Taking The Private Pilot Flight Test

Hal Stoen 19 November, 2008

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Purpose of this tutorial To take the reader on a "virtual tour" of what to expect when a student pilot takes the Private Pilot flight test. The "PPSEL." (Private Pilot, Single-Engine, Land.) The writer will make every attempt to explain in plain English what the flight examiner wants to see, and how the student pilot should perform. Source The source for this tutorial is: U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration "Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane (SEL, MEL, SES, MES), August, 2002" FAA-S-8081-14A, with Change 1 This test guide is available at: http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-808114A.pdf However, the FAA is notorious for changing url's, so if the link comes up dead just do a Google search for "FAA-S-8081-14A" Introduction We're going to take a flight test for your Private Pilot's License in your flight simulator. This tutorial will list what the examiner wants you to do, what the examiner expects to see, and what (and how) you can meet those expectations. Type of aircraft used A single-engine trainer. Most flight sims offer a Cessna 152 or 172 so, by default, we will use that aircraft as the example. If you don't have the 152/172 in your stable, any single-engine trainer will do. Don't pick a high-performance aircraft though as we will be doing some low and slow stuff.

Test to be taken We will be taking the test for Private Pilot, Single-Engine Land. There are others? Yepper. There is Airplane, Multi-Engine Land. Airplane, Single-Engine Sea. And Airplane, Multi-Engine Sea. Is this real or fiction? I'm going to treat this as "real." I would like to place the reader into the situation where the mind can walk through the experience of an actual flight exam. So, some of this will be a "mental trip" while the actual flight test will be on your flight simulator. How did I get here? Practice, practice, practice. Your instructor will have trained you in all of the maneuvers that will take place. At this point you should be proficient at the controls of your flight sim. You have "taken your ground school", "passed the written examination" and, after one last flight check with your instructor you have "been signed off to take your flight test." Who administers the flight test? Either an actual employee of the FAA, certified for such duty, or a Designated Flight Examiner. Either way, you will be with a pilot that knows their stuff. Is one any easier/harder than the other? It varies. Generally speaking, if you attend a flight school that has an examiner on staff then he will be the toughest- he has his "reputation" to defend with his employer. The FAA examiner would be next and the independent Designated Flight Examiner the "easiest." Now this is a generality only- I have the greatest amount of respect for all of the types out there. The "gender quotient" I'm going to use the words "him, his" etc. Nothing against the distaff side, it's just easier than writing "him/her, he/she, himself/herself" and so on. Is there an order to how the exam is given? Yes. First there will a ground phase where the examiner will ask you some questions to test your overall knowledge. You have already passed your written, the examiner is just feeling you out. Next comes the Preflight phase, the flight-phase, and lastly the Post-flight phase. Sometimes, due to poor weather for example, this may be broken up and taken out of sequence. If it's a really

crappy day you may finish up everything except the airborne work. Not to worry, you will be given full credit for what you have accomplished to date. We're going to take this PPL exam in what is usually the sequence that it is given. It may not follow the sequence of the Flight Test Guide, but everything that is in the Test Guide will be covered here. Is the exam objective or subjective? Both. It is "objective" in that there are certain things that you are expected to do/perform in a certain way. It's "subjective" in that the examiner will be observing how you handle the various situations and scenarios. If you appear uncertain or hesitant at the aircraft controls the examiner will make you go through most, if not all, of the procedures in the exam. If you exhibit assurance and control the examiner may elect to shorten the exam and skip some parts altogether. However, if you come across as cocky or arrogant you may rest assured that the examiner will wring you out and bring you to the proper level of humility. (They love to do that. And, rightfully so. Arrogance in the cockpit is an accident waiting to happen.) If I'm taking the flight test, how did I get there? Your instructor will sign you off for the solo trip from your home airport to the location where the exam will be given. Can I fail? Oh, yeah. You can fail before you even get in the airplane. As mentioned above, there will be an oral exam before the flight portion begins. Fail that and it's over. Should you do a really crappy job of taxing the aircraft in strong surface winds you might wash out on the spot. Generally it will be your attitude that makes the difference. All of these guys were instructors at some point in their careers. They want to see you succeed, not fail. And, if you do botch something up, most will show you the correct way to complete the procedure. If you can illustrate that you can then perform the maneuver then you will likely continue on with the exam. I just can't say this enough- it will be your attitude more than anything else that is the key to your successfully passing the exam. (And the key to a long life in the field of aviation.) And lastly, should the examiner have to rapidly take over the controls without asking first, usually accompanied with an expletive, you will fail. Special Emphasis Areas (words in italics are direct quotes from the Test Guide. All of these items will be covered in detail in this tutorial.) Examiners shall place special emphasis upon areas of aircraft operations considered critical to flight safety. Among these are: 1. positive aircraft control; 2. procedures for positive exchange of flight controls (who is flying the airplane);

3. stall/spin awareness; 4. collision avoidance; 5. wake turbulence avoidance; 6. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO); 7. runway incursion avoidance; 8. controlled flight into terrain (CFIT); 9. aeronautical decision making (ADM); 10. checklist usage; and 11. other areas deemed appropriate to any phase of the practical test. Let's get started The examiner will ask to see your Student Pilot Certificate. Then your log book as he checks to see that you are indeed signed off by your instructor for this phase of your training. Next he will go through the log books of the aircraft that you are using to verify that it is legal and air worthy. There will be a short oral exam of your knowledge. This can turn into a long oral exam if you appear uncertain in your knowledge. If you are lacking, it is entirely possible that you will fail at this stage and will need to come back at a later date- after some remedial training. This is not the time to be a hotshot pilot. Answer the questions directly, but without too much expansion. I tried being a hotshot during my PPL when I was asked if the Cessna 150 that I was using had wing flaps. "Oh, yes sir. It has Fowler flaps." "Oh, really?" the examiner asked. "Tell me the difference between Fowler flaps and split flaps." I know now, but I didn't know then. And now, being conceived as a smart-a**, I found myself deep into an oral exam that was not of my own choosing. I failed the PPL before I ever got into the air. (I went back a week later and passed, but it was one of my many lessons in the field of aviation humility.) Next, you will be asked to make out a VFR flight from where you are to a destination of the examiner's choice. He will observe how you plan the trip, the visual check points that you use, your selection of altitudes, fuel planning, familiarity of filing your flight plan and so forth. You will not actually file the flight plan in most cases. To the aircraft After approving your planing you will head out to the airplane and perform a preflight on the aircraft. Use the prescribed procedure from the aircraft owner's manual. Use the manual if you wish. You can add items, but don't skip anything! The examiner will be watching closely (possibly out of the corner of his eye, or from inside of his office) as you do this ritual. He may ask you why you do something, or what if you found this or that during the preflight. Satisfied, you climb aboard. Who's in charge? You are. Even though you are "just" a student pilot you are the Pilot In Command, the PIC, as long as you are in control of the aircraft. At some point the examiner may wish to show you a procedure, or how to improve on your technique. When he takes the controls he will say "I have

the flight controls." You say "You have the flight controls." When he does this he becomes the PIC. He expects you to do the same when you take control- he will say "You have the flight controls." And you will say "I have the flight controls." (Usually the phraseology will be "I have the airplane/you have the airplane." Use whatever the examiner uses. There should never be any doubt who is the Pilot In Command. Never. Starting up the aircraft Look around for ground personnel. Open the window and shout out "Clear!" If no one is visible, or there is no response to the "Clear!" fire up the engine, bring it to idle and watch for rising oil pressure and proper temperatures. Taxi out for departure You already know the wind so you have an idea what runway will be used. If you are taking the exam at a controlled field then you will be told what the active runway will be. For this test we're going to be using a single-runway airport that has no control tower. If there is no wind then you should know from advance preparation, by consulting the Airman's Information Manual, what the no-wind runway for the airport is. If you don't know, ask the examiner. Taxi slowly. Hold the ailerons and elevator in the appropriate positions for the surface wind as you taxi along. Arriving at the departure end of the runway align the aircraft into the wind (engine cooling and aircraft stability) and do your run-up. Use the check list. When finished turn the aircraft so that you are looking down the final approach area for the runway. Check the base and downwind legs too. Satisfied, tell the examiner that you are ready to go.

Use the radio If you are at a tower-controlled airport then of course you'll have to use the radio. But here we're at a non-controlled field, and the examiner wants to know if you are familiar and comfortable with radio communications. Use the CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency). You looked that up in the AIM (Airman's Information Manual) before, didn't you? Let's say that we are using an airport named Flying Cloud. The examiner is based out of Fleet Aviation. When ready to taxi you broadcast "Flying Cloud traffic Cessna 8742 Golf is taxing out for the active, runway nine, from the Fleet Aviation ramp, Flying Cloud." When you are ready to go: "Flying Cloud traffic, Cessna 8742 Golf is taking the active, runway nine, for departure, Flying Cloud." After departure: "Flying Cloud traffic, Cessna 8742 Golf is departing the pattern to the southeast, Flying Cloud." Notice how each transmission began and ended with the name of the airport, Flying Cloud?

CTAF's are busy frequencies. Although, due to the line-of-sight characteristic of VHF, you may not hear any other traffic on the frequency, the guy in the air that may be landing at the airport you are departing from is monitoring it and most likely there are other transmissions from other aircraft at other airports just stepping on top of each other. Adding "Flying Cloud" at the beginning and ending of each transmission just might help your message get through to that guy that is getting ready to land at your airport and make him sit up and pay attention. Does it work? I don't know, but it always seemed to be a good idea to me. Takeoff Add power slowly but smartly. Use ailerons as necessary if there is a crosswind. Departure After liftoff depart the pattern in the prescribed manner, usually a 45 degree turn off of the downwind leg, and head for the first checkpoint on your VFR flight plan and climb to the altitude that you filed for. Tell the examiner that at this point you would radio the appropriate facility and open your flight plan. Don't forget to note the time of departure on your navigation form. You would be amazed how many pilots forget to do this on their flight exam. Without that time, your entire flight plan has just fallen apart. Identify your first visual checkpoint This is important. If you picked a good visual checkpoint for your VFR flight it will appear right where it ought to be. If you didn't, or if it's not there you will have to find it- and fast. Be certain to pick out an easily identifiable first check point. If this part goes poorly, the examiner may call off the exam, or continue on but you'll have to come back at a later date and do the VFR flight planning segment again. However, you did plan well and your visual checkpoint is right where it belongs. Most likely the examiner will ask about how you will proceed on the flight and in general satisfy himself that you are comfortable with the situation. Then, satisfied, he'll state that is the end of the VFR flight stage of the exam and you will be instructed to head for whatever airspace that he uses for flight testing. VOR navigation At this point, or at a time of his choosing, the examiner will ask you to tune in a VOR/VORTAC and track to it. While you're not taking an instrument exam VOR navigation is important to the PPL and the examiner wants to know if you are familiar with it. He will be watching to see if you correct for drift and how you handle station passage.

Say What?

At some point as you grind along the examiner may suddenly become your best buddy, asking questions about your training or your family- whatever. That's OK, he's not your enemy, just a regular guy doing his job. But, there is a method to his "madness." He's trying to see if you become complacent and inattentive to the aircraft as you converse. Just remember that the airplane comes first. He may also say that he "has the airplane" and ask you to read or look up something on a chart, diverting your attention, turning the airplane in the process. Then, he'll give the airplane back to you and ask "Do you know where you are?" If you can identify an object on the ground and relate it to your Sectional Chart that's just fine. If not, tune in a VOR and tell the examiner that you would track to that station, changing your altitude (odd and even plus 500 feet) if necessary. He may ask you how you would use a cross bearing from another VOR to indicate where you are. If you can't do any of this, fess up and just say that you are lost and that you would climb the aircraft and contact ATC (Air Traffic Control) for help. (The ATC frequencies are shown on the Sectional.) The main thing is that he wants to see that you would implement a plan of action if you ever did get lost and not panic. (And trust me, you will get lost. I can't tell you how many times it happened to me because they were so numerous, but it will happen.) Steep turns You will be required to roll into a minimum of a 45 degree bank and execute at least one full 360 degree turn. Roll into the bank slowly. Be aware that as you bank the aircraft you will need to bring the elevator back to compensate for the "lift vector" being directed at an angle to the horizontal and the aircraft will want to descend. Add power to compensate for the increased stall speed. If you start to descend roll out of the bank a little to compensate and then roll right back into the 45 degree angle. Power controls airspeed and the angle of bank controls altitude in this maneuver. If all goes well you will feel the "bump" at the completion of the first turn as you cross your own wake turbulence. In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Maintain a 45 degree bank, plus or minus 5 degrees. 2. Maintain your altitude, plus or minus 100 feet. 3. Maintain airspeed and do not exceed Va- Maneuvering Speed. 4. Divide your attention between the instruments and the outside world. 5. Exit within 10 degrees of your entry heading. If you do this right you'll probably exit after one turn. If the examiner is not satisfied you'll be in the merry-go-round mode for awhile. Rectangular course

In this maneuver the examiner is simulating the traffic pattern at an airport. He'll pick out a series of fields or country roads that are in the pattern of a rectangle, or he may even use the airport itself. You will need to know what the wind is like and where it is coming from to be successful. You should have this information from the weather briefing that you received before departure for the VFR flight part of your exam. However, make ground observations: streaks in nearby lakes, fields of grass, trees, dust from roads or farmers working the land. Know that the faster you are traveling across the ground the steeper the bank will need to be to make a proper turn in your pattern. This maneuver will be performed between 600 and 1,000 feet above the ground. Take a look at the drawing below:

In the rectangular course your angle of bank will change in each of the four corners, and your heading will also change change on each of the "sides." The purpose of the rectangular course exercise is to illustrate that the pilot applicant can make the appropriate bank in each of the four turns, but also to make the appropriate angle of "crab" in each of the four legs to prevent drifting out of the pattern. For example, in the rectangular course shown above: Position "A" No crab required, the wind is directly behind the aircraft. Turn from "A" to "B" Maximum angle of bank required to compensate for the highest ground speed. Position "B" The pilot must "crab" the aircraft to prevent drift from the wind pushing the aircraft out of the rectangular box. Turn from "B" to "C" The aircraft's "second slowest ground speed." The angle of bank required will be less that the prior turn. Position "C" No crab required, the wind is right on the nose of the aircraft. Turn from "C" to "D" Shallowest of all banks as the ground speed is at its lowest. Position "D" As at "B" the pilot must "crab" the aircraft into the wind to prevent having the aircraft pushed out of the rectangular box. (This "crab angle" should be the same number of degrees as required at position "B." Turn from "D" to "A" The second steepest angle of bank ("A" to "B" is the greatest) is required for this turn. What is the purpose of all this? You are simulating a traffic pattern. "A" is the Downwind Leg. "B" is the Base Leg. "C" is the Final and Upwind Leg and "D" is the Crosswind Leg. When flying an actual pattern at an airport you will want to crab your aircraft as necessary to fly a neat

pattern. But most importantly, the examiner wants to see that you know how to compensate for drift using the appropriate angle of bank in turns and crab angles in level flight. It is a part of a larger field known as "Airmanship." In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Select a "course" on the ground and show that you understand the elements, as explained above. 2. Fly the pattern at 600 to 1,000 feet above the ground and not deviate by more than 100 feet, plus or minus. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. 4. Maintain your airspeed plus or minus 10 knots. "S" Turns In this maneuver you will be once again tested to show your familiarity with control of the aircraft in a close to the ground situation, and showing your knowledge of wind drift and appropriate angle of bank compensation. Refer to the drawing below.

Once again flying between 600 and 1,000 feet above the ground pick out a line on the ground, say a road. Have an established airspeed and make your entry at "A." At this point your wings will be level. As you cross the "ground reference line" (the road) you will immediately roll into a right turn. The angle of bank increases to its maximum at "C" and will start to decrease immediately until you are briefly wings level at "E" and then then immediately roll into a left bank for the next segment. Each time you cross the "ground reference line" you must be at wings level, albeit for the briefest of moments before you start rolling in the opposite direction. This continues, back and forth, until you exit at "F." In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to:

1. Select a usable ground reference line. 2. Enter at 600 to 1,000 feet above the ground and maintain that altitude plus or minus 100 feet. 3. Maintain your starting airspeed, plus or minus 10 knots. 4. Exhibit that you understand the concept of angle of bank controlling drift. 5. Maintain appropriate reference both inside and outside of the aircraft. 6. Cross the reference line each time in a wings level attitude. Turns around a point This is similar to the rectangular course, just rounded out to a circle. However, unlike in the rectangular course your angle of bank is constantly changing as is your heading. The purpose of the circular course exercise (turns around a point) is to illustrate that the pilot applicant can make constant power, pitch and roll changes to compensate for the constantly changing position of the aircraft in relationship to the wind and the ground reference point. You will be expected to maintain a near constant distance from the object that you are circling about. You will need to find a good ground reference point, clear of vertical obstructions. A tree, or clump of trees works very well. Take a look at the drawing below:

The faster your ground speed is, the steeper the bank required to maintain the same distance from that tree in the middle. So, where is your steepest bank? It's at "A." And your shallowest bank? It's at "C." Enter at any point, or as instructed by the examiner. Roll into your bank and add power immediately. Your bank angles "direct" your total lift to less than vertical and you will start to descend if you don't add power. Also, your stall speed increases with the angle of bank requiring more power and a higher airspeed. If you start to climb, decrease power. If you start to descend, add power. If you close on the center decrease the angle of bank, if you drift away increase the bank angle. Remember, power controls altitude and bank angle controls distance from the center object. The examiner is looking to see if you understand this relationship. In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Show that you understand the interrelationship of power, and angle of bank. 2. Maintain a constant altitude plus or minus 100 feet at between 600 and 1,000 feet above the

ground. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. Slow flight This is a maneuver that shows how well a pilot knows his airplane. To enter the slow flight regime pick an appropriate VFR altitude, at least 3,000 feet above the ground. Reduce power to idle and maintain altitude by pulling the wheel back as the airspeed bleeds off. Then, just before you run out of elevator control start adding power. In a perfect world you will be just holding altitude with full power and the wheel almost all of the way back. If you were to bring the wheel back any farther the aircraft would stall. If you were to reduce power any more you would descend or stall. The stall warning system should be screaming its little heart out at this time. If you were at cruise altitude this would be called "the coffin corner." The reason for this exercise is to show that you understand how the airplane feels when it is operating at minimum airspeed, that the controls are "sluggish" and that any deviation from straight and level flight requires your complete attention lest you lose control and stall the aircraft. The examiner will want you to do turns left and right. When you initiate a turn do it slowly using a minimum angle of bank. Remember that as angle of bank increases so does the stall speed. You will need to add more power or lower the nose to compensate for this. Adding power is your first choice. You may also be asked to lower the flaps during this maneuver. Remember that adding flaps increases lift so that you will need to decrease power as they extend and also lower the nose. Do everything slowly. The examiner wants to see that you recognize that you and the aircraft are in a precarious position and that you make all of your control inputs slowly and with sensitivity. In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Show that you understand the interrelationship of power, and angle of bank. 2. Maintain a constant altitude plus or minus 100 feet at least 3,000 feet above the ground. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. Power-off stalls Stalls are extensively covered in the "How to fly" tutorial so I won't go into the same depth here. Keep in mind though that the purpose of this exercise is to simulate a real-life scenario- landing at an airport and maneuvering on the final approach leg. You will be told by the examiner what he wants to see in the stall regime. Some want you to iniate recovery at the first sign of a stall- when the stall warner goes off, some want you to continue until the aircraft buffets or the nose drops. Make certain that there is no confusion as to what the ground rules are. In the power-off stall you are simulating an unintended stall during an approach to landing.

Start off at a minimum of 1,500 feet AGL. Usually, considerably higher. Pick a cardinal heading (000, 090, 180 or 270) and maintain level flight. Slowly reduce your power and add your first notch of flaps when you are in the airspeed flap operating range- the white arc on the airspeed indicator. Start your descent using the aircraft's normal landing speed as shown in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. (Use 1.3 of Vso if you don't know the book speed.) With power off, and full flaps extended maintain your heading and slowly bring the nose up. (There is no landing gear to lower, our aircraft has it welded in place.) Continue to bring the nose up slowly and maintain your heading until the agreed on stall situation (warning or actual) occurs. Immediately lower the nose and add full power keeping the wings level and the aircraft on heading. Once the descent has been arrested and flying speed regained start climbing the aircraft. Be careful to not bring the nose up too sharply as it will be easy to enter what is known as a "secondary stall." This can be a nasty affair as you "down and dirty," and have full power on. The aircraft will have a tendency to roll over if this occurs. Once you have established a climb start removing the flaps- slowly. Be aware that you are decreasing the lift component of the aircraft and it will in turn settle down and want to lose altitude. Bring the nose back as the flaps are slowly retracted and maintain airspeed and heading. There. You have just simulated a landing stall and a "botched landing/go-around" maneuver. The examiner may want you to also illustrate a power-off turning stall. The setup is the same, except that after leveling off he will ask you to turn off of your heading and make a turn with a bank angle to not exceed 20 degrees. Because you are near stall speed in level flight, the very action of turning the aircraft should result in a stall because of the reduced lift from the turn. (Lift is really not "reduced" in a turn, it's actually just directed away from the horizontal surface of the earth. This is explained in detail in the "How to fly" tutorial.) In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Show that you understand the interrelationship of power, and angle of bank. 2. Recognize an impending stall and how to recover. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. 4. Start off at an appropriate altitude and heading and return to same after the maneuver is completed. Do not descend below 1,500 feet at any stage of this maneuver. Power-on stalls In the power-on stall you are simulating an unintended stall after taking off and during the climb out. Configure the aircraft as it normally is in a after takeoff, climb configuration: full power with no flaps. Fly a cardinal heading. Keeping the wings level, and on heading, slowly bring the nose up. Continue slowly bringing the nose up until the agreed on stall situation (warning or actual) occurs. Immediately lower the nose to reestablish flying speed, keeping the wings level and on heading. This stall will be nastier than the power-off stall because of the engine torque wanting to "twist" the airplane, and the rudder that is used to compensate for that and air from the prop on

the left side of the rudder. The aircraft will (usually) want to roll over to the right because of this combination. After stall recovery return to the climb configuration that you were in before- on heading, wings level, full power, and at the appropriate climb speed for the aircraft. The examiner may want you to illustrate a power-on stall while turning. Set up your climb as before, but iniate a turn of no more than 20 degrees bank. While in the turn slowly bring the nose back until the stall occurs. Immediately lower the nose and bring the wings back to level. After coming out of the stall return to your previous climb out heading and airspeed. Because you are in a turn with full power on this stall will have a little more spice to it than the straight-ahead version. Usually, but not always, the aircraft will roll into the turn when the stall occurs. (I've flown aircraft that will snap over out of the turn at the stall. Most entertaining.) The examiner may also want to see you use takeoff flaps during power-on stalls. The only change in procedures will be to slowly remove the flaps after you are out of the stall and reestablished in the climb. In order to satisfy this segment of the exam you will have to: 1. Show that you understand the interrelationship of power, and angle of bank. 2. Recognize an impending stall and how to recover. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. 4. Start off at an appropriate altitude and heading and return to same after the maneuver is completed. Do not descend below 1,500 feet at any stage of this maneuver. Spins You are not required to do spins for the PPL flight test. However, there are examiners out there that enjoy this exercise as it shows true expertise in the pilot that makes a good recovery. (The only ticket that requires spins is the Flight Instructor rating.) If you do have one of those guys sitting in the right seat he will make the spin entry and then let you make the recovery. To bring the aircraft out of the spin pull the power off, push the nose down (you're in a stall), level the wings, and immediately start bringing the nose up as the aircraft transcends from the spin to a dive. Once the aircraft is stable hold your altitude and bring the power back in. Whether you do spins or not, your examiner will want to know if you understand what they are, how they occur and when they are most likely to occur, and how you would get out of one. Unintentional spins are the cause of many aviator's deaths every year. Your knowledge on this subject just might save your life on a really bad day. Hood work and basic instrument maneuvers

You are going for your PPL with a VFR limitation, not an instrument ticket. So, why the requirement for instrument work? Because at some point in your air grinding time you will inadverntaly find yourself in a situation where you can't see the ground. It may be at night when the sky is totally black with no stars out and there are few lights on the ground, or in flight visibility may deteriorate to nil. There are a lot of ways it can occur, but if you fly VFR long enough it will happen. In these situations those gauges on the panel will save your bacon. When doing the following maneuvers you will be using a "hood" that will block your view of the outside world. Don't cheat and peek out at the horizon- you'll only be cheating yourself. First off will be straight-and-level flight. Maintain heading and altitude. Do not fixate on any one of the gauges. Check the artificial horizon, then move on to the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, the heading indicator, the artificial horizon and so forth. You will be expected to hold your altitude +/- 200 feet, heading +/- 20 degrees and airspeed +/- 20 knots. Next up the examiner will ask you to transfer from straight-and-level flight to a climb configuration. Add full power slowly, but smartly. Add right rudder as necessary to keep the ball centered in the Turn and Bank. Maintain your heading. Establish your climb airspeed. Constantly sweep your instruments, not fixating on any one gauge. You will be expected to level off at a higher altitude, maintain that altitude, maintain your heading and reduce to the appropriate cruise power setting. Now that you have gone up, the examiner will want you to go down. Reduce power (don't forget to use carb.. heat), establish your descent airspeed and use pitch angle to control it, sweep your gauges, maintain your heading. You will be expected to level off at a lower altitude. When you reach it start adding power to the appropriate cruise setting. Maintain your altitude and your heading, add rudder as necessary, scan your gauges. Next will come turns to a heading. Make a Standard Rate Turn, no more, no less. This is the angle of bank that is shown by the "dog house" on your Turn and Bank gauge, or your Turn Coordinator. Bring your nose up as necessary to maintain altitude. Anticipate your new heading and roll out of the turn to it. In all of these "under the hood" maneuvers you will be expected to show judicious, coordinated control of the aircraft. The examiner does not expect you to fly like an IFR pro, he just wants to be certain that you won't lose control of the aircraft. Unusual attitudes Regarded by many as the most difficult part of the PPL flight test. While you are under the hood the examiner will have you put your hands on your lap while he places the aircraft in a "less than level flight" attitude. You will be expected to recognize the situation and return the aircraft to straight and level flight strictly by using the instruments. All of our lives we have received information from our inner ears as to whether our bodies are level or tilted. Our built-in level indicator is the "vestibular system" and the three semicircular canals that sense up and down, side to side and tilt. The fluid in these canals is controlled by

gravity and serves us well until we introduce a force that over powers gravity- centrifical force. And, that's a force that can easily be induced by a maneuvering airplane. The examiner is an expert at flying airplanes and knowing how to fool your inner ear. As your head is down he will slowly, and deftly, enter a turn so gently that the centrifical force will make your ears think that you are level. You may hear the airspeed increase or decrease, but you will swear that you are in level flight. Then, after plying his trade, the examiner will say "You have the airplane." and you will look up at the panel and see a sight that will truly confound the brain. You're in a steep turn, you're going up, you're going down. You're doing anything but straight and level. Just how do you get out of this mess? This one ain't easy folks, but by using a strict procedure you can ace it every time. Just follow this procedure: 1. If the airspeed is increasing, pull the power all the way off. 2. If the airspeed is decreasing, push the power all the way in. 3. Level the wings. 4. Bring the nose up, or down, to level. 5. When the airspeed stabilizes reset to the previous cruise setting. If you will discipline yourself with this procedure you will recover every time. If you don't follow this procedure you'll only dig a deeper hole for yourself. For example, if the airspeed is increasing you pull the power back, but figuring that your descending you pull the wheel back before leveling the wings. If you're in a spiral then the spiral will only tighten up and you're headed for spin city. Navigation and communication The examiner will ask you, while still under the hood, how you would get back safely on the ground now that you are accidentally in IFR conditions. The answer to the question is to say "I would call for help." Look, you're in a bad situation. You're on instruments (simulated), you are not rated IFR, you don't know where the tops or the bottoms are, you don't know how far this stuff extends and you probably don't know where you are. And, worst of all, you are grinding along at 120 knots in airspace that doesn't belong to you and where other aluminum objects are. Not good. Be cool. 1. Crank 7600 (emergency) on the transponder. 2. If you have a frequency for Center on your chart call them. 3. If you don't have a frequency dial in 121.5 on your Comm. radio.

4. Make a blind radio call: "This is Cessna 8742 Golf declaring an emergency. 5. When Center answers they will ask the nature of your emergency. Try to give them a rough idea of where you are ("I'm about 20 miles west of the Altoona VOR, and I've accidentally flown into IFR conditions."). Next, Center will give you a transponder code and ask for an ident. Once you are identified Center will ask, for the record, if you are declaring an emergency. There's only one answer. Then "What are your intentions?" And you would say "I want to get to VFR conditions." Center will help you out as far as they have to in order to get you back to VFR. And, when it's all said and done, you will have a meeting with some really nice guy from the FAA. And that's OK. They will be strict, but they are also generally fair. In addition to the above scenario the examiner may ask you to tune into a local VOR and show that you can track it inbound while under the hood. That should do it for your hood work. Strange that although the hood only restricts your vision it seems to somehow insulate the entire body as you will be sweating profusely by the time this part of the flight exam is over. Emergency landing Just when you thought the worst was over, your engine fails. Well, it doesn't fail as such, but the examiner will reach over, pull on carb. heat and throttle the engine back while saying "Engine failure!" This exercise can happen at any point in the exam, so try to be mentally prepared for it. When this happens you should: 1. Bring the nose up and start to establish the best glide speed for the aircraft. The number is in the Owner's Manual and you should have it memorized. 2. Look for a place to land. Corn is bad, stubble from freshly harvested grain is good. Roads are bad- beside hurting some innocent person in a car they usually have power or telephone lines running along side of them. If you're in mountainous country your "field" may be a lake. If it is night aim for the darkest area that you can see. 3. While maintaining best glide airspeed try to get a read on the surface wind by streaks on lakes, trees, grasses, etc. 4. Use your check list. If you don't have time say so to the the examiner and use the "Gump checklist." (G: gear, U: undercarriage (flaps), M: mixture, P: prop) 5. Maneuver as necessary to establish the aircraft on a final approach to your selected landing area. In a perfect world you will be able to fly a downwind, base and final. Not very likely.

6. When satisfied with your choice, and that you will make your chosen landing spot, the examiner will power up the aircraft and permit you to climb to a higher altitude. Now it's back to the airport for landings and takeoffs. Landings and takeoffs These can be done in any order. Some will be touch and go's and others will be to a full stop. You will need to exhibit your knowledge of 1. Normal takeoffs and landings 2. Crosswind takeoffs and landings 3. Rejected takeoff 4. Soft-field takeoffs and landings 5. Short-field takeoffs and landings 6. Slips to a landing 7. Go-arounds (rejected landings) Let's examine these, one by one. (Proper runway clearing procedures and radio phraseology have been previously discussed and will not be repeated here. It is a given that you will make the appropriate visual checks and radio calls.) Taxi Before any of these operations you will have to, obviously, taxi the aircraft. Complete the "before taxi" portion of the check list. Taxi slowly- no applicant ever failed a flight test because of taxing too slow. If there are strong surface winds adjust the flight controls to minimize their affect on the aircraft. See how to control the airplane on the ground.

Normal takeoff The illustration below is our runway for this discussion. Either the wind is from the northwest which would dictate your using runway 29, or there is no wind and 29 is the designated no-wind runway.

As you approach the departure end of runway 29, your checklist is complete and you are cleared for takeoff. You roll onto the runway in a gentle turn and apply full power to the aircraft. Takeoff roll is normal, and you lift off some 3,000 feet down the runway. In profile, your departure looks

like this:

Well, that's not bad, and that's the way that most folks do it, but look at the displaced runway area that you left behind. Why not use that for takeoff? It's legal, and it certainly makes for a safer operation. And, the examiner will be most impressed with your heads up on the situation. A couple of points though when you do this. If it is a tower-controlled airport, make certain that you advise the tower when you call with your "ready for departure" radio call. Say something like "Oxford tower, 42 Golf is ready for departure runway two nine, we want to back-taxi and use the full length for departure." The tower does not expect you to back-taxi, and they may have issued your takeoff clearance based on the timing of landing aircraft and your using the "normal" runway departure. Not telling them can create anger up there in the glass booth- and some heavily censored radio transmission directed to you. If you are operating at an uncontrolled field, always make a "blind radio call" when taking the runway using the CTAF- Common Traffic Advisory Frequency- for that field. Something like "Oxford traffic, Cessna 42 Golf is taking the runway, runway two nine for departure, Oxford." If you are going to back-taxi, insert that in your call. There is an old saying in flying: There is nothing more worthless than the runway behind you, or the altitude above you. Use all available runway for every departure. Here's what your examiner wants to see you do: 1. Use the airplane check list for taxi and takeoff. He may ask you why a certain action is performed. 2. Turn the aircraft into the wind for your engine run-up, making certain that the area is debris free to prevent FOD (Foreign Object Damage) to the propeller. 3. Divide your attention between the inside and outside of the cockpit. 4. Ensure that your engine gauge indicators are in the proper operating range for takeoff. 5. Review the aircraft performance figures, assuring that the aircraft, weather (density altitude primarily), runway are all appropriate for the operation. 6. Clear the final approach area for any traffic conflicts. Make the appropriate radio calls. 7. Advance the throttle smoothly, but smartly. Accelerate to the recommended lift off speed. Lift off and accelerate to the best rate of climb speed and continue at that speed until leveling off in the traffic pattern.

Normal landing Make a partial power reduction on the downwind leg. Watch for traffic. Make a radio call that you are on downwind for runway xx and that you will be a touch and go. (If the examiner says that it will be a full stop landing, you do not need to include that information- full stop landings are the norm, touch and goes are the exception.) After you turn final adjust your power as necessary to maintain the approach speed as shown in the aircraft Pilot's Manual. Cross the end of the runway at 50 feet, reduce power to idle, and grease that puppy on.

If your landing will be a full stop, bring up the flaps and start braking. If it will be a touch and go bring up the flaps and push in the throttle for full power and lift off at the appropriate liftoff speed. Here's what your examiner wants to see you do: 1. Show that you have selected the runway because it is the proper runway for the existing wind or that it is the designated no wind runway. 2. Divide your attention between the inside and the outside of the aircraft. Watch for traffic. Make appropriate radio calls. 3. Watch for traffic. 4. Make appropriate radio calls. 5. Establish the proper approach speed on final. If there are gusty winds, add the gust speed to your approach speed. (For example: normal approach speed is 100 knots. Winds are at 10 knots gusting to 22 knots. You would add 12 knots [22 minus 10] to your normal approach speed and use 112 knots as your approach speed in that condition.) 6. Making your touchdown in the appropriate area on the runway. In the drawing above that's 400 feet from the end of the runway, the area marked "touch down point." 7. Use your check list as appropriate. Crosswind takeoff Exactly the same as a normal takeoff except that you will "roll aileron into the wind" as you take the runway. Let's say, for example, that the wind is quartering from the right side of the runway. Roll in full right aileron as you take the runway and apply full power. As the aircraft accelerates you may need to decrease the aileron input. In any event, accelerate perhaps 5 to 7 knots above

your normal liftoff speed. Level the ailerons and bring the aircraft off a little more abruptly than normal. Make a slight right turn after you are at least one wingspan above the runway, using whatever heading prevents the aircraft from drifting off to the left. Continue to compensate for the crosswind while flying the pattern.

Crosswind landing Establish the appropriate heading on final so that you are not drifting off of the extended center line of the runway. As you approach the end of the runway (50 feet above) roll in some right aileron. This will make the airplane want to turn right. At the same time as you introduce the right aileron push in some left rudder to stop the aircraft's desire to turn right. Now you are coming in for your landing in what is known as a "cross controlled condition." Your stall speed will be higher because the airplane is not straight and true flight. (The down aileron on the left side of the wing is creating lift and drag as is the extended left rudder. This increased drag increases your stall speed.) As you approach touchdown you must align the aircraft with the runway lest you touchdown in this skewed condition and take off for the boonies. You can do this two ways. 1. Just before touchdown remove the right aileron input and the left rudder straightening out the airplane and touchdown immediately. Or, 2. Touchdown on the right wheel. Remove the left rudder input. Remove the right aileron input. Level the wing straightening out the airplane and touchdown. Both methods work. I prefer number two, but have used both of them, it's a matter of personal choice. Most folks use method two though as it is more effective as crosswind components increase. Here's what your examiner wants to see you do: 1. Show that you understand the effect of the controls and how they can compensate for crosswind drift. 2. Show that you understand that as airspeed decreases the amount of control input required to compensate for it. 3. Show that you have complete control of the aircraft. 4. Compensate for drift while flying the traffic pattern.

Rejected takeoff This may happen during a normal takeoff and come as a complete surprise, or the examiner may tell you in advance that it will be an aborted takeoff. We'll assume that the examiner has had a bad day (certainly not because of your flying abilities) and decides to spring this one on you.

You will be rolling down the runway and he will yell out "Aircraft on runway! Abort! Abort! Abort! (Or, cow on runway- whatever.) Or, he may just reach over and jerk the power off and yell "Power failure! Abort! Abort! Abort!" When this happens, Bring the power all of the way back. Smartly. Commence heavy braking. If you have any flaps down, retract them. Bring the wheel back to your gut- ALL the way back. This will help relieve the stress on the nose gear as the aircraft pitches forward from the braking. Steer a straight line down the runway. Don't make any turns until you have completed braking and are down to normal taxi speed. (In real life scenarios if there isn't enough runway left to stop the aircraft more than one flight crew has purposely shoved in full rudder skidding the aircraft sideways and ripping off the landing gear. This has been shown to shorten the stopping requirements considerably.) Rejected landing At some time during the final leg, usually fairly close to the runway, the examiner will shout at you again. "Aircraft (or cow) on runway! Go around! Go around!" Apply full power. Stop the descent. Once you have established a climb at the appropriate airspeed slowly start removing the flaps. Be aware that the aircraft will want to sink as the flaps retract. Maintain runway heading. Once all flaps are retracted establish your normal climb airspeed. Reach over and smack the examiner. No, that's frustration speaking and you are acing this test so far so don't lose control. Soft-field takeoffs This scenario simulates a soft runway, perhaps a sod field after a heavy rain. The length is OK, it's just a very soft surface. The examiner will expect you to treat the runway itself as it were in this condition. In other words, you will not be turning around, back taxing, or stopping on the runway. Set the flaps for the maximum recommended deflection for takeoff. Take the runway and bring up full power. Pull the wheel full back, right into your stomach. Start your takeoff roll. Holding full back pressure on the wheel, allow the nose to raise off of the runway as soon as possible. Once the nose comes off of the surface, ease up on the wheel so that the nose remains off of the runway but the aircraft doesn't continue to pitch up. If you allow the nose to clear the runway any more than is necessary the aircraft will create considerable drag that will only lengthen your departure distance. The aircraft will lift off and start to fly prematurely because of ground effect- that "air cushion" near to the ground. For all intents and purposes, ground effect comes into play vertically from the surface equal to the aircraft's wingspan. It is more pronounced in low-wing aircraft than in their high-wing brethren. This is an area where you have to exercise considerable caution, as if you try to climb out of the ground effect the aircraft may stall and settle back down onto the runway. Allow the aircraft to accelerate while flying just above the runway. Once the aircraft is at a safe airspeed, initiate a shallow climb.

For your climb airspeed use either Vx (the best angle of climb speed) or Vy (the best rate of climb). It all depends if their are obstacles at the end of the runway. Lets review those two airspeeds. Best angle of climb airspeed This airspeed will put the aircraft into the air at its steepest angle- this is what you want to use on a short-field takeoff. Best rate of climb airspeed This one will give you the best rate of climb, but the angle will be less than when using best angle of climb. In other words, you'll gain more altitude per minute but will cover more ground in the process. Both of these airspeeds will be in the aircraft Owner's Manual. When the aircraft is at least 500 feet above the ground, and preferably 1,000 feet, slowly retract a notch of flaps. The aircraft will settle a little bit when you do this. Allow it to stabilize, and continue to slowly remove flaps in stages, waiting each time until the aircraft has stabilized before proceeding. Pay particular attention to your airspeed throughout this exercise. After all of the flaps have been retracted, and the aircraft is stable, proceed with a normal climb out.

Soft-field landing Now we are going to simulate going back and landing on that same soft runway that we just took off from. Approach the field in a shallow glide path, with full landing flaps deployed and sufficient power to maintain airspeed. As you cross the end of the runway, slowly decrease power but do not remove it entirely. Ideally, what you want to do is have the airplane slowly settle onto the runway at minimum flying speed. At touchdown you should have the wheel full back to the stops, buried in your stomach. As soon as the plane touches down remove all power and continue to hold the wheel full back. Leave the flaps extended as they will lighten the weight of your "footprint" until you slow down. When taxing back in, continue to hold the wheel full back to lighten to load on the nose gear. Here's what your examiner wants to see you do during soft field takeoffs an landings: 1. Show that you understand why you are using the controls in the manner that you do. 2. On the soft field takeoff transfer the aircraft weight from the wheels to the wing (lift) as soon as practical.

3. Use the best angle of climb airspeed or best rate of climb airspeed as appropriate. 4. Show that you have command of the aircraft in these rather unusual conditions. Short-field takeoff Taxi out to the end of the runway. I mean the end of the runway. In a best-case scenario, the tail of the aircraft will be hanging off of the end of the runway. If there is an overrun at the approach end of the runway, use it. The same applies if there is a displaced threshold. Check the area under the propeller. If necessary, get out of the aircraft and clear the area of any debris like rocks or small stones. If you don't, these will be pulled up into the propeller arc when you apply full power causing a ding in the blades which can lead to blade failure. Here's our runway:

Set the parking brake. Stand on the toe brakes. Bring up full power smoothly, but smartly. When the engine has stabilized at full power, disengage the parking brake, release the toe brakes, and roll. When you reach the Best Angle Of Climb airspeed pull back on the wheel and hold that airspeed. Go any slower and your rate of climb will decrease, go any faster and your angle of climb will decrease. Try not to turn the aircraft. Banking (turning) is inefficient from an aerodynamic standpoint, and it will decrease your rate of climb. Climb at the best angle of climb airspeed until you have cleared the imaginary object at the end of the runway. Slowly but smoothly tranisition to a less nose high attitude and allow the airspeed to increase to your normal climb airspeed. Short-field landing We'll look at two landings here: one with obstructions at the approach end, and one where the approach area is clear. Here's our first runway:

You will need to be well setup in advance for this approach You should have the aircraft set at the descent angle and at your target airspeed at least one mile from the runway. Establish your airspeed with full landing flaps. Add power as necessary to hold this speed Look at the end of the runway. Notice where it is in relationship to the nose of the aircraft. This is important. If the runway end is moving toward your reference point (the airplane nose), you will overshoot the end of the runway and land long. If the runway end is moving away from your reference point (the airplane nose), you will land short and do a little tree trimming. This is a difficult landing, and requires all of your skills as a pilot. If at any time you are uncomfortable with how things are going, break off the approach and setup again. Also, if there is any wind, expect an "air bubble" as you cross over the tree. It will normally push you up a little bit. Once you cross over the tree (real or imagined), do not reduce your power- it got you this far, it's going to get you to the end of the runway. If you decrease power prematurely you could very well stall and drop the aircraft in. Just before touchdown, or immediately after touchdown, chop the power. Reach over and raise the flaps. Start heavy braking. Raising the flaps will transfer more weight to the gear, and make your brakes more effective. Why not "drag it in" at a shallow approach angle and just chop the power when you touch down? Good question. So, why? Ah, Grasshopper, physics. Let's see what factors are in play as your aircraft approaches the runway and you touch down.

Notice the "forward motion to dissipate after touchdown". This directly relates to your ground speed at touchdown. Notice that when "dragging it in" all of the airspeed is forward, and that when using a steep angle of descent some of the airspeed is forward, and some is vertical, due to

your descent. The forward motion is less when using a steep angle of descent, and you will be able to stop on the runway in a shorter distance. And that, Grasshopper, is why you don't want to "drag it in" on a short runway. Pretty neat, huh? Here's what your examiner wants to see you do during short field takeoffs and landings: 1. Show that you understand why you are using the controls in the manner that you do. 2. Use the best angle of climb airspeed on your takeoff. 3. Use the Owner's Manual recommended airspeed on landing. 4. Show that you have command of the aircraft in these rather unusual conditions. Slips to a landing Back in the old days, way back when, most single engine airplanes didn't have wing flaps. In order to control descent rates the pilot would slip the aircraft on final and then straighten out for a landing. Your examiner will ask you to demonstrate a slip to a landing maneuver. A slip is a cross-control configuration of the airplane. In effect, the airplane will be flying sideways, kind of like a mongrel dog walking at an angle down the road. Here's how you do a slip. Push in some rudder, left or right, your choice. The aircraft will start to yaw. Counter the yaw with aileron. Usually pilots like to set up a slip so that the left side of the airplane is down and it's easier to see the runway, so let's do it that way. Feed in left rudder. The airplane yaws left and starts to turn. Roll in right aileron, enough to stop the turn. You will now be descending at a fair clip. Want to descend faster? More rudder, more aileron to stop the turn. You can reach the point where your left foot will be on the floor and the wheel almost hard over. And you and the airplane will be dropping like a rock. (Your stomach may be churning a bit, and the inner ear signals will be flashing red lights.) However, unlike waiting for flaps to retract or extend you can kick into or out of a slip in seconds. Adjust rudder and ailerons as necessary to stay in line with the runway. Kick out of the slip to level coordinated flight and land the airplane. Why not use slips all the time when landing? It's that stomach turning thing. It really is great fun for the pilot, but he knows what he's doing and is in charge. For any passengers it's just a gut wrenching experience. OK. Let's make this one a full stop and taxi in

Magic words! The flight exam is over! Don't get too excited. Taxi in slowly, use your shutdown checklist and secure the aircraft. The examiner will sit down with you and give you a critique of the exam. If things have gone well he will ask for your log book and make this entry: (Date) On this date (your name) passed the FAA flight test and is certified to be a Private Pilot, SEL. (stamped and signed.) You will have to sign a few forms, pay him for his services and try not to levitate on your way to the airplane for the trip back to your home airport. Congratulations! Hal Stoen November, 2008 Click here to return to the Aviation Home Page This tutorial is available on a CD. Click here for more information. If you see any errors, or would like to see a subject expanded on in this tutorial, please contact me. Hal@stoenworks.com 11/22/08: Nomenclature for the legs on the rectangular course corrected. Thank you to Ed Tomlinson for pointing this out. 11/29/08: Altitude for demonstrating slow flight. Thank you to Russ Burnham for pointing this out. 1/24/09: Sequence of leg designations on the rectangular course corrected. Thank you to Julian for pointing this out.