, the Weizmann Institute of Science and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.

The 9th Annual Conference on Advances in Desert Research in memory of the late Prof. evenari March 18, 1999 Conservation of Biodiversity in Desert Ecosytems May 17-June 16, 1999 Biodiversity in Drylands: a Unified Framework, and Identification of Research and Management Needs June 27-July 1, 1999 Proceedings of the 9th Sede-Boqer Symposium on Solar Electricity Production July 12-13, 1999 Fish Health ManagemenT October 11-14, 1999

Organized by Prof. D. Ward, Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology. The course was taught by members of the Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, under the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MASHAV). Twenty-five participants from 13 countries in Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and South America attended. Organized by Prof. M. Shachak, Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology. This workshop presented the framework for a dialogue, which was guided by the need for integrative biodiversity research and management in drylands. Participants came from the Institute of Ecosystems Studies, Millbrook, NY; and the University of New Mexico.

Organized by Prof. D. Faiman, Department of Energy and Environmental Physics. This congress was held in Jerusalem, at the International Congress Center (ICC). The meeting included an exploration of the impact of solar and renewable energy sources, and other environmental issues of recent and future concern. Foreign visitors included Prof. P. Landsberg, University of Southampton, U.K. and Prof. S. Sariciftci, Kepler University, Austria. Organized by Dr. S. Appelbaum, Dryland Biotechnologies in cooperation with the Peres Center for Peace. Participants included guests from Egypt, the Palestinian Authority and Israel who investigated issues of relevance to scientists and to fish farmers as well. Lecturers were from Israel and Hungary. Organized by Prof. Y. Lubin, Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology. This symposium was dedicated to the memory of Merav Ziv and dealt with the following subjects: Acquisition of reproductive resources and determinants of reproductive success in male insects; Male courtship behavior in the widow spider Latrodectus pallidus; Infanticide and the mating strategy of the spider Stegodyphus lineatus; Sexual selection in Mediterranean fruit flies: before and after copulation; Sperm competition and male mating strategies in the widow spider. Latrodectus revivensis; Morphology of the genitalia of Latrodectus revivensis; Signal selection in a desert lily; Mediterranean fruit fly leks: factors affecting male location; Sexual selection and the evolution of exaggerated traits in fiddler crabs.

Antropod Mating Strategies and Sexual Selection November 11, 1999

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Desert Aquaculture, a New Economic Opportunity November 22-24, 1999

Organized by Dr. S. Appelbaum, Dryland Biotechnologies in cooperation with the Peres Center for Peace. Participants included guests from Egypt, the Palestinian Authority and Israel. Lectures, provided by Israeli experts, covered a wide range of aquaculture topics including water technology, the history of aquaculture and mariculture in Israel, and specific subjects relating to aquaculture technology, techniques, disease control, etc. Organized by Architect Y. Meir, Department of Man in the Desert in cooperation with the Dead Sea Medical Research Center and the Israel Association of United Architects. Presentations included comprehensive regional planning, the climatic adaptation of buildings and clusters, thermal comfort and energy conservation, and construction systems and technologies appropriate for the special constraints of the Dead Sea region. The conference was attended by some 80 architects, planners, representatives of Government Ministries (Tourism, Science and Technology), regional authorities, and environmental NGO's (Israel Society for the Protection of Nature, Friends of the Earth, Middle East and others). Organized by Prof. Y. Gat, The Center for Water Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University. The subjects discussed included: Precipitation patterns (both temporal and spatial), i.e. the amount, intensity, duration and intermittency of rain; The partitioning of precipitation at the surface into surface runoff; Water-usage patterns of desert plants, their adaptation to water and salt stress and the effect on the water balance of the soil zone; Salinity balance in water and soil. Organized by Dr. E. Birnbaum and Dr. R. Vulcan, Albert Katz Center for Desert Agrobiology. The course was taught by members of the Albert Katz Center for Desert Agrobiology and other members of the BIDR faculty, under the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MASHAV). Thirty participants from 19 countries in Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe attended the course.

Design and Construction in the Dead Sea Region: Challenges and Design Strategies November 25, 1999

ECO-Hydrology December 9, 1999

Desert Agrobiology December 1, 1999-January 20, 2000,

BCSc staff
Prof. Zvi Cohen, Director Hadassa Sorek, Executive Secretary Willie Bruins, English Typist Tel: 972-8-659-6717 Fax: 972-8-659-6718 E-mail: inter@bgumail.bgu.ac.il

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BIDR technical and Administrative Staff

Office of the Director

Prof. Uriel N. Safriel Ruth Golan Simi Oknin Reuven Kopel Sima Amar Shosh Abudram Miriam Gadker Rachel Guy Rachel Guy Bella Freidin Shosh Zeroni Sarit Karnieli Natalia Braz Larissa Gavrielov Rafi Azoulai Zehava Afriat Yakov Dichter Nissim Elimelech David Afriat Achmed Alazazma Mali Avitzrur Armond Elmakaies Masud Elmaliach Shimon Levi Henry Ochaion Moshe Srur Yehuda Zaguri Amos Mesika

Office of the Administrative Director human resources

Public Relations Hospitality and Housing

Budget and Finance

Supply and Transportation

Maintenance and Construction

Communication and Computers

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Here in the desert I had found all that I asked

Wilfred Thesiger From the book Arabian Sands

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