International Marketing Review

Emerald Article: Tourism marketing ethics: an introduction Marion Wheeler

Article information:
To cite this document: Marion Wheeler, (1995),"Tourism marketing ethics: an introduction", International Marketing Review, Vol. 12 Iss: 4 pp. 38 - 49 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651339510097720 Downloaded on: 29-03-2012 References: This document contains references to 26 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 5 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 8195 times.

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by BIBLIOTECA CENTRALA UNIVERSITARA MIHAI EMIN For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Additional help for authors is available for Emerald subscribers. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

International Marketing Review 12,4 38

Tourism marketing ethics: an introduction

Marion Wheeler
Lee Valley Regional Park, Enfield, UK
Tourism is one of the worlds largest industries but little attention has been focused on ethical marketing of the tourism product. This article considers the nature of the tourism product, paradoxes which occur with its development, the role that ethical marketing can play in the marketing of the tourism product and green tourism as an example of the industrys response to ethical considerations. Literature review Many authors in the tourism area have considered the phenomena of tourism marketing, (Haywood, 1990; Middleton, 1988) but few have related tourism marketing to the concept of ethics. The trend has been to look at definitional aspects of tourism marketing which has been followed by prescription towards the management process. The subject has been grounded in an initial definition which logically leads to particular concepts and ultimately a marketing definition. The flow of information is circular and continuous. The definition emanates out of practice and knowledge built on by the application of marketing in tourism management situations, (Gilbert, 1989; Holloway and Plant, 1988; Middleton, 1988). On the other side of the equation, those who have considered marketing ethics have tended not to relate the ideas and practices to the tourism industry. Murphy and Laczniak (1981) consider marketing as being the functional area within business most often cited with ethical abuse. This is related to the boundary-spanning role of marketing which inherently involves assimilating the needs of a diverse number of publics. This coupled with the fact that marketers actions are far more visible that other occupations makes them more susceptible to criticism. Chonko and Hunt (1985) and Dubinsky and Loken (1989) related the issue of marketing ethics to the marketing professionals relationship with other parties in the exchange process. Each party is owed duties and has responsibilities to the extent that the fulfilment of these leads to conflicts and marketing ethical problems. Davis (1992) stated that a common theme of discussion about ethics and marketing is the idea of truth, specifically the distinction between consumer and scientific truth in product claims. Not all violations of marketing ethics

International Marketing Review, Vol. 12 No. 4, 1995, pp. 38-49. MCB University Press, 0265-1335

have equal immediate or long-term consequences for consumers or society as a whole. The effects can be arranged along a continuum. At one extreme are ethical product violations which have slight, immediate, long-term or harmful consequences although society does not suffer any long-term harm. At the other extreme there are ethical violations which have the potential to produce severe harm at both the individual and societal level. Ethical violations resulting in deception at this level have a potentially profound long-term negative impact. This level has been related to green marketing where claims imply that a specific product is better for the consumer and less destructive to the environment. Thus, there is a need to change the nature of the product claims by increasing specificity about where the environmental benefit in the product or services lies; increasing precision in terminology accompanied by definitional support; and increasing specificity in product benefits. Craig-Smith (1988) highlights a number of situations where there are ethical dimensions to marketing decision making. Within product management there is product liability and the ethical considerations in going beyond legal requirements in the provision of tamper-proof packaging and product recalls. In new product development, there are safety and testing on animal considerations. In advertising, ethical aspects include the representation of minorities, the use of doubtful (though legal) claims and the use of sex-role stereotypes. Singhapakdi and Vitell (1990) built on Taylors (1975) definition of marketing ethics to state that it is an inquiry into the nature and grounds of moral judgements, standards and rules of conduct relating to marketing decisions and marketing situations. Perhaps the same could be said of tourism marketing situations? However, Wheeler (1991, 1993) provides an example of where marketing ethics have been applied to one aspect of the tourism industry. Wheeler was concerned with the critical issues and ethical components that a tourism marketeer encounters while working in the local government environment. By means of the stakeholder concept, the extent to which each group of stakeholders had influence on the marketeers final decision became apparent. The stakeholders in the local government office are illustrated in Figure 1. Those which wielded the most influence, the primary stakeholders in the decision process, were found to be the departmental heads, the councillors, the clients/community and professional bodies. The critical issues were a case of coercion and control, compromising personal integrity, responsibility to the local environment and professionalism. Thus, the marketeers decision situation revolved around balancing the individual ethic (individuals beliefs and values), the professional ethic (those dictated by the marketing profession), and the organizational ethic (local government). The tourism product The nature of the tourism product is an experience of place (location and people) at a particular time.

Tourism marketing ethics 39

International Marketing Review 12,4 40

There are three zones: (1) the tourist generating zone, which is geographical and is a resource base which determines the ability of the tourist to travel; (2) the host zone, which is geographical and also consists of a network of social and political institutions and resources which shape the hosts attitudes towards tourists; (3) the zone of interaction and interpretation the tourist-destination zone changes both temporally and spatially it is not simply a geographic entity but also a psychological and social one that exists within a place (Ryan, 1991a, p. 201). The degree of satisfaction gained from the experience relates to the expectations of the tourist, the degree of reality on which those expectations were

Central government audit commission regulatory bodies

Chief executive Professional bodies

National tourist boards (BTA, ETB)

Departmental chief

Regional tourist boards

Field workers Local government tourism marketeer The committee

Media

Local businesses

Councillors

Physical environment

Clients County council

Residents/electorate

Non-resident visitors

Figure 1. Stakeholders in the local government tourism marketeer

Key:
Primary stakeholders

Source: Wheeler (1991)

based, the ability of the tourist to adapt to perceived realities and the nature of the critical encounter that shaped that reality (Ryan, 1991a). This provides the link between tourism and marketing. The marketing of tourism then becomes an application of the marketing process to specific characteristics of the tourism industry. The tourism service is characterized by its intangibility. The focus of tourism is a performance rather than a physical good, which can lead to problems of standardization and control. Tourism is perishable as service production is fixed in time and space. Travel purchase decisions are an amalgam of several products, transport, accommodation and attractions, not all of which are owned by the same company. The tourist market is also volatile, as it is immediately affected by world events and the health of national economies. Finally, the tourist product is consumed at the point of production rather than being produced and then consumed. Schwainger (1989) argues that this non-standardization is a need which arises from: q the quest for self-determination and do-it-yourself; q the advanced level of travel experience in the population which leads to a more critical and quality orientated approach as well as growing sophistication and rationality of choice; q an increasing desire to relate to nature; q higher levels of environmental consciousness and sensitivity to the quality of life in general; q increasing effort to learn, which often manifests itself in serious attempts to get to know foreign cultures. A further unique characteristic of tourism that affects the marketing process is that, unlike many conventional instances of the product life cycle, in the case of tourism, the product evolves over time to become not simply a variant of the original, but a totally different product (Ryan, 1991b). Thus, the tourism product is unique because of its intangibility and ability to metamorphose over time. As it is an experience based on expectation, it is marketings function to present this image and create awareness. However, there are a number of paradoxes within tourism which have ethical implications for the marketing of a destination. Paradoxes within tourism There are paradoxes within tourism and its development as identified by Ryan (1991a) on which marketing can have the overriding influence. With tourism development, host communities will be able to generate revenue which helps to perpetuate the desired patterns of life. This additional income is sought to make the continued existence of the community a viable operation. However, increased visitor numbers and the demands of visitors generate

Tourism marketing ethics 41

International Marketing Review 12,4 42

changes within the community so that the status quo from a social perspective is not viable. Host communities may wish to use natural assets as tourism resources, but the development of nature means that the urban tourism industrial style of infrastructure, roads and hotels, is imposed on natural environment, hence the existing landscape and eco-system are changed. Therefore, the original resources become less of an asset. To retain the asset base and attractiveness of the host environment, other assets are constructed and the host community thus become dependent on man-made resources. Small developments may be perceived as a potential solution as they are of little threat to community lifestyles; the developments can be sited on wasteland so that it may enhance the local landscape rather than detract from the areas beauty. The host community has to accept that these restrictions on the scale of development will also restrict income generation. At the same time, developers have to accept higher costs per bed space as their initial capital costs are borne by a lower number of accommodation units. The development may not reach a size where it generates the desired rate of return. Therefore, there are economic pressures towards large-scale development. There is also a problem of income allocation. The host community which permits no tourist development obtains no income for the protection of ecologically fragile area. The neighbouring area which permits tourist development gains and enhances revenue owing to a lack of competition for tourist expenditure. Thus, it can be argued that the area which restricts tourism development contributes income to the zone where tourism does occur but receives no revenue in recognition of its contribution. The development of tourism within urban areas might overcome environmental problems and generate jobs but at the same time it reinforces towns as centres of economic life and denies tourist expenditure to rural communities. Tourist expenditure in urban areas might enhance the city but not necessarily the life of those living there. They may not possess the skills required by the tourist sector and may be able to afford the inflated land prices. Therefore, there are already ethical dilemmas in tourism such as the destruction of the original natural resource and the authentic experience, income distribution and the economic pressure for large-scale development. However, what is marketings role from an ethical perspective? The role of ethics in tourism marketing The role of tourism marketing revolves around the creation of awareness of the nature of a tourist resource and creation of the destinations image. The role of marketing in the process of tourism development has historically been the promotion of destinations in order to attract an even greater number of tourists (Ryan, 1991b). Authorities and companies have had an unbalanced view of marketing only using the promotional techniques and viewing price as supplementary to the target of attracting additional numbers. This in turn has

caused the very visible affects on the environment ranging from the destruction of the loggerhead turtles habitat on the Greek island of Zakynthos, footpath erosion in the Lake District and Peak District National Parks, and the destruction of the Mediterranean coastline by indistinguishable high rise developments. The perception and image of a zone becomes part of the perceptual process of the tourist which leads to the formation of sets of expectation and which in turn help shape behaviour while at the resort. This perception of the destinations image and tourist experience, the intangible aspect, is created through the use of brochures. Thus, the brochure becomes the tangible way to sell the experience. Brochure locations are always happy, sunny, clean, non-crowded and populated by beautiful people and happy natives. Dilley (1986) has analysed the imagery portrayed in tourist brochures and demonstrated that the content is mostly scenery, hotels, beaches and swimming areas and to a lesser degree people, locals only posing as happy, welcoming, clean and non-threatening, never hungry, homeless or resentful. Its purpose is to create awareness of the tourist place in the mind of the potential tourist but also has responsibility to ensure that the image is consistent with reality and introduces no product violations. Geshekter (1988) found evidence to the contrary. Quoting from travel brochures, he found that exactly the same wording was used to describe two totally different African countries, Gambia and Kenya, and contained clichd stereotypes about Tarzan and pulsating African drums. It is likely, however, that such brochures reinforce the images people already have of potential destination areas; they show sun, beaches, palm trees in a destination, rather than create images. Thus, brochures have two functions. First, to reinforce images and expectations (warmth, sun, safety, comfort) and, second, to make a particular area, or in the case of tour operators, to make their facilities look better, more attractive and more interesting than those of their competitors. However, if the tourist perceives a zone as possessing degrees of fragility presented by the brochure and therefore requiring responsible behaviour on the part of the tourist, while there is not an automatic link between attitude and behaviour, at least certain cognitive predispositions are set in motion (Ryan, 1991a). However, this creation of awareness is only one role that marketing from an ethical perspective can play. Tourism marketing can result in the targeting of appropriate groups and tourists. Greater satisfaction will be generated where expectations coincide not only with perceptions but also interests and aptitude. An increased use of geo-graphic and psycho-graphics by promoters may help to match tourist destinations with tourist types. This provides more effective market segmentation.

Tourism marketing ethics 43

International Marketing Review 12,4 44

Market research techniques can help to identify attitudes towards the resort area and the tourist perception of the quality of the experience and the components of that perceived quality. If this research is undertaken by tour operators, it will highlight whether their brochure is now considered widely inaccurate and unattractive to the consumer, resulting in the loss of brand loyalty. Alternatively, if research is undertaken by a national tourist organization, information will be provided which is useful in planning destination development or to use to lever the tour operators to alter their actions. The marketing process becomes part of the planning process. Marketing is not just a means of promoting a tourist zone to attract more people, regardless of the quality of experience that the tourists then receive but can also be the means whereby messages may be sent to people, indicating that perhaps the resort may not be for them (Ryan, 1991a, p. 171). The present trend is for marketers to widen the concept to include a societal perspective. Somers et al. (1989) state that this societal marketing concept is characterized by a company developing an integrated marketing programme which generates long-run profitable sales volume and satisfies the long-run wants of its customers and other parts of society affected by the firms activities. Thus, two new dimensions have been added to the traditional concept of marketing, an extended time dimension and a wider viewpoint. The evidence of this move towards a societal marketing perspective has begun to emerge in brochures produced by independent tour operators who include codes of conduct, both for the operator and the tourist have been developed. These include the Association of Independent Tour Operators Quality charter in the UK, the Himalayan tourist code and the Guest code of conduct as published in High Places 1994 brochure. The latter advises visitors, for example, to keep local water clean and avoid using pollutants such as detergents in streams, and as a guest, to respect local traditions, protect local cultures and maintain local pride. This sends the message to the consumer that the company cares about the environmental consequences of tourism and that the consumer should use this company if they believe environmental concerns are important to them. This interest in social responsibility has manifested itself in the growth in popularity of tourism under the green banner. So far, it is possible to see that an ethical tourism marketing perspective can be constructed. This includes changing the view that tourism marketing is only about the promotion of destination to attract larger numbers, that more appropriate messages to the visitor can be devised which could sensitize them to the destination they are visiting and provide more effective segmentation. This remains useful and therefore attractive to the industry as it maintains an underlying profit-making strategy. With the application of a societal perspective to the tourism marketing process there has been an increased interest in green tourism. However, the question can raised as to whether this is actually an ethical response by the tourism business or merely a marketing campaign related to changing market fashions?

Green tourism the ethical response or marketing ploy? The concept of green tourism has received increased attention within the industry by tour operators and academics. It is being heralded as the ethical response to the problems caused by the effects of development on the environment attributed to the demands of mass tourism. The problem is that tourism on a large scale brings visitors to an unspoiled area and also the support structure that they are used to in their home environment. This is compounded by that fact that the imported lifestyle is not necessarily that of the host community. These factors combined have an enormous impact on the environment. Other names such as alternative, soft, sustainable tourism development, new wave and responsible have also been espoused but the overall message is the same (Jarviluoma, 1992; Nash and Butler, 1990; Wheeller, 1992). The essence of the concept is that tourist developments should consist of small-scale enterprises which are in harmony with the environment in which they are located, and where local control and decision making predominate (France and Blake, 1992). The pace of the development is relatively slow, and is capable of being absorbed into the host environment without any negative repercussions (Wheeller, 1991). This more caring, aware form of tourism also contains seasonal and spatial spread of demand and develops a more sensitive traveller, educated in the ethics of travel. This links tourism with that important area of greater social responsibility and thus the impact on the environment is minimized. Therefore, the UK Government has also entered the green forum with its Planning and Policy Guidance paper (Department of the Environment, Welsh office, 1992), with such statements as the industry should flourish in response to the market while respecting the environment. Tourism should then be managed so that it maintains the natural environment and the built heritage that is attractive to the visitor. Government support for tourism also involves promoting the geographical and seasonal spread of tourism, encouraging the development of non-traditional destinations as well as the more popular visitor locations, and protecting the interests of the communities which cater for its needs. Thus, the underlying theme to the concept is one which involves all the stakeholders in the tourism equation striving for a more ethical development of the industry. Thus, from a tourism marketing perspective this means communicating reality and fragility of the destination and showing the consumer that the operator has more than a short-term profit strategy in mind. However, there are a number of problems with the concept. Wheeller (1991) presents an analysis of the concept and states that to suggest a small, slow, steady process of controlled development in relation to an industry that is growing globally is providing a micro solution to a macro problem. Communities which have a weak economic base do not have the power to be

Tourism marketing ethics 45

International Marketing Review 12,4 46

selective and, to the host community, tourism development is seen as a catalyst for changes and it may not accept the restrictions of slow evolution. There also seems to be an emphasis on quality for the discerning market. However, there might well be a quality market but it is not all the market. As tourist numbers increase, are all these new tourists going to be up-market, quality tourists? Perhaps tourists from new generating countries are unlikely to behave in the sophisticated, sensitive manner which is suggested, as for them it is a new experience and they will want to gain as much as possible. However, it is interesting to analyse why the concept has become attractive to the consumer and the tour operator. There has been a general realization that the earths resources are finite, that everyone needs to consider what use they make of the environment and how activities can be changed so that resources are retained on a greater level. This has been brought into the home with messages of recycling, water metering and the use of eco-friendly brands of detergents. Messages of save the species, look after the countryside and preserve our heritage are far more visible than previously. This bombardment of messages from various sources of the media, pressure groups and governing bodies has increased consumers awareness of their surrounding environment. Implicit for the consumer in use of the eco-friendly products and changing habits, is the belief that these actions are morally correct. Following on from this, these social values can be linked to the desire to move away from the materialistic Thatcherism of the 1980s and to be part of the caring, sharing, environmentally sensitive 1990s. Thus, in tourism terms, a desire for the new, the authentic, the sensitive and the more exclusive, has developed. Tour operators have had a desire to change their image. In the UK in the mid1980s, the price wars led to negative press coverage in the form of reporting delays, strikes, stranded holiday-makers, and the decrease in the quality of the product. The large tour operators at this point were actively seen to be concerning themselves primarily with market share and profit rather than providing a quality holiday. Current media hype through advertising campaigns for a range of products, such as ferries and hotels suggest that we are now moving back to the golden age of the traveller. This provides the image of the sophisticated traveller for a quality product. The quality aspect is endorsed by the message that if the consumers choose this holiday, they assert their sensitivity to the host environment and make the morally right choice. This right choice is linked to a high quality product which is exclusive. The image of quality and exclusivity is illustrated by the availability of the product for small numbers only, a necessary component of green tourism. These factors have led to a more discerning tourist in the sense of seeking the new, authentic experience and staying in low-scale developments which allay fears of causing detrimental effects on the environment. Thus, the consumer is

seeking a different holiday than previously, altered because of a change in social values, and the tour operator has reacted by providing packages on new destinations which are unspoiled, emphasizing quality, exclusivity and environmental awareness. However, perhaps everyone is being seduced by the industry as the core elements of the product are the same in whatever form, whether it be an inclusive package or an exclusive tour. The primary difference between the two is that exclusive tours are more expensive and thereby are exclusive because not everyone can afford them. Even the independent traveller is not so different as he or she makes use of the same infrastructure. The green concept allows the tourist industry to improve its own image while in reality continuing its familiar short-term commercial profits strategy. The industry is happy because it can legitimately open up new areas for the more discerning (and expensive) range of the market, and tourists can enjoy the holiday they want with a clear conscience. It is important to note that this short-term strategy of increasing cashflows and profit will not maintain the longevity of the industry as the very landscape and heritage that provides the attraction will disappear. Therefore, a new approach to tourism marketing and development will be required. However, green tourism in its present form is more fashionable than practical and further work needs to be done. However, there is hope. Ark, an environmental nonprofit making organization, ran a green travel campaign for the mass tourist market in association with Manchester Airport, the European Commission and Thomson Holidays, which included in-flight magazine and video which reached three million tourists in 1992. The aim of Arks campaign was to encourage ordinary holiday-makers to care for the culture and environment of the countries they visited; this was sold as a way of safeguarding our favourite holiday destination for future enjoyment. Ark is not particularly in favour of eco-holidays as an environmentally-friendlier option than mass tourism. Purpose-built resorts which exist already have the service economy and infrastructure to cope with a seasonal influx, whereas lesser developed destinations are more vulnerable to disruption. Conclusion The role of tourism marketing ethics revolves around effective segmentation, communicating more appropriate messages about the destination and the reality of the fragility of the environment. However, it is possible to see that marketing ethics are implicit in tourism but have yet to be explicitly discussed by the industry. The tourism product has a number of unique characteristics such as its intangibility, evolving over time into a completely different product, the difficulties with standardization and volatility to world events. These characteristics and the inherent paradoxes in tourism make the acknowledgement of marketing ethics even more important.

Tourism marketing ethics 47

International Marketing Review 12,4 48

The reaction of the industry so far has resulted in the popularity and increased visibility of green holiday packages. However, there are a number of fundamental problems with this form of tourism and it can be viewed simply as a marketing ploy by the tour operators who are using the green banner to sell their holiday products rather than a commitment to a societal perspective. However, where does tourism go from here? Although there is no easy way forward, a new approach to tourism marketing, one which considers the ethical implications of actions, must be seriously debated if the longevity of the tourist resource is remain.
References and further reading Butler, R.W. (1990), The influence of media in shaping international tourism patterns, Tourism Recreation Research, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 46-53. Chonko, L.B. and Hunt, S.D. (1985), Ethics and marketing management: an empirical examination, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 13, pp. 339-59. Craig-Smith, N. (1988), Teaching ethics in marketing: one approach and some caveats, The Quarterly Review of Marketing, Autumn, pp. 10-26. Davis, J. (1992), Ethics and environmental marketing, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 11, pp. 817. Department of Environment, Welsh Office (1992), Planning and Policy Guidance: Tourism, HMSO, London. Dilley, R. (1986), Tourist brochures and tourist images, The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 59-65. Dubinsky, A.J. and Loken, B. (1989), Analyzing ethical decision making in marketing, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 19, pp. 83-107. France, L. and Blake, M. (1992), Torremolinos: then and now, Geographical, January, pp. 4-7. Geshekter, C. (1988), in Lea, J. (Ed.), Tourism Development in the Third World, Routledge, London. Gilbert, D. (1989), Tourism marketing its emergence and establishment, in Cooper, C. (Ed.), Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, Vol. 1, Belhaven Books, London, pp. 77-89. Haywood, K.M. (1990), Revising and implementing the marketing concept as it applies to tourism, Tourism Management, September, pp. 195-205. Holloway, J.C. and Plant, R.V. (1988), Marketing for Tourism, Pitman, London. Jarviluoma, J. (1992), Alternative tourism and the evolution of tourist areas, Tourism Management, June, pp. 91-6. Middleton, V.T.C. (1988), Marketing in Travel and Tourism, Heinemann, Oxford. Murphy, P.E. and Laczniak, G.R. (1981), Marketing ethics: a review with implications for marketer, educators and researchers, Review of Marketing, pp. 251-6. Nash, D. and Butler, R. (1990), Towards sustainable tourism, Tourism Management, September, pp. 263-4. Ryan, C. (1991a), Recreational Tourism: A Social Science Perspective, Routledge, London. Ryan, C. (1991b), Tourism marketing a symbiotic relationship, Tourism Management, June, pp. 101-11. Schwainger, M. (1989), Trends in leisure and tourism for 2000-2010, in Witt, S. and Mounticho, L. (Eds), Tourism Management and Marketing Handbook, Prentice-Hall, Hemel Hempstead. Singhapakdi, A. and Vitell, S.J. (1990), Marketing ethics: factors influencing perceptions of ethical problems and alternatives, Journal of Macro-Marketing, Spring, pp. 4-18.

Somers, M.S., Barnes, J.G., Stanton, W.J. and Futrell, F. (1989), Fundamentals of Marketing, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, Toronto. Taylor, P. (1975), Principles of Ethics: An Introduction, Dickenson, Encino, CA. Wheeler, M. (1991), Tourism marketeers in local government: critical issues and ethical components, unpublished thesis, University of Surrey, Guildford. Wheeler, M. (1993), Tourism marketers in local government, The Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 354-6. Wheeller, B. (1991), Tourisms troubled times: responsible tourism is not the answer, Tourism Management, June, pp. 91-6. Wheeller, B. (1992), Alternative tourism a deceptive ploy, in Cooper, C. and Lockwood, A. (Eds), Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, Vol. 4, Belhaven Books, London, pp. 140-5.3

Tourism marketing ethics 49