Sydney Basin Reservoir Study

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705
Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study

September 2007
FrOG Tech Project Code:
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ..............................................................................2 Recommendations ................................................................................7 Introduction, Approach and Methodology..........................................8 Project Background .................................................................................9 Carbon Capture and Storage .........................................................11 GEODISC Project Summary...........................................................12 Evaluation of Geological Storage Potential ....................................14 FrOG Tech Methodology ................................................................15 Datasets ...............................................................................................19 Seismic ...........................................................................................20 Wells ...............................................................................................21 Time to Depth Conversions ............................................................22 Digital Elevation and Bathymetry....................................................23 Basin Outcrop Map .........................................................................24 Petroleum Titles..............................................................................25 Basin Evolution ...................................................................................26 Tectonic Setting ..............................................................................27 Summary of Tectonic Events..........................................................28 Basement Controls on Basin Structures.........................................29 Basin Boundaries............................................................................30 Structural Subdivisions of the Sydney Basin ..................................31 Basin Subdivisions for Reservoir Characterisation.........................32 Regional Geology around the Sydney Basin..................................33 Sediment Provenance ....................................................................34 Basin Geometry ..............................................................................35 Basin Setting...................................................................................36 Stratigraphy .........................................................................................40 Stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin ...................................................41 Upper Permian Coal Measures Sediment Thickness.....................47 Correlative Stratigraphy in the Bowen and Gunnedah Basins .......50 Reservoir Characteristics...................................................................52 Porosity and Permeability Evaluation .............................................53 Western Onshore and Hunter Valley Domes Domains ..................61 Central Onshore Basin Domain......................................................64 Southern Plateau Domain ..............................................................74 Offshore Sydney Basin Domain .....................................................77 Permeability by Stratigraphic Unit ..................................................78 Reservoir Quality Summary............................................................80 Sediment Distribution Maps and Areas of Interest (AOI) ................82 Sediment Distribution Maps............................................................83 AOI Triassic Sediment Thickness................................................91 AOI Permian Sediment Thickness...............................................92 AOI Depth to Top Permian ..........................................................93 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................94 References .........................................................................................100 Appendix 1 ........................................................................GIS Metadata Inclusions......................................................................................... DVD
MR705
Authors:
J Blevin L Hall J Chapman L Pryer jblevin@frogtech.com.au lhall@frogtech.com.au jchapman@frogtech.com.au lpryerhro@frogtech.com.au
www.frogtech.com.au
FrOG Tech Project Team: Lead Interpreters Project Manager Data Managers
Tom Loutit, PhD Jane Blevin, PhD Michael Ebrahim, PhD Lynn Pryer, PhD Karen Romine, PhD Zhiqun Shi, PhD Lisa Hall, PhD Nick Direen, PhD Donna Cathro, PhD Sjoukje De Vries, PhD Robert Hus, PhD Karen Connors, PhD Silvano Sommacal, PhD
J Blevin, L Hall J Blevin J Chapman

John Vizy, DipGS Hannes Botha, MSc Nicola Fry, BSc (Hons) James Chapman, MA Allan Mills Philip Henley Tony Edwards Meredith Guy-Villon, DipFA Cath McKenna Adrian Dehelean Chris William McKenna Jenny Loutit
Jane Blevin Senior Consultant

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia
FrOG Tech Pty Ltd ACN 109 425 621
Tom Loutit Managing Director

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au
Tel: Fax: URL: Email:
The conclusions and recommendations expressed in this material represent the opinions of the authors based on the data available to them. The opinions and recommendations provided from this information are in response to a request from the client and no liability is accepted for commercial decisions or actions resulting from them. Please cite this work appropriately if portions of it are copied or altered for use in other documents. The correct citation is Blevin et al., 2007, Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study and GIS, Project MR705, Confidential Report to NSW DPI and Macquarie Energy by FrOG Tech Pty Ltd.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Executive Summary Overview Onshore Basin
Existing datasets of porosity and permeability analyses from onshore wells indicate that parts of the Sydney Basin have poor reservoir characteristics (<10mD permeability) at depths greater than 800m (optimal CO2 storage depths), and are therefore unsuitable for commercial geological storage of supercritical CO2. In addition to poor reservoir, these areas were affected by fault reactivation and volcanic activity making trap integrity another issue for consideration. These areas include the Camden-Kurrajong region and further north and east; and immediately outboard (south) of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust. However, these results should not be extrapolated as indicative of all rocks in the entire Sydney Basin, particularly as the datasets to equally evaluate other parts of the basin are not presently available in particular the western Sydney Basin and potential areas of interest in the Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields. A total sediment thickness map with an 800m minimum thickness cut-off was also used to constrain areas of further interest. The western Sydney Basin has been identified as a region where reservoir potential may be higher than currently observed elsewhere in the basin. The basis for this concept is that sediments sourced from the western margin of the basin (Lachlan Fold Belt provenance) may have been more favourable than from the eastern margin (New England Fold Belt provenance). However, the contribution of volcanic-derived material from Devonian rocks on the western margin cannot be discounted. Much of the western Sydney Basin is national park and land-use may be restricted. The lack of deep data from wells in the western and northern regions precludes a thorough rock-based assessment of these areas. It is recommended that further petrological work be undertaken to evaluate sandstone facies in existing coal bores from the Western and southern Gunnedah Coalfields. In addition, fluid inclusion and isotopes studies will help to constrain a paragenetic sequence and heat flow history which have proved valuable in the southern Sydney Basin (Bai et al., 2001). The Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields have thousands of coal bores and these are data-rich areas that merit further investigation of reservoir quality in sandstones that underlie and are interbedded within the Upper Permian Coal Measures. Reservoir data from coal bores across the basin should also be incorporated into the porosity and permeability dataset. Provenance studies are also essential to distinguish the relative contribution of sediment sources along the western and northern basin margins through time. It is critical to determine the relative contributions of pre-Devonian sediments/ metasediments, volcanic-derived Devonian rocks, and Silurian and Carboniferous granites to the sediment pile, and whether eroded sediments from the uplifted Darling Basin to the west have been transported into the Sydney Basin. Analysis of further samples in the Wilton Formation, Marrangaroo Conglomerate, Nowra Sandstone and various interbedded sandstones within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures is recommended.
Executive Summary
Gunnedah Basin
New England Fold Belt
limited data prob not suitable
not suitable limited data sediments too thin
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
prob not suitable
sediments too thin
Tasman Sea
Above:
The SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASETM Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). Areas for interest for further study include the western and southern-most Sydney Basin (limited data). Areas deemed as not-suitable are based on reservoir core analyses, trap integrity and/or volcanic influence.


Executive Summary Overview Offshore Basin
No wells have been drilled in the offshore Sydney Basin therefore a prediction of reservoir quality is extrapolated from the onshore geology clearly rock samples are required for an absolute validation. In the onshore central Sydney Basin, the existing dataset shows that permeability decreases to less than 10mD below 800m depth, and further decreases to nearzero values below 1100m (except for Kurrajong Heights-1 where <8mD permeability is present some coal measure sands down to 1450m) Porosity of between 1 to 10% is observed down to 2600m depth. This permeability trend would suggest that the offshore extension of the basin in this region will have similar properties, and is therefore ranked as Probably Unsuitable. In addition, the offshore basin was closer to the Tasman rift and hence a stronger influence from rift-related volcanism could be observed. This effect could further degrade reservoir quality as observed by Bai et al (2001) in onshore wells in the Camden region. In contrast, Arditto (2003) has argued that the central offshore area was well positioned to receive clean, quartz-rich Late Permian sands of the coal measures, but that preservation of reservoir quality relies on early migration of hydrocarbons. This region may be more prospective for hydrocarbon exploration rather than geological storage of CO2, but these concepts could be strengthened through further basin modelling to constrain timing of migration from potential source rocks. The northern offshore basin may also have poor reservoir quality due to proximity to the New England Fold Belt (mafic and felsic rocks), rift and younger volcanic episodes, and uplift and erosion of the overlying Triassic and younger succession. The storage potential of the offshore basin was assessed by Sayers et al (2004) who modelled the Base Cainozoic wedge as a proxy for the Top Permian/Top Triassic surface (i.e., the top of structure for trap-style geosequestration and conventional petroleum plays). This approach has identified only two areas where Triassic and older rocks lie below 800m depth, although 15 potential geological CO2 storage sites were identified (Sayers et al, 2004). Key risk factors include injectivity due to poor reservoir quality, storage capacity on the order of several TCF, and that a pre-Cenozoic seal is required to seal CO2 in a supercritical state. Assessment of storage potential is further complicated by the limited extent of modern seismic data. The basin has clear cross-cutting tectonic elements that suggest a complex interaction of basement-controlled faults and fractures that have been subsequently overprinted by Tasman rifting and volcanism. It is possible that parts of the offshore basin were uplifted as a volcanic ridge that was emplaced along old basement fractures. More detailed analysis of potential field datasets may yield insights into the structural evolution of the offshore basin. The conclusions of previous sequestration potential studies of the Sydney Basin are supported based on the datasets available to these studies. However, there is scope to pursue further sequestration potential studies in the western basin.
Executive Summary
Gunnedah Basin
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
prob not suitable
sediments too thin
Tasman Sea
Above:
The SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASETM Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). Areas for interest for further study include the western and southern-most Sydney Basin (limited data). Areas deemed as not-suitable are based on reservoir core analyses, trap integrity and/or volcanic influence.

Executive Summary Reservoir Characterisation
The study examined the characteristics of conventional sandstone reservoirs in the Sydney Basin. Cut-offs of 100mD permeability and 10% porosity were used to identify strata with the best reservoir properties. However, intervals of lower permeability (down to 10mD) have not been excluded from the screening based on the demonstrated successful injection of CO2 into low permeability reservoirs at In Salah (Algeria). The 100mD cut-off used in this study indicates the desirable range for commercial subsurface CO2 storage, while the range for pilot/non-commercial storage is between 15 to 50mD; virgin reservoirs with <15mD are deemed as non-viable for commercial storage (J. Bradshaw, Geoscience Australia, pers. comm.). These cut-offs do not apply to commercial production of hydrocarbons from reservoirs. Overall, the Sydney Basin is characterised by variable porosity (poor-to-very good) and low-to-very low permeability reservoirs. Of particular significance is the relatively shallow permeability cut-off (<10mD) that is observed in most wells in the existing database of core analyses. This cut-off ranges from 700 to 900m depth depending on the region. Below 900m, permeability >1mD is found in sands within the Upper Permian Coal Measures (Kurrajong Heights-1), the Nowra Sandstone (Mulgoa-1/2), or is related to fractures in cores samples (Camberwell-2), There are also many samples across the depth range of 50 to 3100m that have some porosity but near-zero permeability, thus depth is not the only controlling factor in permeability preservation. The Sydney Basin was sub-divided into five structural domains to determine regional variations in porosity and permeability trends. Three of these regions show similar patterns with regard to low permeability, although the present dataset is very limited west of the Lapstone Monocline. There is no data for the offshore basin. There are a few samples where non-fracture related, minor permeability is preserved at depth (such as Bootleg-8/Marrangaroo Conglomerate and Mulgoa-1/2>Nowra Sandstone) but insufficient petrographic data is currently available to pursue the reason for this effect. It would be useful to re-describe and re-sample these intervals to ascertain the basis of the permeability result. If it can be documented that fractures are not present, further petrographic work should reveal whether the increased permeability is a regional or local phenomenon. Either way, they are still likely to be <10mD permeability reservoirs. The conclusions of Galloway and Hamilton (1998) clearly show that the most effective petroleum reservoir in the basin exists within the Bald Hill Operational Unit. However, this unit is Early to Middle Triassic in age (Narrabeen Group) and probably lies too shallow for potential CO2 storage is many parts of the Sydney Basin. Depth of the unit is not an issue for petroleum entrapment, however the basin is strongly affected by late-stage faulting in some areas of predicted good reservoir potential. Analysis of further samples in the Wilton Formation (Marrangaroo Conglomerate), Nowra Sandstone and various interbedded sandstones within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures (lowstand and transgressive sands) is recommended.
0 0 10 % Porosity 20 30 40 0.1 1
Executive Summary
Permeability, Horizontal mD 10 100 1000 10000 0
Note that many samples from 50 to 3100m depths have near-zero (<0.1mD) permeability.
500
500
Permeability Cut-off 700 900m
1000
1000
fractures coal measure sands
1500
1500
Nowra Sst
2000
2000
Desirable permeability range (100mD)
2500
Desirable porosity range (10%)
2500
3000
Non-viable permeability range (<10mD)
3000
3500
3500
Above: Porosity and permeability plots against depth (metres) for 60+ wells in the Sydney Basin.


Executive Summary Resources and Other Issues
The Sydney Basin contain multiple intervals of potential source rocks that include coal, marine shale and oil shale. These rocks are predominantly Permian and older in age, and there is generally less source potential in the Triassic succession. Several of these intervals may have significant economic potential, although coal is the only resource to be widely exploited. Since 1999, exploration and exploitation of coal seam gas has dominated over conventional petroleum exploration. Potential source rocks for petroleum generation have reached maturation levels within both the oil and gas zones in different parts of the basin (Mullard, 1995). The relatively widespread temporal and spatial distribution of resource-significant rocks in the Sydney Basin means that there were probably multiple phases of petroleum generation, expulsion and migration. A general lack of regional burial history models for different parts of the basin contributes to a poor understanding of the hydrocarbon generation and entrapment history at a basin scale. It is recommended that further work be undertaken that will underpin a regional model and thereby provide critical information on petroleum prospectivity and potential sterilisation of resources from CO2 storage. Further analysis should be undertaken on the distribution of coals extending beyond the current coalfield areas, and should include a sequence stratigraphic approach which should help to predict lateral variations in the coal seam thickness, grade and maturity, as well as interbedded sandstones and shales (potential reservoirs/seals). Some of the Sydney Basin stratal units are well documented within a formation-based framework. An applied sequence stratigraphic approach to the whole basin would provide useful insights into the predicted spatial distribution of individual sand units (similar to Arditto, 1987, 1991, but at an expanded temporal and spatial scale). In addition to maturity and stratigraphic modelling, further work is needed to constrain the timing of trap development (available structures) and the preservation of these structures through time. This work will require further analysis of the regional seismic data, structural modelling on the timing of fault formation and reactivation, and trap preservation. Land-use and other access restrictions have not been considered when evaluating areas with reservoir potential. However, it is should be noted that the areas in the western basin that have been recommended for further assessment underlie reserves such as the Wollomi National Park. An fully-integrated understanding of the Sydney Basin system is probably severely compromised by a lack of regional seismic data, and the sometimes poor quality and inconsistency of available datasets. In particular, high quality, digital seismic data is available only in very limited areas. Much of the paper seismic collection held by NSW DPI is supported by field data in the archive collection at Spectrum Data Services. It is recommended that the field tapes of the 1960s data be reviewed for possible reprocessing, as many of these lines would be difficult to reacquire due to subsequent development and other present-day restrictions.
Executive Summary
Above: Upper Permian Coal Measures isopach map with 500m grid cell size. The thin grey lines are major basin faults as interpreted in the OZ SEEBASETM Study (2005), while the bold dashed grey is a fundamental basement boundary.

Recommendations
Reservoir Characterisation and Stratigraphy
Recommendation 1 Western Sydney Basin Region Provenance and Petrography Aim: To evaluate reservoir quality through provenance and petrographic studies. Evaluate whether quartz-rich sediment from the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt contributed to better quality reservoirs in mid-to-Late Permian rocks through provenance studies that include petrography (grain composition, grain size, sorting, etc) and zircon analysis. Detrital zircons can typed to igneous and other rocks in the eastern LFB, and will also reveal if quartz-rich sediments eroded from Darling Basin during the Carboniferous inversion were transported eastward into the Sydney Basin. Establish the paragenetic sequence of events that affected mid-to-Late Permian rocks in the western Sydney Basin. Diagenesis of unstable minerals (epiclastic volcanic rocks), high detrital clay content, volcanic intrusions and multiple cementation events have previously been identified as reasons for poor reservoir quality (Hamilton and Galloway, 1988; Bai et al., 2001). Recommendation 2 Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields Petrography Aim: To evaluate reservoir quality through petrographic studies. Use existing coal bores to establish a paragenetic sequence of events for mid-to-Late Permian rocks, similar to the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study on the latest Permian and Triassic succession. This work is based mainly on petrography (grain composition, grain size, sorting, etc) and includes an analysis of diagenesis events. Recommendation 3 Onshore Sydney Basin Stratigraphy and Reservoir Correlation Aim: Undertake a sequence stratigraphic study of the Sydney Basin and evaluate the reservoir dataset within this framework. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in the Sydney Basin is wholly formation-based and by its nature does not recognise the lateral facies relationships between chronostratigraphically equivalent units. In addition, a separate nomenclature scheme is used for the northern and the southern parts of the basin (e.g. Alder et al., 1998). A sequence framework will to help constrain new palaeogeographic maps which require a more detailed understanding of spatial and temporal facies relationships. The now-consolidated dataset of porosity and permeability data should be rigorous reexamined to assign sequence ages and facies types (systems tract) to all data points below the Narrabeen Group. There has been no re-evaluation of the formation names associated with the core analyses since many of these the wells were drilled in the 1960s and early 1970s. These steps will provide a clearer understanding of where reservoir data are available (i.e., what units/facies were tested, how many analyses and the analytical results) and provide a more meaningful framework for understanding reservoir trends.
Recommendations
Acquisition and Re-processing of Onshore Seismic Data
Recommendation 4 Upgrade seismic datasets and structural models Aim: To acquire and upgrade datasets that will that will enable a structural evaluation and stratigraphic correlations across the Sydney Basin. A deep-seismic line across the Sydney Basin extending from the New England Fold Belt (east) to the Lachlan Fold Belt (west) would be valuable in determining the nature of the deep basin and to improve the understanding of basin forming processes and tectonic reactivation events. An extensive dataset of vintage seismic data exists across the onshore Sydney Basin. Much of this data was acquired over 40 year ago and only paper copies are available through the DPI NSW Thornton archive collection. Some data is being scanned into PDF to improve digital access. However, the field tapes for much of this data are held in the Perth-based Spectrum archive, and these data should be evaluated for potential reprocessing and enhancement. As these data provide the only regional seismic coverage across the Sydney Basin (and many lines would be not able to be re-acquired due to development, etc), the aim should be to maximise the asset of the existing seismic collection. The upgrading of the seismic datasets (Recommendation 4) will provide an opportunity to develop an integrated structural model for the basin.
Burial History Modelling

Recommendation 5 Build an integrated petroleum systems framework Aim: Compile datasets to model the generation and expulsion histories of multiple potential source rock intervals that can constrain the potential (or risk) for hydrocarbon occurrences in the Sydney Basin. The Sydney Basin is primarily considered a gas province due to the mostly terrestrial nature of potential source rocks. Burial history modelling to build an integrated petroleum systems framework for the basin is sparse, although earlier work on vitrinite suggests that uplift has played an important role in understanding present-day maturity trends (Middleton and Schmidt, 1982). A model of generation and expulsion/migration events, along with a sequence stratigraphic and structural analysis (Recommendation 3 and 6) will provide a framework to understand and predict hydrocarbon occurrence in the Sydney Basin.

INTRODUCTION, APPROACH & METHODOLOGY


Project Background
FrOG Tech P/L was contracted by the Petroleum Branch of the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) and Macquarie Energy, to undertake a study of reservoir distribution and quality in the Sydney Basin. The aim of the study was to identify reservoirs with suitable physical characteristics and depth of burial to potentially host subsurface storage of carbon dioxide (CO2). This study is a first-step, geologically-based screening exercise that includes recommendations to mature the assessment of area s of interest. areas. For NSW DPI, the Sydney Basin project is part of an broader study into CO2 storage potential in New South Wales. The project will also focus on areas of interest for future petroleum exploration. Reservoir quality and trap integrity are key exploration risks in this region. The Sydney Basin is a under-explored basin that spans the onshore and offshore region of central-eastern New South Wales. The basin has good coverage by regional gravity and magnetic datasets which were interpreted by SRK Consulting in 2003 (Pearson, 2003). A depth-to-basement map (SEEBASE) and a systematic model of tectonic evolution was developed during this study. As the 2003 Sydney Basin report is still confidential to SRK Consulting and their project sponsors, only the SEEBASE component of the report was used for the current study. The SRK Consulting Sydney Basin SEEBASE was modified and included in the OZ SEEBASE (Frog Tech PL, 2005) the OZ SEEBASE version is used in this report. The sequestration potential of the Sydney Basin was previously reviewed in a study undertaken by the GEODISC Project (see GEODISC Project Summary section of this report). The current study will review the region in more detail, and take an structural and stratigraphic approach to understand the basinwide controls on reservoir quality. The Sydney Basin hosts abundant coal reserves and oil shale, and the region has a long history of coal exploration and mining. Several thousand core bores have been drilled in the Newcastle, Hunter, Gunnedah, Western and Southern Coalfields. However, with the exception of the Camden area, petroleum exploration remains at a frontier level in the Sydney Basin. In fact, no wells have been drilled in the offshore basin, while approximately 70 wells have been drilled in the onshore basin. Although there have been no significant discoveries to date, there are numerous oil and gas shows and variable flow tests from both petroleum and coal exploration drilling, and the basin remains prospective for future conventional hydrocarbon discoveries and as well as coal bed methane production.
Figure 1:
Project Background
The SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASETM Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). The outline of the Sydney Basin is shown in pink. pink


Carbon Capture and Storage-1
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) involves the capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) through a number of different processes and technologies, the compression and transport of CO2 to an appropriate storage site, the storage (sequestration) of CO2 and on-going monitoring of the storage medium for leakage. Geosequestration involves subsurface storage of CO2 gases in geological formations similar to the gas-tight natural reservoirs that already contain oil, gas or water. It should be noted that use of the term geosequestration to describe this process is under review as it is not internationally accepted terminology (J. Bradshaw, Geoscience Australia, pers. comm.). These reservoirs must be at depths greater than 800m where the CO2 can be stored in a supercritical state (Figure 2; critical temperature and pressure conditions). Three main types of storage are available Geological Formations (depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifers, deep unminable coal seams, salt domes), Ocean Storage (deep injection, hydrates and ocean fertilization) and Terrestrial Ecosystems.
Carbon Capture and Storage
Figure 2: Plot of subsurface depth versus temperature and pressure showing the showing the critical phase range for CO2 injection of 0.6 (critical temperature) to 0.75 (critical pressure) image down loaded from www.co2crc.com.au
Figure 3:
Geological storage options for CO2 (image downloaded from www.co2crc.com.au ).
Conventional Trap or Depleted Field
Hydrodynamic/Residual Gas Saturation Trapping
Trap Structure Trap Structure
Depending on the formation used for geological storage, CO2 can be trapped by a combination of three principal mechanisms (Figures 3 and 4): Structural or hydrodynamic trapping the CO2 is trapped as a gas or fluid under a low-permeability seal or in a large open structure through residual gas saturation trapping. Solubility trapping the CO2 dissolves into the fluids contained in the formation. Mineral trapping the CO2 reacts directly or indirectly with minerals and organic matter in the formation to become part of the solid mineral matrix.
Heterogeneous Reservoir
seal heterogeneous reservoir
Each scenario varies in: Storage capacity Seal potential Injection rates Migration pathways
Figure 4: Examples of geological storage options for CO2 (images are extracted from Cook and Rigg, 2005; ICTPL, 2005).

10

Carbon Capture and Storage-2
The largest examples of geological CO2 storage are the Sleipner Field, (North Sea), Weyburn Project (Canada) and In Salah Field (Algeria) (Table 1). Sleipner has been injecting CO2 into a deep saline aquifer 1000m below the seabed since 1996, and approximately 9 million tonnes of CO2 have been injected into the formation.
Table 1: Estimates of total amounts of geologically stored CO2 in existing and advanced proposed projects to 2015 (from Cook, 2006).
Carbon Capture and Storage
PROJECT
COMMENCED 2006
Anticipated amount injected by: 2008 11MT 9MT 5MT 1MT 0 0 0 0 10KT 4KT 2010 13MT 12MT 7MT 2MT 0 1MT 0 0 10KT 4KT 2015 18MT 17MT 12MT 5MT 2MT 8MT 16MT 2MT 10KT 4KT
Figure 5: Some regions in Australia that have been studied for CO2 storage potential (image downloaded from www.co2crc.com.au ).
Sleipner Weyburn In Salah Snohvit Gorgon Peterhead/Miller California FutureGen Nagaoka Frio
1996 2000 2004 2007 2010 2009 2011 2012 2002 2004
9MT 5MT 2MT 0 0 0 0 0 10KT 2KT
At least two locations in Australia have been identified as potentially viable storage sites Gorgon (North West Shelf) and the Otway Basin (Victoria), while further work continues on investigating the sequestration potential of the Gippsland Basin (offshore Victoria), Bowen-Surat Basin (onshore Queensland) and the Perth Basin (Western Australia) (Figure 5). The Otway Project has plans for storage of up to 100,000 tonnes of CO2 in a combined saline aquifer (Cretaceous Waarre Formation) and a depleted gas field in Victoria (Cook, 2006). Drilling of an Otway Basin test well began in early 2007 and test injection is scheduled for later in the year. Although subsurface geological storage of CO2 has been demonstrated with current technology, there is still much more work to be done to ensure that storage sites that are technically, economically and environmentally feasible for the safe long term geological storage of CO2 (Cook, 2006). Some of the work will require more geological-based analysis because not enough is known about deep saline aquifers or deep coal basins in most parts of the world including much of Australia (Cook, 2006). Key sites for further information on Carbon Capture and Storage can be found at www.ipcc.ch (including an IPCC Special Report on CCS; IPCC, 2005), www.co2crc.com.au (Australian Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, CO2CRC), www.greenhouse.gov.au, www.industry.gov.au/ccs and www.co2capture.org.uk. Several examples that show the scope and detail of advanced storage projects including the European CASTOR Project, can be found at www.co2castor.com (Leading Edge, 2006) .
Ketzin Otway TOTALS
2007 2007
0 0 17MT
50KT 100KT 26MT
50KT 100KT 37MT
50KT 100KT 96MT

11

GEODISC Project Summary, Onshore Sydney Basin
From 1999 to 2004, the GEODISC Project (www.co2crc.com.au) conducted an analysis of the subsurface storage potential of several basins across Australia. In New South Wales, the Sydney, Bowen-Gunnedah, Clarence-Morton and Darling basins were assessed. The assessment focused on the ability of a site to store CO2 in terms of five risk factors (Bradshaw et al., 2002): storage capacity, containment, injectivity potential, site details and existing natural resources. Storage capacity and containment are the critical geological factors. Results of the GEODISC work in the Sydney Basin identified that potential existed in some dry structural closures and some possible hydrodynamic traps, but both with poor reservoir quality (Figure 6; Bradshaw, 2003; Bradshaw et al., 2003). The Gunnedah and Sydney basins were evaluated for their sequestration potential in coals seams by Bradshaw et al (2001). Remapping of a dry structure at Dural South indicated a potential storage capacity of around 100 Bcf (Bradshaw, 2003). However, as the Dural South-1 well was probably drilled slightly off-structure, the play is now considered an untested petroleum prospect. Using previous reservoir-related work done by Ozimic (1979), Bradshaw (2003) estimated potentially low injection rates for the structure (100 mmcf/day per well), and in this scenario multiple injection wells would be required.
GEODISC Project Summary
The Kulnura Anticline was also investigated by Bradshaw (2003) as a potential hydrodynamic trap. The anticline was interpreted as one in a series of a wrench-related en-echelon anticlines by previous permit holder AGL (1992). The calculated storage capacity of the anticline was assessed as 14.3 Tcf (Bradshaw, 2003). Several potential reservoirs within the structure were considered, but the only the Nowra/Muree Sandstone was used in the storage capacity calculations, as the Snapper Point Formation was predicted to have poor reservoir quality and sands within the Late Permian coals measures were considered economically perspective. Low injectivity rates and containment were also identified as potential risk factors. The storage potential of deep saline aquifers in New South Wales was again reviewed by the CO2CRC in June 2005 (Patchett and Langford, 2005). The options for storage potential were assessed as limited for a number of reasons including that many potential structures were yet to be tested by petroleum wells and thus cannot be regarded as dry structures. Reservoir quality was also identified as a significant risk. The hydrodynamic trap beneath the Kulnura Anticline (as described by Bradshaw, 2003) was cited as the best current geological sequestration option, although risks associated with fault breaches and low permeability reservoirs were again highlighted. The Hunter and Newcastle regions in the northern Sydney Basin were deemed as structurally complex and geomechanically unstable making them unsuitable for CO2 storage (Patchett and Langford, 2005). The northwest Sydney Basin (west of the Muswellbrook Anticline and north/northeast of Lithgow) was identified as a potential area for better quality Permian marine sands, but the assessment of this area was limited due to the lack of deep reservoir data. The Gunnedah Basin was also interpreted to have low storage potential in deep saline formations due to the shallow nature of the basin succession (Patchett and Langford, 2005).
Figure 6: Summary slide of the GEODISC NSW Summary as presented at the IAF Dissemination Workshop, Canberra, 29 June 2005, by Peter Cook (CEO) and Andy Rigg (Deputy CEO), Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, ICTPL Final Report, 2005.

12

GEODISC Project Summary, Offshore Sydney Basin
The potential for geosequestration in the offshore Sydney Basin was assessed by Sayers et al (2004). While the offshore part of the Sydney Basin has relatively good seismic coverage, the lack of exploration wells means that there are no controls on the age or lithology of the sedimentary succession. The study utilised 1971 vintage seismic data to determine refraction velocities of the offshore succession, and to construct depth and isopach maps to ascertain the geometry of the Cenozoic sediment wedge and potential pre-Cenozoic structures (or Cainozoic wedge as used by Sayers et al., 2004). As effective sequestration requires injection into reservoirs at 800m depth or greater, the Top Pre-Cenozoic depth structure map was used to identify areas were burial of the preTriassic succession reaches suitable depths. The base of the Cenozoic wedge was used as a proxy for the Top pre-Cenozoic (or Top Permian/Top Triassic) structure map (Figure 7). The results indicate only limited areas where the Top pre-Cenozoic surface reaches appropriate depths (Figure 8). Sayers et al (2004) also used the refraction velocity data to identify the onshore continuations of the New England and Lachlan fold belts to the north and south of the Sydney Basin, respectively. Within the offshore basinal area, high velocities were also interpreted (Sayers et al., 2004) which may be indicative of highly lithified rocks with correspondingly low reservoir quality. The preliminary review also indicated that storage capacity estimates are in the order of several Tcf, reservoir injectivity may be difficult due to poor reservoir quality and a pre-Cenozoic seal is required to seal CO2 in a supercritical state (Sayers et al., 2004).
GEODISC Project Summary
Figure 7: Diagram from Sayers et al (2004) showing seismic line SY91-15a in the offshore Sydney Basin. The diagram shows the relationship of the Cenozoic wedge as a possible sealing facies the underlying Permian subcrop play.
Figure 8: Cenozoic isopach from Sayers et al (2004). Thin black lines = 100m isopach contours, blue lines = transform faults, other coloured lines = magnetic lineations.

13

Evaluation of Geological Storage Potential
A full-scale assessment of potential (subsurface) geological storage sites is a multistage process that begins with a geological screening to identify whether the essential geological elements required for subsurface CO2 storage are present or absent within a given region (Figure 9). The first-phase screening involves the development of a geological model for the structural and stratigraphic evolution of the basin through the integration of multiple geological and geophysical datasets (Figure 10) that is the aim of this study. The FrOG Tech approach to basin analysis (SABRE - Systematic Approach to Basin Resource Evaluation) is presented in the following pages. Many of geological elements that are assessed for geological storage potential are the same as those used in petroleum exploration. In essence, the structural or hydrodynamic trapping of CO2 requires many of the same geological factors to store the supercritical fluid, as are required for trapping oil and gas. The methodology used in petroleum exploration involves an integrated approach to understanding the basin and its associated petroleum systems. The development of a sequence stratigraphic and depositional model are essential elements of the analysis.
Evaluation of Geological Storage Potential
Figure 9: The workflow template used by the GEODISC and CO2CRC projects in assessing (subsurface) geological storage potential (image downloaded from www.co2crc.com.au ). The geological scope of the current project is indicated in red. red
structural model
seismic data
analytical data
0
Parameters to be Evaluated in the Sydney Basin

The following optimum parameters were assessed in the Sydney Basin. Depth to reservoir must be greater than 800m subsurface depth. Reservoir potential including age, lithology, facies, thickness, geometry, porosity and permeability characteristics, diagenetic history and original depth of burial Traps type and indicative size (not capacity) Confidence data quality and density, nature of samples (e.g., cores/cuttings) Risks including the potential presence of hydrocarbons
Jupiter-1 Bancannia Trough Late Devonian

500
1000
Depth (metres) below SL
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500 0 10 20 30 Percent Porosity
Structural and Stratigraphic Framework and Depositional Model

Popiltah-1 Pamamaroo-1 Black Gate-1
well data
Assessing geological storage potential is a complex process, therefore many other issues associated with a comprehensive screening are out of scope in the current project including storage capacity, potential seals (geomechanical and geochemical parameters), potential leakage pathways and predicted rates and effects of mineralisation.
Figure 10: An example of datasets and the integrated workflow undertaken during the Sydney Basin Study. The examples shown above are from the Darling Basin Reservoir Prediction Study (Project MR706).

14

FrOG Tech Methodology
FrOG Tech has developed SABRE - Systematic Approach to Basin Resource Evaluation as the backbone of its rapid basin evaluation workflow.
Why FrOG Tech?

FrOG Tech Pty Limited was formed in 2004 when the Energy Services Group of SRK Consulting was purchased and renamed to reflect new directions that the group was taking into groundwater. The core of the FrOG Tech team has been together for over 8 years and has consulted successfully to the petroleum, groundwater, geothermal, and coal sectors around the world. Over 100 projects have been completed for more than 30 clients since 1996 when the Energy Services Group was formed. FrOG Tech consultants provide innovative, cost-effective solutions to everyday petroleum exploration/development problems. These problems include: choosing the right ground for exploration, evaluating the prospectivity of large areas, and defining prospects/targets in prospective areas. The group has also recently developed mapping and visualization techniques that are applicable at the scale of petroleum fields and coal mines. FrOG Tech projects generate significant reductions in petroleum exploration/development costs and exploration/mining risks. During the past year, FrOG Tech has also completed projects in the groundwater and geothermal sectors using techniques and tools similar to those developed for the petroleum sector. The knowledge gained from many years of work in the petroleum sector around the world forms the basis for a new initiative in groundwater that will play a very significant role in constraining estimates of groundwater volume and quality to improve groundwater management across large areas of North Africa and the Middle East. FrOG Tech services and products are unique in their range and scope, their cost-effectiveness, and their methodology. FrOG Tech primarily consists of field-based structural geologists, experienced seismic stratigraphers, and GIS and visualization specialists with a wide range of skills and backgrounds in the petroleum and mineral industries. The combination of strong technical skills in geology, GIS, and visualization applied to the SABRE workflow has produced significant increases in our work-flow efficiency and effectiveness. Recently FrOG Tech also has begun to hire experienced geophysicists to further improve our workflow. FrOG Tech is focused on understanding the movement of fluids and gases and the distribution of resources such as coal and other minerals in sedimentary basins. Its primary niches are in structural risk mapping, sequence stratigraphic services, play evaluation, and risk reduction and problem solving during exploration, development and extraction for the petroleum, groundwater, geothermal, and coal sectors. If you want a different view of fluid systems, FrOG Tech is the company to work with. In other words: If you want to know what is unknown about an area, FrOG Tech is the key. Our tools, techniques, and products complement the more traditional reports that summarise what is known. The company is based in Canberra, Australia, with Australian offices in Perth, Newcastle, and an office in Auckland, New Zealand.
SABRE is divided into: Province and Terrane Analysis Basin and Basin Phase Analysis Petroleum System and Play Evaluation
The SABRE workflow will be illustrated and discussed in the following sections. One of the key products of SABRE is a SEEBASE image. SEEBASE stands for Structurally Enhanced view of Economic BASEment. The evolution of sedimentary basins is controlled by a response in the crust and lithosphere to tectonic forces. The nature of this response depends both on the magnitude of the tectonic forces and on the character and kinematic response of the underlying basement. The strength, composition and fabric of basement at the time of a tectonic event controls crustal response, while sediments record the resultant changes in basin morphology. A rigorous model for basin evolution can be developed through an understanding of basement character beneath and adjacent to sedimentary basins, coupled with a a knowledge of tectonic events that were responsible for basin formation (i.e. basin phases). This model provides a basis for more accurate prediction of the occurrence and distribution of petroleum play elements throughout basin evolution. Individual basin phases are separated from one another by changes in the type of subsidence mechanism or the magnitude or rate of subsidence. Basin phase boundaries correspond to platescale tectonic events and in turn to major megasequence boundaries. Stresses operating during each basin phase cause reactivation of basement structures and reactive fabrics, as well as the development of new structures. Understanding the kinematics of each tectonic event allows a predictive model for structural reactivation to be applied to the interpreted faults from fault history data calibrated with geological observations (e.g. seismic, maps).
Potential field data (principally gravity and magnetic data) provide a window to the basement that can cover a wide area with uninterrupted data at constant resolution. Such map view interpretation contrasts with the cross section view interpretation conventionally used in the petroleum industry. But the combination is very significant for extracting more geological information more quickly than is possible with either dataset on its own. This is the basis of the FrOG Tech approach that has been developed over many years.
Once calibrated to surface geology, seismic, and wells, potential field data provide information that allows the development of a predictive structural model based on basement composition and structure. Depth to magnetic basement can be modeled from magnetic data and used to produce a structurally-controlled model of basement topography: SEEBASE. Geological information derived during the development of the SEEBASE image, in combination with the image itself, can be used to predict and evaluate basement-involved and basement-detached structures, first-order fluid focus points, and both the distribution and quality of source, reservoir, and seal facies throughout the basin. FrOG Techs interpretation techniques and tools are efficient and costeffective from continental to concession scales.

15

The SABRETM Workflow
PROJECT INITIATION
STATE-OF-THE-ART DATA PROCESSING & COMPILATION
BOTTOM-UP INTEGRATED INTERPRETATION & CALIBRATION
SEEBASE PRODUCTION AND DERIVATIVE GRIDS
PETROLEUM PLAY INTEGRATION
DOCUMENTATION PRESENTATION VISUALISATION DELIVERY
SB601
Magnetics Enhancement Processing Gravity Rock Property Calibration Magnetic Depth to Basement Modelling
MR705
DEM/ Bathymetry
Crustal-scale gravity modelling
Event & Response Maps for Each Basin & Basin Phase
Maturity + Hydrocarbon Generation
Landsat/ Radarsat Plate Tectonic Events, Kinematics Basin-scale Structural Interpretation using all datasets Interpret Basement Terranes, Composition, Fabric SEEBASE Basin Architecture & Evolution
Total Sediment Thickness
Report
Project Setup & Management
Data Compilation & Processing
Surface Geology
Construct GIS Base & Metadata
SEEBASE Construction
Migration Pathways/ Fluid Focusing
FrOG Tech Workshop
Delivery Workshops
Ongoing Support
Publications & Reports
Reservoir & Seal Quality 2D & 3D Seismic calibration
Final GIS Preparation
Wells Gravity/ Magnetics/ DEM Image Processing
Seismic Navigation
Trap Timing, Size & Distribution
Other Data
Interpret Salt & Volcanics

16

SABRE
Methodology
The methodology used to develop a comprehensive structural model relies on the integration of all appropriate geophysical and geological information. Individual datasets alone can be ambiguous and often produce poorly constrained results when interpreted in isolation. Through integration, the model can be tightly constrained, since the datasets can be used to calibrate one another. Once the datasets have been calibrated, a model consistent with all available data can be developed. Then the model can be applied and tested by re-calibrating and checking against the seismic interpretation. Adjustments can be made as needed to both the model and the seismic interpretation at this stage. .
Systematic Approach to Basin Resource Evaluation

Workflow
The workflow (Loutit 1996, 2000; Pryer et al. 2002; Teasdale et al. 2003) generally follows the steps below: Compile and process (data and images) all available datasets Identify tectonic events (inter- and intra-plate) and responses (deformation events in the target area) that have influenced basement and basin evolution Develop a kinematic and mechanical model for the structural evolution of the target area Calibrate geophysical/remote sensing datasets to regional and local geology Interpret all georeferenced datasets Identify terranes (cratons and mobile belts) attribute in GIS Define succession of structural events in area attribute in GIS Confirm main events that control timing and duration of basin phases Estimate depth to basement from all appropriate datasets Combine structural model and depth to basement estimates to generate SEEBASE image add to GIS Undertake evaluation of petroleum systems, plays and play elements within SEEBASE framework this may include the following or other steps o Constrain palaeogeography of potential source-rock areas o Constrain basement heat flow history o Predict basement-involved trap types, size, timing, and integrity Petroleum o Evaluate palaeo-river drainage (and discharge), sediment composition, and lithology to predict seal and reservoir quality Systems, o Define areas of likely fractured reservoir Play & o Develop new exploration and acquisition strategies Prospect appropriate for the exploration risk
Compilation & Processing
Calibration & Visualisation
Integrated & Iterative Interpretation
Documentation Visualisation Presentation

New Exploration and Acquisition Strategies
Old Data Integration Draping Image production Gridding Stitching Levelling Line reprocessing
Good Geology
Evaluation
New Views in Old Basins New Technology Bottom-up

17

SABRE
Province and Terrane Analysis
Systematic Approach to Basin Resource Evaluation

Play Analysis
Regional and Basin Analysis

Palaeogeography Climate
BASIN PHASES
Stratal geometry Palaeogeography Accommodation Space Sediment Provenance & Supply Petroleum Systems & Play Evaluation
Basement grain, fabric & structure
Eustasy Source Seal Reservoir Timing, Distribution & Character
Plate
Intraplate Deformation
Interactions
Basin Phase Basin Phase Architecture Architecture
Stratal Geometry
BASIN ARCHITECTURE
SEEBASE Depth to Basement Present Day Accommodation
Subsidence/ Uplift
3
Trap Timing and Style Timing and/or focusing of Fluid Movement
3 2
Structure Heat Flow
Crustal Architecture
BASEMENT GEOLOGY
Terranes / Mobile Belts Composition
FrOG Tech specializes in developing efficient and effective tools and techniques to decrease the time required to evaluate and rank plays with the minimum amount of data and information in other words decreasing the time taken to work from the left hand side to the right hand side of the diagram above. Many companies have stopped doing regional studies because they take too long and detract from play and prospect evaluation. But in many cases play evaluation without a clear understanding of the tectonostratigraphic framework of the basin will result in a poor understanding of play and prospect risk and the selection of incorrect analogues during assessment. By constantly looking for the minimum amount and types of data/information required to make the correct prediction using SABRETM, FrOG Tech is systematically improving its ability to risk the unknown in both frontier and mature exploration areas.
TECTONIC HISTORY
Precambrian Basement Evolution & Assembly Phanerozoic Basement Evolution & Assembly Tectonic Events & Response Plate reconstructions

18
DATASETS

19

Seismic Data
Figure 11 is seismic location map of the Sydney Basin constructed from shot point data supplied by DPI NSW. This map shows the distribution of all seismic lines shot in the Sydney Basin. However, is should be noted that much of the seismic data was acquired during the 1960s and only available as paper/film copies or unprocessed field data (Figure 12). In general, the quality of the 1960s seismic data is poor and limited to subsurface penetration of 1.5s twt or less. No reprocessed data from the early 1960s datasets was available through DPI NSW although some reprocessing was done by previous permit holders such as AGL Sydney Ltd (Burbury, 1986). The location of such reprocessed data was unknown at time of this study (S. Cozens, NSW DPI, pers. comm.). Digital seismic data (SEG-Y) for the Sydney Basin was received from Spectrum Data Services who are custodians of digital seismic data for NSW DPI (Figure 12). The processed seismic data available through Spectrum consisted of four local surveys (Figure 12) three in the Camden region (southern Sydney Basin) and one near Maitland (northern Sydney Basin). Digital data (SEG-Y) for the northern offshore Sydney Basin was purchased for the project through Geoscience Australia (Figure 12). The Charlotte Head Marine Survey located north of the offshore basin was also purchased through Geoscience Australia as scanned paper copy data (PDF format; Figure 12).
Figure 12:
Datasets
Location map showing seismic lines and petroleum exploration wells in the Sydney Basin, overlain on the SEEBASE image. Priority wells are shown in yellow, while other wells are yellow shown in blue. Where available, some of the seismic lines shown have been hotlinked in the blue GIS project that accompanies this report. Areas where digital data is available are shown by the blue circles.
Charlotte Head Survey
Maitland
Offshore Sydney Basin
Camden
Figure 11:
Location map showing petroleum exploration wells and seismic lines in the Sydney Basin overlain on the SEEBASE image (seismic based on DPI-NSW line location database).

20

Wells
The wells database in the ArcGIS project is a combined dataset consisting of over 19,000 coal bores, coal bed methane (CBM) and petroleum wells drilled in the Sydney Basin (Figure 13). Most of the wells in the database are coal bores from the Gunnedah, Hunter, Newcastle, Western and Southern coalfields (Figure 13). The construction of this database involved the merging of several files from difference sources and this process is explained in more detail below. A subset of 31 key wells was selected based on their geographic location, geological setting, maximum depth of penetration and the age of sediments intersected. Most importantly, the key wells provided downhole porosity and permeability data that was used to screen the basin sequence for potential reservoir intervals. The compilation of the reservoir-related database is covered in later sections of this report. Formation tops and other stratigraphic surfaces were extracted from well completion reports downloaded from DIGS (NSW DPI on-line database of open-file reports). In addition, formation tops were extracted from unpublished hardcopy reports such as Galloway and Hamilton (1988) and Maung et al (1997). The data (stratigraphic picks, reservoir data, references, etc) from these various sources were compiled into a single spreadsheet which has been linked to the well location ArcGIS file. Published crosssection from company reports have also been hot-linked into the ArcGIS project that accompanies this report. Wireline well logs were supplied by DPI NSW for many wells in the basin, although the consistency and quality of each well suite was largely dependent on the vintage of the data (most of the 31 key wells were drilled from the 1960s to early 80s). Log suites from the Bootleg and Moonshine wells that were drill by AGL in the 1980s were not available as digital files from NSW DPI (S. Cozens, NSW DPI, pers. comm.). Gunnedah Coalfield
Datasets
Hunter Coalfield
Western Coalfield
Newcastle Coalfield
Southern Coalfield
Construction of the wells database: NSW DPI provided an ASCII file with the co-ordinates of all wells drilled in NSW. This dataset was predominately coal bores and used an abbreviated nomenclature scheme made up of the company and well name. This file was joined with a coal bore ArcGIS shapefile downloaded from MINVIEW (NSW DPI on-line mapping program) that contained full core bore and company names. This join was done using the location of individual coal bores from each dataset. The data from each file was then compared, and the full company and bore names were used where they matched the abbreviation. This file was then joined to a separate petroleum wells file which was downloaded from the Geoscience Australia website (www.ga.gov.au). All petroleum wells were matched and renamed with the full well and company names. Finally this file was clipped so that only wells that fell within the area of interest displayed, and also linked via an ArcGIS geodatabase to stratigraphic, reservoir and other data collected during the course of this study.
Figure 13:
Location map showing petroleum exploration wells (red dots) and coal bores (grey dots) in the Sydney red grey Basin, overlain on the SEEBASE image. The red dots are conventional petroleum or CBM wells, while coal bores are shown by the light grey dots. The location of the coalfields in NSW are also noted adjacent to the each region.

21

Time to Depth Conversion
Datasets
Time-depth curves were used to convert between the well depths (metres) and seismic data (milliseconds two-way time). Check-shot data was compiled from well completion reports for seven wells across the Sydney Basin (Figures 14 and 15). The wells are located in the southern and northern parts of the basin with no velocity data available for the western or offshore regions. Despite the distribution of data, the rock sequences show a relatively consistent down-hole velocity of around 2000m per second two-way-time (twt). Camberwell-2 has the lowest velocity at around 1600m/sec twt, although fractures were described in cores from this well (Burnett, 1986). In the offshore region, velocities for both the Cenozoic wedge and Pre-Cenozoic units have been estimated from refractor velocities using both two and three layer geological models (Sayers et al., 2004). These velocities are generally higher than those observed from the well check-shot data.
Figure 14:
Downhole-plot of well velocity data using check shots measured in milliseconds two-way-time against well depth in metres.
Figure 15:
Location of wells with time-depth curves overlain on the Sydney Basin SEEBASE image.

22
Digital Elevation and Bathymetry
Digital Elevation and Bathymetry Mosaic

A digital elevation and bathymetry mosaic was created by superimposing high resolution onshore elevation data over available offshore bathymetry (Figure 16). The onshore digital elevation model was created from 1:250k topographic map datasets available from Geoscience Australia. Input data layers include 50m spaced height contours, spot elevations, lakes, rivers and coastline. This grid has been created with a 100m cell size. The offshore bathymetry data is derived from the Geoscience Australia topography and bathymetry database. This dataset has been re-projected and resampled at a higher resolution for combination with the digital elevation model.
Figure 16:
Digital elevation and bathymetry mosaic for the study area constructed using a 100m grid cell size.

23
Basin Outcrop Map
Basin Outcrop Map

The outcrop map of the Sydney Basin region shows the present-day distribution of Permian and Triassic age sediments across the basin (Figure 17). The onshore basin outcrop is directly derived from 1:250k geological map data. Offshore, the Triassic sediment distribution beneath the Cenozoic wedge is estimated from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003) and extrapolation of the onshore data. No data is present to the east of the continental shelf. Outcrop in the central basin is predominantly Triassic in age (dark grey shading). In contrast, Permian units (light grey shading) outcrop around the basin edge where sediments have been affected by uplift (structural inversion) during Triassic contraction and subsequent erosion of the overlying Triassic succession. Areas strongly affected by the uplift are probably not suitable for CO2 storage due to factors such as depth of burial and structural integrity of potential traps.
Figure 17:
Bouguer gravity image (800m) showing the distribution of Permian and Triassic sediments across the Sydney Basin.

24

Petroleum Titles
Datasets
Petroleum exploration licenses and pending applications currently cover most of the main depocentres in the Sydney Basin. Coal leases are not shown in this figure.
Figure 18:
Map showing the petroleum titles (grey lines) currently active in the Sydney Basin overlain on a grey DEM/bathymetry image. The outline of the Sydney Basin is shown in pink. Further permit pink information and updates downloaded from the NSW DPI website (http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/minerals/titles/online-services/tasmap ).

25
BASIN EVOLUTION

26

Tectonic Setting
The Sydney Basin formed as part of the regionally extensive Early Permian East Australian Rift System (Korsch et al., in press), and subsequently as a mid-Permian to Late Triassic foreland basin system that developed in front of the accreting New England Fold Belt. The rift and foreland basin system, which includes the Sydney, Gunnedah and Bowen basins, stretched from southeastern Queensland to south-central New South Wales. It is likely that the basin system extended even further south with basin relicts preserved in the rifted continental fragments that now underlie the southern Lord Howe Rise region. The depth-to-basement image (SEEBASE; Figure 19) shows the geographic extent and the main depocentres of the Sydney Basin. Sediments reach a total thickness of around 5500m, and thin significantly to the north and west. The basement terranes underlying the Sydney Basin and surrounding region are shown in Figure 20. This terrane interpretation from OZ SEEBASE has grouped several of the basement elements underlying the central part of the basin. Here, it is likely that highly attenuated, deformed sediments and volcanic rocks of the Lachlan and New England fold belts underlie the central basin. The approximate edge of thick Lachlan Fold Belt-type crust (as interpreted from gravity and magnetic data) is shown by the dashed white line in Figure 19. The western margin of the Lachlan Fold Belt in onlapped by basin sediments from the east. The most easterly extent of Lachlan Fold Belt-type crust is a fundamental structural boundary that acted as depositional hinge which persisted throughout the evolution of the basin (Figure 20). The southern part of the Sydney Basin is underlain by transitionalaccretionary crust of the Narooma Terrane (subduction complex), and continental crust of the CaperteeMalacoota Terrane (Figures 19 and 20). The convergence of structural terranes of different rheology beneath the southern Sydney Basin has meant that the region responded differently during initial extension and subsequent tectonic events.
Gunnedah Basin
Tectonic Setting
NEFB
t Ex
Eastern LFB
t Ex
Tasman Sea
Figure 19:
Figure 20:
Map showing interpreted basement terranes that underlie the Sydney Basin and surrounding region (from OZ SEEBASE Project; FrOG Tech PL, 2004).
SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASE Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). The northeast-southwest directed extensional direction of Early Permian rifting is indicated by the green arrows. The most easterly extent of Lachlan Fold Belt crust (dashed white line) and the approximate terrane boundaries in the southern Sydney Basin (dotted blue lines) are also shown.
27

Regional Stress Direction
210 220 230
M ID D L E L ATE
Summary of Tectonic Events

Summary of Tectonic Events
Docking of Gympie Terrane (island arc)
Goondiwindi Event Clematis Event Bellata Event Aldebaran Event HunterBowen Orogeny Foreland Basin
coal
240 250 260 270 280 290 300

E A R LY E AR LY L ATE
Cattle Creek Event Late Carboniferous Early Permian Extension
Sag
coal
Rift Basin
PALAEOZOIC
310 3 20 3 30 3 40 350 360 370 3 80 390 4 00 410
LAT E
The Sydney Basin formed as part of the regionally extensive Early Permian East Australian Rift System (Korsch et al., in press) through northeast/southwestdirected extensional stresses during the latest Carboniferous to Early Permian (Figure 21). To the north, this event is well documented in the Bowen Basin and is recognised as important in establishing the overall structural framework of the basin. Although there is little direct seismic evidence for this event in the Sydney Basin (mainly due to lack of data), field mapping in the southern part of the basin (Tye et al., 1996) has identified northtrending rift basins filled with Early Permian sediments. In addition, Early Permian sediments outcrop to the north and are also intersected in some deeper wells which often contain rift-related volcanic rocks. The locus of extension appears to be controlled by a crustal suture between the Lachlan and New England fold belts. A north-south-gravity ridge is also interpreted to be evidence that a volcanic-related rift system underlies the central part of the Sydney Basin. The lack of seismic data and sparseness of deep wells means geological transition of the Sydney Basin from rifting (sag phase) into a foreland basin system is unclear (Hunter-Bowen Orogeny; Figure 21). Evidence documented elsewhere (Bowen-Gunnedah basins) provides some constrain on the timing and nature of events, however the structural expression of these events and their influence on deposition within the Sydney Basin remains to be determined. Late Triassic uplift related to a late foreland basin phase and docking of the Gympie Terrane ceased tectonicallydriven accommodation and consequently sedimentation in the Sydney Basin. Subsequently, Tasman rifting, midCretaceous uplift and multiple episodes of volcanism enhanced pre-existing basement controlled structures, and formed features such as the Southern Highlands, Lapstone Monocline, Kurrajong Fault and the Offshore Uplift.
EA RLY
Early Carboniferous Kanimblan Orogeny Late Devonian Drummond Extension Mid Devonian Tabberabberan Shortening
Figure 21:
Docking and Accretion of New England Terrane
L ATE M ID D L E
Docking and Accretion of Lachlan Terrane
EA R LY
Summary of tectonic events and regional stress directions that controlled the development of the Sydney Basin.

28

Basement Controls on Basin Structures
Figure 22 shows the spatial relationship between the major faults systems interpreted in the Sydney Basin and the underlying basement terranes. Major faulting was often concentrated along or near terrane boundaries suggesting that basement rheology, fabric and its response to regional stresses exerted a strong control on the development of the overlying basin. In addition, accommodation was highest over areas of weaker or attenuated crust (central Sydney Basin), while areas in the southern basin experienced low rates of accommodation due to basement type and their orientation to major extensional and compressional stresses. Other north-south-striking basement-related faults are sub-parallel to the eastern edge of Lachlan Fold Belt crust. These trends are apparent on the Bouger gravity image of the basin and surrounding region (Figure 23), and include the Lapstone Monocline and Kurrajong Fault, both of which are relatively young structural features. Many of the wells in the southern Sydney Basin were drilled on structures that formed near the convergence of several terranes (Figure 22-yellow circles). This area was also strongly overprinted by volcanic activity and northwest-striking faults associated with rifting in the Tasman Sea. Wells near the northern margin of the basin were drilled on structures associated with propagation of faults from the main New England Fold Belt thrust front (Hunter-Mooki Thrust).
Gunnedah Basin
Basement Controls
NEFB
Eastern LFB
terrane boundaries
Tasman Sea
Figure 23:
Bouguer gravity image covering the Sydney Basin and surrounding region re-gridded from the national gravity data set held by Geoscience Australia (www.ga.gov.au ). Major structures are shown in grey, and a subset of key petroleum exploration wells and coal bores are also shown grey red (red dots).
Figure 22: Map showing interpreted basement terranes that underlie the Sydney Basin and surrounding region (from OZ SEEBASE Project; FrOG Tech P/L, 2004) and interpreted major faults. Exploration wells are shown in red. red
29

Basin Boundaries
The northeastern and western boundaries with the New England Fold Belt (NEFB) and Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB), respectively, are well defined and unchanged (Figure 24). The northeastern boundary as defined by the Hunter-Mooki Thrust is a structural boundary with outlying basins like the Gloucester (GB), Cranky Corner (CCB) and Myall Syncline (MS) formed during periods of trench rollback (Figure 24). The eastern boundary with the Lachlan Fold Belt was formerly an onlap margin but is now erosional due to Triassic uplift. The boundary between the Gunnedah and Sydney basins is more subjective, and suggestions for this boundary include the Mount Coricudgy Anticline (Stuntz, 1972) and the Liverpool Range (i.e., the northernmost outcrop limit of Permo-Triassic sediments; Mullard, 1995). The latter is used in this study and is consistent with previous structural studies of the Sydney Basin by SRK Consulting (Woodfull et al., 2004). The offshore basin is defined by as the edge of transitional crust and the limit of seafloor spreading in the Tasman Sea.
Gunnedah Basin
Basin Boundaries
NEFB
GB MS
CCB
Figure 25 shows the structures within the Sydney Basin as published by NSW DPI (Mullard, 1995). A comparison of these features with major basement structures interpreted from the potential field data indicate that and they are the surface and nearsubsurface expressions of reactivated deeper structures. Most of the northeast-trending anticlines and synclines occur to the east of the fundamental boundary defined by thicker Lachlan Fold Belt-type crust. This suggests that strain associated with contraction is taken-up in areas of weaker underlying crust and thicker sediment.
Eastern LFB
Tasman Sea
Figure 24 (above): SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region (FrOG Tech, 2005). The outline of the Sydney Basin is shown in pink The most easterly extent of Lachlan grey) Fold Belt crust (dashed white line) and major faults (grey are also shown. Figure 25 (left): Map showing the major structures within the Sydney Basin as published by NSW Department of Mineral Resources (modified from Mullard, 1995).

30

Structural Subdivisions of the Sydney Basin
Figure 26 is a composite map of major folds, faults and structural subdivisions in the Sydney Basin compiled from data published by NSW DPI (Bembrick et al., 1980; Mullard, 1995). The structural subdivisions of the Sydney Basin as recognised by Bembrick et al (1980) are largely a combination of present-day physiographic features and basement controlledstructural elements. Figure 27 shows the same compilation of features overlain with the basement-controlled faults identified from the potential field and other datasets (FrOG Tech, 2005). Together with stress directions, deep faults and the underlying terranes, the context of the surface and near-surface faults and other physiographic features in the Sydney Basin can be more clearly understood. The area outboard of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust is more complex and inherited from the frontal part of the foreland thrust belt. These are late Permian and post-Permian structures that have been mapped in detail by Glen and Beckett (1997).
Gunnedah Basin
Structural Subdivisions
NEFB
BMTP
Eastern LFB
HVDB HP
Gunnedah Basin
NEFB
Figure 26: Map showing the major folds, faults and structural subdivisions of the Sydney Basin as defined by Bembrick et al (1980) within the Sydney Basin. The location of the Lapstone Monocline is shown by the red line.
Comp
CB
t Ex
IP
WP
HVDB BMTP HP
HVDB-Hunter Valley Dome Belt BMTP-Blue Mountains Plateau HP-Hornsby Plateau
OSB
SP
Tasman Sea
CB Eastern LFB WP OSB
CB-Cumberland Basin WP-Woronora Plateau IP-Illawarra Plateau SP-Sassafras Plateau BMP-Boyne Mount Plateau OSB-Offshore Sydney Basin
Tasman Sea
BMP
IP
SP BMP
Figure 27:
SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region (FrOG Tech, 2005). Major stress directions associated with Early Permian extension (green arrows) and Late Triassic green red compression (red arrows) are shown. The most easterly extent of Lachlan Fold Belt crust grey) (dashed white line) and major faults (grey are also shown. Other structures and structural subdivisions area as described in Figures 27 and 28.

31
Basin Subdivisions
Gunnedah Basin
Martindale-1/1A
Basin Subdivisions for Reservoir Characterisation

NEFB
A recognition of the broad structural provinces within the basin and their general influence on accommodation and fault reactivation, provides the basis to subdivide the basin for the purpose of reservoir characterisation. This subdivision only takes into account sediment provenance at a broad scale (e.g., Lachlan Fold Belt vs. New England Fold Belt). As many of the boundaries of these structural provinces coincide with deeper basement features, they may also play a role in important post-depositional events such as the volcanic intrusions associated with Tasman rifting. Figure 28 shows the subdivision of provinces for the purpose of reservoir characterisation. The sub-set of petroleum exploration wells and core bore shown in Figure 30 have porosity or permeability data available, and immediately give some insights into the information available for reservoir characterisation. For example, only well drilled in the Blue Mountains Plateau domain has porosity or permeability data (Martindale-1/1A; Figure 28). Although there is an abundance of core bores along the western margin of the basin in the BMTP domain, the reservoir characteristics of strata below 800 is largely untested. Most of the wells will reservoir data occur as a cluster on the monocline between the Illawarra Plateau and the Cumberland Basin, and extend northward along the base of the Lapstone Monocline (at the foot of the Blue Mountains; Figure 28). This area is also situated at the convergence of several basement terranes, and underwent extensive fault reactivation and emplacement of volcanics associated with Tasman Sea rifting. The presence of pore occluding clay Dawsonite (Bai et al., 2001) may be a characteristic of this area given its proximity to volcanic activity. Further south, the Illawarra Plateau is virtually untested by petroleum exploration, although the Triassic succession is absent across most the area and overall sediments thin due to reduced lower rates of basement-controlled subsidence. With some exception, wells drilled in the Hunter Plateau are drilled near the crests of anticlines, and often encounter a thick succession of the Triassic sediments. To the north, wells drilled in the Hunter Valley Dome Belt are sited on the flanks of anticlines where previously deeply buried rocks are now several hundred meters (or thousands) shallower than their original stratal position. Wells drilled on these structures such as East Maitland-1 show no porosity or permeability from surface to TD. Lastly, no wells have been drilled in the offshore Sydney Basin and the reservoir quality of this region remains speculative.
HVDB-Hunter Valley Dome Belt BMTP-Blue Mountains Plateau HP-Hornsby Plateau CB-Cumberland Basin WP-Woronora Plateau IP-Illawarra Plateau SP-Sassafras Plateau BMP-Boyne Mount Plateau OSB-Offshore Sydney Basin.
BMTP
HVDB HP
Eastern LFB
CB WP
IP
OSB
SP
Tasman Sea
BMP
Figure 28:
Map showing the basin subdivisions that are used to assess reservoir character. The location of the Martindale-1/1A well and the cluster of wells with reservoir data near the convergence of terranes is shown by the yellow circle.

32

Regional Geology around the Sydney Basin
Figure 29 is a regional geological map of southern and eastern New South Wales colouredcoded by age of the outcropping rocks. The image is derived from the 1:250k digital geological map of New South Wales. The outcropping Permian and Triassic rocks of the Sydney Basin define the eastern and western boundaries of the basin south of the Liverpool Range (LR). This erosional boundary marks the present-day distribution of the basin succession, although original deposition of Permo-Triassic sediments probably extended further west as part of an onlapping wedge onto the Lachlan Fold Belt. The Liverpool Range Volcanics are Tertiary age mafic extrusive rocks (basalts and dolerites) that cover the underlying Permo-Triassic basin succession. The east-northeast-striking Coricudgy Anticline (CA) is evident in the outcrop map due to the uplifted Permian in the north-central part of the Sydney. On the magnetic image (Figure 30), prominent structural domains within the Lachlan Fold Belt (such as the Hill End Trough and the Bathurst Batholith) are clearly evident. These features are discussed in more detail later in the context of sediment provenance.
Regional Geology
LR
CA
Hill End Trough
BB LR NEFB
Hill End Trough
BB
Tasman Sea
Figure 29:
Regional geological map of southern and eastern NSW coloured-coded by age of the outcropping rocks. This image is derived from the 1:250k digital geological map of New South Wales. The locations of the Liverpool Range (LR), Mt Coricudgy Anticline (CA) and the Bathurst Batholith (BB) are also shown.
Figure 30:
TMI image showing the locations of major structures in the Sydney Basin.
Tel: Fax: URL: Email: +61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

33

felsic volcanoclastics mafic volcanics Foreland Basin felsic volcanoclastics
Sediment Provenance
Sediment Provenance
During foreland loading, sediments in the Sydney Basin were sourced from the north/northeast (New England Fold Belt), west (Lachlan Fold Belt) and northwest (axial transport from the Gunnedah Basin). Geological data in Figure 31 has been extracted from the NSW 1:250k digital geology dataset and shows the generalised distribution of rocks types that presently outcrop along the margins of the Sydney Basin. Note that the ages of these rocks are shown in Figure 29. The oldest rocks occur to the south and west of Lithgow (LG) located at the eastern margin of the LFB, and comprise Ordovician to Early Silurian quartz-rich turbidites. Some younger Middle Devonian to Early Carboniferous molasse deposits (redbeds, conglomerates, sandstones and shale) and Early to Middle Devonian felsic volcanics are also present. The elongate bodies of granite were emplaced prior to the Kanimblan orogenic event and subsequently deformed, while the undeformed granites (circular bodies) are Early Carboniferous and younger in age. Petrographic and other evidence show that Early Carboniferous granites such as the Bathurst Batholith were emplaced at depths of approximately 10km at around 340Ma. To the west and northwest of Lithgow, the principal rocks that outcrop are Ordovician mafic volcanics and volcanoclastics, and Silurian to Middle Devonian felsic volcanoclastics of the deformed Hill End Trough. Some granites have been emplaced into the Hill End Trough succession, but most of these rocks are related to Early Carboniferous and younger intrusive events. The northeastern margin of the basin (NEFB) is dominated by Middle Devonian to Early Carboniferous mafic volcanics, lithic-felsic volcaniclastics and felsic volcanogenic rocks. Some Carboniferous to mid-Triassic molasse deposits also occur in isolated depocentres east of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust. Carboniferous and younger granites intrude in this region, but are not as prolific as in the LFB. In general terms, the LFB succession (including volcaniclastic rocks) is characterised by rocks of felsic composition which are high in silica-rich minerals such as quartz and feldspar. Given that the granites that presently outcrop were emplaced at approximately 10km depths, the formerly overlying rocks of Ordovician to latest Carboniferous age have been eroded from the Lachlan Fold Belt and sourced the Permian and younger sediments that are found in the Sydney Basin. Given the present-day isolated occurrences of Devonian rocks in the LFB to the west and south of Bathurst, this region may be more deeply eroded that to the north. Sediment sourced from the NEFB was primarily of mafic volcanic origin with some of the oldest rocks in the Sydney Basin probably being contemporaneous with volcanism (resurgent volcanic arc setting). To date, no basin-scale petrographic work has been undertaken to determine provenance of the pre-Triassic succession in the Sydney Basin.
NEFB
granite
molasse
felsic volcanoclastics
felsic source Foreland Basin mafic source
LFB
mafic volcanics granite
Lapstone Monocline
granite
qtz-rich turbidites felsic molasse
Foreland Basin
qtz-rich turbidites quartz-rich source
felsic
qtz-rich turbidites felsic
granite
Figures 31: Map showing the generalised rock types that presently outcrop around the margins of the Sydney Basin. This data was extracted from the NSW 1:250k digital geology dataset. The ages of these green rocks are shown in Figure 29. The Lapstone Monocline (green line) and the edge of thick Lachlan Fold Belt type crust (dashed grey-line) are shown for reference. grey- line

34

Basin Geometry
Regional seismic data is very sparse in the Sydney Basin, in addition to being over 40 years old, poor quality and most only available in paper copy (see Figure 12). The exceptions include parts of the offshore basin and onshore areas where exploration is active (Camden area). Due to data limitations, very few cross-sections of the Sydney Basin (outside areas of active exploration) have been published that focus on the sedimentary succession and the overall geometry of the basin. Several of these cross-sections are captured in the Sydney Basin Petroleum Data Package (Bradley et al., 1985). Figure 32 shows an east-west section through Kurrajong Heights-1 and Dural South-1 two of the deeper wells in the Sydney Basin (after Bembrick and Lonergan, 1976). Although there is no clear evidence of an Early Permian rift phase (e.g., half graben), the crosssection depicts a basin geometry consistent with a foreland setting. Foreland basins are typically described as a wedge-shaped sedimentary succession that forms on continental crust between a contractional orogenic belt and the adjacent craton (DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Figure 33). However, this somewhat simplified view does not reflect the dynamics that occur between the forming basin and the orogenic belt which may be quite complex (i.e., a foreland basin system; Figure 33). The impact of these dynamics will be differential flexural loading and bulge which may result in areas of locally increased or decreased accommodation. This may account for the difference in facies and sequence thicknesses that are observed in the northern parts of the onshore and offshore Sydney Basin.
Basin Geometry
Figure 33:
The top image is a simplified schematic view of a typical foreland basin geometry (vertical exaggeration=10x), while the lower image depicts a more detailed regional view of the foreland basin system (stippled area) and structural domains within the system (From DeCelles and Giles, 1996). This image may represent a simplified view of the tectonic setting of the Sydney Basin although the relationships between the thrust front (FT), the frontal triangle zone (TZ) and craton is probably much more complex.
Figure 32:
West
Regional cross-section of the central Sydney Basin (after Bembrick and Lonergan, 1976).
East 0 Kurrajong Heights-1 KULNURA ANTICLINE Dural South-1 Balmain-1 Sea Level Narrabeen Gp Newcastle CM Illawarra CM Illawarra CM 20 kms
Sea Level Hawkesbury Sst 1000 Narrabeen Gp
Metres
2000 Upper Shoalhaven Gp 3000 Upper Shoalhaven Gp: Nowra Sandstone and Berry Siltstone 4000 Lower Shoalhaven Gp: Wandrawandian Siltstone and older Volcanics Lower Shoalhaven Gp Lower Shoalhaven Gp Volcanics Upper Shoalhaven Gp

35

Basin Setting - Camden Area
Basin Setting
A composite seismic line from the Camden area (Figure 34) shows the moderately structured nature of the south-central onshore Sydney Basin (near the Mulgoa-1, Duncans Creek-1 and Bringelly-1 wells). High-angle, low-to-moderate displacement normal faults offset an southerly thickening wedge of gently folded Permian to Triassic sediments. Flattened sections indicate that folding probably occurred in the Late Triassic and followed later by the high-angle faults. A second phase of contraction probably occurred and this event has enhanced structural closure over the fault blocks (i.e., between faults). The post-depositional faults observed on this seismic line probably formed during Tasman extension, and often extend to the near surface indicating that trap integrity is a issue for petroleum entrapment or potential sequestration. Other anticlines not cut by later faults are likely to retain their integrity. This section overlies a part of the basin where several different basement terranes converge. This 1987 reprocessed seismic line show the stratigraphic character of this region Hawkesbury and upper Narrabeen sections displaying more fluvial characteristics (channels, etc), while the lower Narrabeen is more laterally continuous. The most prominent and continuous reflection comes from the Bulli (yellow), Wongawilli (dark blue) and Tongarra (green) coals. The Woonoona Coal (light blue) or Top Shoalhaven Group (medium blue) are often the deepest horizons that can be picked with confidence,
South North
Top Narrabeen
Two-way time (sec)
Bulli Coal Wongawilli Coal Tongarra Coal Woonona Coal Top Shoalhaven
MG B
DC
Top Basement
5 km
Figure 34:
Composite seismic line CD87-119, -118, -112 and -122 in the Camden area in the southern Sydney Basin see map for location (MG = Mulgoa-1, B = Bringelly-1 and DC = Duncans Creek-1).

36

Basin Setting Camden Area
Basin Setting
This east-west section section from the Camden area (Figure 35) shows that the high-angle, low-to-moderate displacement normal faults offset an otherwise flat-lying and southeasterly thickening wedge of Permian to Triassic sediments. Some syn-tectonic growth is observed in pre-Shoalhaven section with interpreted thickening of strata on the downthrown side. Structural closure generally occurs within the fault block and in downside rollover structures, although some late contraction has probably enhanced this closure. Post-depositional movement on these faults probably occurred during Tasman extension, and often extend to the near surface indicating that trap integrity is a issue for petroleum entrapment or potential sequestration.
West
East
Top Hawkesbury
Top Narrabeen
Bulli Coal
Two-way time (sec)
Wongawilli Coal Tongarra Coal Woonona Coal
Top Shoalhaven
Figure 35: Seismic line CD87-115b in the Camden area. map The location shows the line and nearby wells; MG = Mulgoa-1 KH = Kirkham VP = Victoria Park
MG
K 0
Top Basement
2 km
VP

37

Basin Setting Offshore Sydney Basin
Basin Setting
The offshore Sydney Basin is a frontier basin where limited digital seismic and no well data exists. Interest in the offshore basin is high due to its proximity to domestic gas markets in eastern NSW, and its potential for storage due to the proximity of multiple CO2 emission sites along the east coast. Comprehensive reviews of the offshore basin are available in Grybowski (1992), Maung et al (1997), Alder et al (1998) and Arditto (2003). Sayers et al (2004) investigated the sequestration potential of the offshore basin and identified 15 potential CO2 storage sites, although a lack of drilling data meant that a full assessment of the sites could not be made. Key risk factors include storage capacity on the order of several TCF, reservoir injectivity due to poor reservoir quality and a pre-Cenozoic seal required to seal the CO2 in a supercritical state. By extrapolation, the seismic line shown below lies within the offshore extension of the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain. Onshore, the region is characterised by contractional deformation, thrusting and uplift associated with movement along the Hunter-Mooki Fault. The seismic line also obliquely crosses the Newcastle Syncline (Maung et al., 1997). Early Permian Dalwood Group outcrop onshore and East Maitland-1 (the closest onshore well) intersected a truncated section of the Tomago Coal Measures overlying sediments of the Maitland Group, Greta Coal Measures and Dalwood Group. A similar chronostratigraphic correlation of formations has been made on this seismic line (Figure 36). Reservoir quality at East Maitland-1 was very poor due to near-zero permeability in samples from the near surface to total depth. The seismic line is also near the Biggus Prospect identified by current permit holder Bounty Oil (PEP-11).
East Maitland-1
HVD
91-014
Biggus Prospect Cenozoic wedge
?Top Coal Measures

Two-way time (sec)
Gerringong Volcanics Top Maitland Group Top Dalwood Group
Marker Horizon Basement
10 km West
Figure 36: Interpreted seismic line 91-14 across the northern offshore Sydney Basin.
Basement-2 East

38

Basin Setting Offshore Sydney Basin
Basin Setting
A cross-tie to the previous line, this seismic line more clearly shows the Newcastle Syncline which has been interpreted as a foredeep that formed in front of the Hunter-Mooki Fault (Figure 37). The main provenance of sediments in this region is the New England Fold Belt and associated rocks of the foreland basin. The age of strata are unconstrained by drilling although correlation to East Maitland-1 is used as a proxy. Some Early Triassic sediment may be preserved within the deeper syncline, although Jurassic and younger sediment have been eroded in the mid-Cretaceous associated with breakup along eastern Australia.
Newcastle Syncline
South
91-08
North
Cenozoic wedge
? Top Coal Measures Gerringong Volcanics Top Maitland Group Top Dalwood Group Marker Horizon
Two-way time (sec)
Basement
Basement-2
10 km
Figure 37:
Interpreted seismic line 91-08 across the northern offshore Sydney Basin.

39
STRATIGRAPHY

40

Stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin
The Sydney Basin contains up to 5500m of mostly Permian to Triassic age sediments that thin to the west across a basement-controlled depositional hinge, and around the margins of the basin as a result of uplift. Cenozoic sediments occur in isolated parts of the onshore basin and as a progradational wedge up to 700+m thick in the offshore basin. It is proposed that Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments were deposited across the basin, but have since been eroded. Outcropping sediments in the central part of the Sydney Basin consist of either Triassic Wianamatta Group, Hawkesbury Sandstone or the Narrabeen Group. In areas affected by uplift, the Late Permian Coal Measures or Greta Coal Measures occur at the surface or near-surface, and these regions are actively being mined (Newcastle, Hunter, Gunnedah, Western and Southern coalfields). The detailed stratigraphic nomenclature of the Sydney Basin can be quite complex due to the number of locally mapped formations, members and beds most being lithologically defined. In addition, precise chronostratigraphic control is often not definitive, except where tuffs beds have been dated within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures. Most of the previous work has focused on the Late Permian Coal Measures due to economic interest and on the outcropping Narrabeen-Hawkesbury-Wianamatta successions. The overall vertical succession of marine and non-marine depositional cycles is generally well documented through numerous drill holes and outcrop across much of the Sydney Basin. However, an understanding of the lateral facies variations within Permian age strata and their bounding relationships with overlying and underlying beds is less clear. Such correlations are also hampered by to a lack of regional seismic data that can image the deeper strata within and underlying the coal measures. A simplified stratigraphic column shown in Figure 38 incorporates the latest understanding of lateral facies relationships of the Early Permian succession in the southern and central Sydney Basin (Tye, 1995; Tye et al., 1996). The current study is focused on reservoir prediction in the Permian succession. The reservoir characteristics of the Triassic Narrabeen Group have been covered in great detail by Galloway and Hamilton (1988), Reynolds (1988), Hamilton and Galloway (1989) and Glasford (1989). The overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta Group are covered extensively by Conaghan (1980) and Herbert (1980), respectively.
Stratigraphy
Figure 38: Generalised stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin (from Maung et al., 1997 and Alder et al., 1998).

41

Early to Early-late Permian Stratigraphy
The Early to mid-Late Permian succession can be subdivided into the TalaterangShoalhaven groups in the west, central and southern parts of the basin, and the equivalent age Dalwood-Maitland groups in the northern Sydney Basin (Figure 39). Based on outcrop mapping in the southern Sydney Basin, Tye et al (1996) suggest that the Early Permian Talaterang Group (Clyde Coal Measures and lower Wasp Head Formation) were deposited in north-trending rift basins. These elongate, fault-bounded depocentres formed during a period of relatively short-lived extension that was followed by a more prolonged period of passive thermal subsidence and deposition of the lower Shoalhaven Group. The Talaterang Group also contains fluvioglacial deposits. Crustal extension has been documented as an important basin-forming event during the early development of the Permian Bowen Basin (Roberts and Engel, 1987; Fielding et al., 1990; Scheibner, 1993, Bamberry et al., 1995; Korsch et al., in press). Except for the mapping by Tye et al (1996), seismic or field evidence of a deeply-buried Early Permian rift system is generally lacking across the Sydney Basin. The equivalent age, potential syn-rift section in the northern Sydney Basin, the Lower Dalwood Group, is more deformed than the strata studied by Tye et al (1996) due to the proximity of later faulting associated the Permo-Triassic Hunter Bowen contractional event. On the western margin of the Sydney Basin, the Early Permian felsic Rylstone Volcanics have a Rb-Sr age of 292Ma (Shaw et al., 1989; Pemberton et al., 1994) and were considered by Scheibner and Basden (1996) to be possibly related to the rift system located under the Sydney to Bowen basins (Korsch et al., in press). Other potential rift-related volcanics are documented in the Cranky Corner, (Claoue-Long and Korsch, 2003), Gloucester and Myall basins (Roberts et al, 1995; Lennox and Wilcock, 1985). The Shoalhaven Group disconformably overlies the Talaterang Group, and comprises a high energy alluvial braid plain succession (Yadboro and Tallong Conglomerate), a fluvial to transgressive marine sandstone succession (Snapper Point Formation) and laterally equivalent coastal and protected embayment deposits represent by the Yarrunga Coals Measures and Pebbly Beach Formation (Tye et al., 1996). An overall rise in relative sealevel during the deposition of the lower Shoalhaven Group led to a transition from fluvial facies both laterally and vertically into shallow marine (Snapper Point Formation) and then deeper shelf facies of the Wandrawandian Siltstone. In the northern Sydney Basin, the Lochinvar Formation consists of shale and mudstone with varying amounts of basaltic flows that are associated with extensional tectonics (Scheibner, 1993). Similar age volcanic rocks are thought to be intersected at Kurrajong Heights-1, Dural South-1 and Kirkham-1. The overlying Allandale Formation is a conglomeritic sandstone and may represent deposition before the onset of the post-rift transgression. Based on the chronostratigraphic relationships shown by Alder et al (1998), the overall transgression that began after extension in the Early Permian peaked in the early Late Permian and saw the backstepping of the Greta Coal Measures and eventual flooding by the Branxton Formation.
maximum flooding
Stratigraphy
gr ns tra es on si
syn-rift
Figure 39:
Generalised stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin (modified from Alder et al., 1998) with possible revisions to correlations between the Dalwood and lower Shoalhaven Groups.

42

Early to Early-late Permian Stratigraphy
The Upper Dalwood Group in the northern Sydney Basin (Jerry Plains-1; Figure 40) shows the thick, aggradational and relatively fine-grained nature of the post-rift Rutherford Formation and the coarsening-upward Farley Formation. The Jerry Plains-1 well intersected the thickest interval of the Rutherford Formation and suggests higher accommodation in some parts of the basin possibly due to local flexure and a widespread marine flooding. The overlying shallowing-upward succession of the Rutherford Formation is capped by a thick sand (Farley Formation). The overlying coals and non-marine clastics of the Greta Coal Measures (GCM) vary in total thickness in the northern Sydney Basin, but thin southward from the Hunter-Mooki Fault towards the centre of the Sydney Basin (Basden, 1969). The distribution of the GCM may reflect the subtle influence of encroaching tectonic activity on overall accommodation. The GCM were extensively mined underground in the northern Sydney Basin from two major sources the Great and Homeville seams - from 1862 to 1995, in regions around the towns of Branxton, Kurri Kurri, Cessnock and Paxton (Davies and Tonks, 1993). These coal measures outcrop in anticlines around Cessnock, Maitland and Muswellbrook (northern Sydney Basin) and in the Cranky Corner Basin to the north. Large open-cut operations continue to mine the GCM in the Muswellbrook Anticline. Beckett et al (1999) and Boyd and Leckie (2000) have undertaken detailed studies to correlate the clastic facies and coal seams that comprise the GCM. Boyd and Leckie (2000) and Leckie and Boyd (2003) classify this coal system as a high accommodation end-member of a spectrum of variable accommodation settings that typify non-marine deposits. The GCM occupy a single sequence in which the lower fluvial and lacustrine Skeletar Formation makes up a transgressive systems tract, the Ayrdal Sandstone Member is an estuarine unit associated with the maximum flood surface, and the upper fluvial to deltaic Rowan Formation occupies a highstand systems tract (Boyd and Leckie, 2000; Figure 41). The upper and lower boundaries of the coal measures are unconformable. The upper boundary is diachronous resulting from a northwestward marine transgression. The Jasdec Park Sandstone Member of the overlying Maitland Group infill incised valleys above a sequence boundary and then occurs as a transgressive shoreline system before passing into the glacial marine Branxton Formation (Boyd and Leckie, 2000). The overall regressive phase represented by the upper Rutherford-Farley formations and Greta Coal Measures is observed as a series of stacked, progradational cycles in the Snapper Point Formation and lower Wandrawandian Siltstone in the wells in the central and southern Sydney Basin.
Figure 41: Sequence stratigraphic correlation of the Greta Coal Measures in the northern Sydney Basin (from Boyd and Leckie, 2000).
Stratigraphy
Jerry Plains-1
Stratigraphy
fs fs
Maitland Group
mfs
Greta Coal Measures
Farley Fm
Rutherford Fm
Figure 40: Gamma and density logs from the Jerry Plains-1 well in the northern central Sydney Basin.

43

Mid-Late Permian Stratigraphy
The end of Greta Coal accumulation and associated clastic deposition is marked by the onset of a extended transgressive phase that equates with the Branxton Formation. As shown in previous Figure 39, chronostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic relationships (Alder et al, 1998) suggest that the overall firstorder transgression that began in the Early Permian and peaked in the early Late Permian and saw the backstepping of the Greta Coal Measures. Eventual flooding by the Branxton Formation was driven by a northwest-advancing marine transgression. A predicted maximum flooding in the upper Branxton Formation (and equivalent Wandrawandian Siltstone) is shown in the log correlation between Martindale-1 and Jerry Plains-1 (Figure 42). Sediments above the maximum flooding surface at Martindale-1 become more progradational in nature, although there are several higher frequency transgressiveregressive cycles seen within the younger overlying sediments at Jerry Plains-1. The presence of these younger cycles at Jerry Plains-1 may signal a localised increase in overall accommodation due to tectonic activity, relict topography, or possible the erosion of these cycles from the Martindale-1 well location. The highstand tract above the maximum flooding surface roughly correlates to the Mulbring Siltstone at Jerry Plains-1, and presumably to the age equivalent Berry Siltstone in the western, central and southern parts of the Sydney Basin. According to the stratal relationships published by Maung et al (1997) and Alder et al (1998; see previous Figure 39), the Muree Sandstone lies between the Branxton Formation and Mulbring Siltstone. The age correlative section elsewhere in the basin is the Nowra Sandstone. While the Muree Sandstone was not picked in the original assessment of Martindale-1 the prominent sandstone lying above the Top Branxton Sub-group pick (Boyd, 1967) could be the Muree Sandstone. This sand is the first of several sandstones that cap progradational cycles above the Maitland Group maximum flood surface. In Jerry Plains-1, the Muree Sandstone was also not picked in the original well assessment (Gentile, 1969), but a likely candidate is the prominent sandstone lying above the maximum flooding surface. The base of this sandstone at Martindale-1 and Jerry Plains-1 may also be a higher order sequence boundary.
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy
Martindale-1
Tomago Coal Measures

c
c c
Jerry Plains-1
Kulnura Flooding
Mulbring Formation
fs fs mfs mfs
Branxton Formation
Maitland Group
c c
Greta Coal Measures (and older) Figure 42:
c c
Dalwood Group Allendale Fm (volc) Greta Coal Measures
Gamma and density logs from the Martindale-1 and Jerry Plains-1 well in the central-northern central Sydney Basin.
Farley Fm
Rutherford Fm

44

Mid-Late to Late Permian Stratigraphy
The Nowra Sandstone is described as a basinwide unit consisting of fine to coarse grained sandstones that are typically composed of clean, white quartzose sand with a siliceous/ dolomitic/sideritic cement (Continental Oil Company of Australia Ltd, 1968). The sandstone was deposited in a shallow marine environment based the present of bryozoans, crinoids, brachiopods and bivalves (Dickens et al., 1969). The Nowra Sandstone is quite tight in subsurface intersections except at Stockyard Mountain-1, where slight-to-fair intergranular porosity is locally developed. Original porosity is locally inhibited by detrital clay and mica, and locally further degraded by authigenic quartz and clay, dolomite, siderite and the effects of severe compaction (Continental Oil Company of Australia Ltd, 1968). Detailed outcrop mapping by Le Roux and Jones (1994) and subsurface correlations by Arditto (2001; Figure 43) in the southern and southwestern Sydney Basin identify the Nowra Sandstone as a middle/upper shoreface to foreshore facies deposited in a sand-dominated high energy shelf and offshore shoal environment. Arditto (2001) proposed that the Nowra Sandstone is a lowstand wedge related to a significant, but short lived, forced regression due to its stratal position between the outer shelf mud-rich Wandrawandian Siltstone and the overlying Berry Siltstone (Figure 44). Le Roux and Jones (1994) recognised a lower Nowra Sandstone deposited during a regressive phase and an upper Nowra Sandstone deposited as nearshore sands during a subsequence transgressive phase. The upper and lower Nowra Sandstone units are separated by an laterally extensive and diachronous ravinement surface overlain by the Purnoo Conglomerate, a transgressive lag deposit. Based on field mapping and this regressive-transgressive model of deposition, the lower Nowra Sandstone forms an eastward thickening progradational wedge that grades into deeper water facies of the Wandrawandian Siltstone. An north-northeast-trending outer shelf shoal formed during the regressive phase (Le Roux and Jones, 1994). The upper Nowra Sandstone forms a westward thickening wedge of backstepping transgressive sands sourced from the Lachlan Fold Belt and further south. The upper Nowra Sandstone grades laterally (eastward) and upward into the mid-shelf deposited of the Berry Siltstone. A maximum flooding surface has not been recognised, but probably occurs in the Berry Siltstone (Herbert, 1995). A log correlation similar to Arditto (2001) is shown on the following page.
Stratigraphy
Figure 43:
WANDRAWANDIAN
Correlation of the Nowra Sandstone using gamma logs from the Kurrajong Heights-1, Kirkham-1, Victoria Park-1 and Woronora-1 wells (from Arditto, 2001).
MFS MFS
BERRY SILTSTONE
WANDRAWANDIAN SILTSTONE
gr ns tra es on si
Figure 44:
Generalised stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin (modified from Alder et al., 1998) showing the post-rift transgression (Early to early Late Permian/Wandrawandian Siltstone), and a short-lived regressive-transgressive episode (early Late Permian) that correlates to the Nowra Sandstone and Berry Siltstone.

45

Mid-Late to Late Permian Stratigraphy
Kurrajong Heights-1 Kirkham-1 gamma gamma sonic
Stratigraphy
The Nowra Sandstone is clearly defined at Kirkham-1 where a basal unconformity corresponds to a strong shift in the gamma log. In Kurrajong Heights-1 and Woronora-1, the sandstone appears to cap a strong progradational cycle (short-lived regression), which was followed by a rapid flooding and return marine conditions as signaled by finer lithology of the overlying Berry Siltstone. Several cycles of progradation are evident within the interval lying between Base Nowra Sandstone and Base Coal Measures at Woronora-1 and Kurrajong Heights-1 (although the upper cycles at KH-1 may be eroded). This regressive (or highstand) phase may have deposited good sands near sediment outflow points across the Sydney Basin. These sands have limited permeability at Woronora-1, but poor reservoir quality is probably due to the substantial uplift that has been documented at the well site (Middleton and Schmidt, 1982). Basal sands within the Upper Permian Coal Measures are also potential reservoirs in the basin, but many contain abundant volcanic detritus associated with Gerringong Volcanics.
Base Narrabeen c c c c
Woronora-1 gamma
Base Coal Measures
Base Coal Measures
Progradational Sands
B ase N owra S andsto ne
Berry Siltstone
Shoalhaven Group Shoalhaven Group
poss permeable zone
Nowra Sandstone
Figure 45:
Well log correlation between Kurrajong Heights-1, Kirkham-1 and Woronora-1 in the central onshore Sydney Basin. The Nowra Sandstone, progradational sands within the Berry Siltstone, and basal sands within the lower coal measures may be viable reservoir targets in some areas of the basin.

46

Upper Permian Coal Measures
The sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Permian Coals Measures (also known as the Late Permian Coal Measures; Alder et al., 1998; Figure 46) has been presented in sometimes contrasting studies by Arditto (1987, 2000), Herbert (1995, 1997) and Boyd et al (1998). The overall thickness of the coal measures, as well as the nature/thickness of individual coal beds, varies depending on location within the basin (Figure 47). Diessel (1980) calculated an average composition of the Newcastle Coal Measures as of 29% conglomerate, 23% sandstone, 17% shale, 17% tuff and claystone, and 12% coal. By comparison, the Illawarra Coals Measures have lesser amount of conglomerate and tuff, but are locally influenced by the Gerringong Volcanics. Authigenic carbonate minerals are ubiquitous in the Upper Permian coals. Key basinwide marine intervals within the coal measures (flooding events or highstands) were used to constrain third-order depositional episodes (e.g., Herhert, 1995). An overall up-sequence regressive trend is evident by progressively thinner marine shales, increasing incisedvalley fill thickness and a shift from marine to dominantly alluvial environments (Herbert, 1995). Herbert (1995, 1997) identified eight third-order sequences that correlate to the upper Shoalhaven Group, Tomago Coal Measures and the Newcastle Coal Measures. The basal sequence boundary in this succession is a ravinement surface correlated to an unconformity between the Lower and Upper Nowra Sandstone (Le Roux and Jones, 1994; Herbert, 1995). The base of Sequences D and E (upper Tomago Coal Measures) were tectonically-enhanced as evident from the angular nature of the associated unconformities. Herbert (1997) argued that deposition of the Newcastle Coal Measures was strongly influenced by sea level fluctuations. In this scenario, alluvial conglomerates derived from the New England Orogen filled incised valleys that formed during the preceding lowstand. Sigmoidal conglomerate with giant crossbeds were deposited as alluvial fill in compactional moats that formed near abandoned paralic deltas during the lowstand. In the southern Sydney Basin, correlations by Arditto (1987) indicate that the base of each sequence within the Illawarra Coal Measures comprises a laterally extensive, coarse fluvial sandstone which fills the incised unconformity surface that developed during rapid eustatic falls. Coals formed during the subsequent early transgressive phase in association with a rising water table before widespread marine flooding. The thickness and most widespread coals in the southern Sydney Basin (Woonona, Tongarra, Wongawilli and Australasian Coals) overlie the most widespread, coarsest grained facies of the fluvial incised-valley-fills (Arditto, 1987; Herbert, 1995). In a contrasting view, Boyd et al (1998) proposed that fluvial conglomerates existed contemporaneously and aggraded alongside linked floodplain facies and peat mires. Interbedded tuffaceous beds within the coal measures (e.g., Awaba, Warners Bay and Nobbys tuff) separate the four sub-groups within the Newcastle Coals Measures (Standing Committee on Coalfield Geology of NSW, Newcastle Coalfield Subcommittee, 1995). The key to differentiating contemporaneous deposition is the basal and lateral relationships of the coal, tuff markers and fluvial channels (and that the base of the channel is not a sequence boundary; Figure 48). Mapping of the tuffs provided the basis for highresolution chronostratigraphic correlations within the non-marine succession. Additional tuffs were identified and correlated, leading to further subdivisions of the Newcastle Coal Measures succession (Boyd et al., 1998).
Figure 46 (left): Generalised stratigraphy of the Sydney Basin (from Adler et al., 1998). Figure 47 (upper right): Gamma and SP logs from Howes Swamp-1 showing the interbedded nature of coals, shales and sandstone in the Upper Permian Illawarra Coal Measures. Figure 48 (right): Summary models from Boyd et al (1998) showing: A) characteristics that indicate contemporaneous fluvial and peat more deposition; and, B) criteria for the identification of an incised valley system in coal-bearing strata. Note the presence of a sequence boundary at the base of the amalgamated channels in model B.
Stratigraphy
Howes Swamp-1
Stratigraphy
Narrabeen mf
c c c c
mf
c c c
mf mf
Illawarra CM
c
mf
Maitland Group
A.
B.
sequence boundary
no consistent relationship between coal characteristics and incised-valley margins
47
Upper Permian Coal Measures Thickness

Upper Permian Coal Measures Sediment Thickness Input Data
The Upper Permian Coal Measures include the Illawarra, Newcastle, Tomago and Wittingham coal measures. Onshore, this stratigraphic interval is represented by all units lying between the Top Permian surface and the Top Shoalhaven Group or Top Maitland Group. Offshore, due to the scarcity of data, the interval is defined as the top Permian surface to the top of the Gerringong Volcanics. The Upper Permian Coal Measures sediment thickness grid is constrained by the following data sets (Figure 49): a) sediment thickness values were calculated for 46 wells across the basin that have stratigraphic top values for both the Top Permian surface and Top Shoalhaven Group or Top Maitland Group (also listed as the Top Mulbring or Top Berry Siltstones. b) 47 wells are located on surface outcrop of the Upper Coal Measures that also have stratigraphic top values for the Top Shoalhaven Group or Top Maitland Group. In all regions of the Upper Permian Coal Measures surface outcrop, sediment thicknesses were calculated from the stratigraphic top information and the digital elevation data. c) in the central part of the offshore basin, the two-way travel time interval between the Top Permian surface and the Top Gerringong Volcanics surface has been estimated from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003). A velocity of 3.67 km/sec was used to convert the offshore twoway travel time intervals for the pre-Cenozoic sediments to thickness in meters. This is determined from the time-depth curve of the Balmain 1 well, the closest onshore well to the Arditto (2003) study. No data is available for the southern and eastern offshore regions, thus the extent of the Upper Permian Coal Measures in these areas is unknown and values are assigned by extrapolation.
Figure 49:
Distribution of input datasets used to calculate the isopach grid for the Upper Permian Coal Measures. The dark grey polygons show the onshore outcrop of the Upper Permian Coal Measures as derived from 1:250k geology maps. The red dots are wells with stratigraphic top data for the Base Permian Coal Measures pick, while the blue lines in the offshore basin are thickness contours (metres) estimated from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003). The dashed red line is a fundamental basement boundary.

48
Upper Permian Coal Measures Thickness

Upper Permian Coal Measures Sediment Thickness
The Upper Permian Coal Measures isopach map (Figure 50) has been created in ArcGIS by interpolation of the input datasets described on the previous page. The Upper Permian Coal Measures does not reflect coal thickness only, but the entire sedimentary interval defined as the Coal Measures. Also note that sediment thicknesses are less constrained offshore and depths have been estimated from seismic interpretations. The present-day thickness of the Upper Permian Coal Measures reflects both depositional (foreland basin setting) and post-depositional (uplift) controls. In the central and northern parts of the basin, the Upper Permian succession is thickest outboard of the Hunter Valley Domes (HVD) structural domain. This is in part due to the former northwest-trending depositional axis of the Sydney Basin during the time of Coal Measures deposition. crust. Within the HVD domain, the Early Permian Greta Coal Measure are at the surface or nearsurface, and erosion of the younger Upper Permian Coal Measure is related to subsequent movement along the Hunter-Mooki Fault. The north-northeasttrending Lochinvar Anticline in the HVD domain shows thinning of the Mulbring Formation, Tomago and Newcastle Coal Measures over the crest of this structure indicating that uplift began in the Late Permian and continued into the Triassic. The segmentation between the main depocentres in the central region of the basin may have been present during deposition, but has most certainly been accentuated by post-depositional movement of deeper faults. A similar pattern of thinning due to post-depositional uplift is observed in the offshore basin (Offshore Uplift) and south of the Illawarra Coalfield. Much of the Triassic and some of the Upper Permian succession have been eroded across the offshore basin. This margin has also been affected by uplift and ongoing erosion. The Upper Permian Coal Measures thin along the western and southern margins of the basin due to lower accommodation associated the underlying thick Lachlan Fold Belt
shallow basement
HV D
erosion
Offshore Uplift
shallow basement
erosion
Figure 50:
Upper Permian Coal Measures isopach map with 500m grid cell size. The thin grey lines are major basin faults as interpreted in the OZ SEEBASETM Study (2005), while the bold dashed grey is a fundamental basement boundary.

49

Correlative Stratigraphy in the Bowen and Gunnedah Basins
Correlative Stratigraphy
A chronostratigraphic comparison of the Sydney Basin succession with equivalent age rocks of the Bowen and Gunnedah basins is shown in Figure 51 (Fielding et al., 2004).

50
A comparison of the Sydney Basin stratigraphic charts published by Alder et al (1998) and Fielding et al (2004) show significant differences in the correlation of Permian age strata in particular, the Early Permian successions (Figure 52). Fielding et al (2004) used the correlation to construct a series of palaeogeographic maps for the Permian to Middle Triassic period for the Bowen-Gunnedah-Sydney basin system. These maps are in the ArcGIS project that accompanies this report (Figure 53), however the sometimes poor correlation between the two schemes suggests that further work is required to fully integrate the palaeogeographic maps that span the Bowen, Gunnedah and Sydney basin system (Figure 53) .
Figure 52 (above): Correlation of stratigraphic charts published by Fielding et al (2004/left) and Alder et al (1998/right). Figure 53 (right): Correlation of the Nowra Sandstone using gamma logs from the Kurrajong Heights-1, Kirkham-1, Victoria Park-1 and Woronora-1 wells (from Arditto, 2001).
In addition, the subtle influence of contractional events in the Late Permian that were recognised by Fielding et al (2004) in the Bowen Basin (Events 2c to 2f) may not be similarly prominent or expressed in strata of Sydney Basin. An improved regional understanding of the Sydney Basin geometry through time will help to resolve the palaeogeographic setting. For example, the western margin is often expressed as a simple hinge line covered by an along-strike continuous belt of shoreline facies. However, it is likely this setting is more complex, thus the distribution of facies and sediment input points is still somewhat speculative.

51
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS

52

Porosity and Permeability Evaluation
Present-day porosity and permeability in sedimentary rocks are the result of depositional (primary porosity) and diagenetic (secondary porosity) processes (Figure 54). Porosity determines how much fluid or gas can be stored in a rock and permeability determines how fast if can flow (Figure 55). This study focuses on conventional clastic reservoirs in the Sydney Basin and specifically excludes fracture data relating to coal seam reservoir potential (i.e., data used to determine the flow capacity of coal bed methane/CBM or coal seam gas/CSG). The amount of primary porosity in clastic reservoirs is related to the original grain size, the variability in grain sizes present (grain packing) and the amount and nature of fine-grain material such as clays or organics that can occlude the original pore spaces between grains. Coarse-to-medium-grained sands generally have the highest amount of primary porosity. Secondary porosity is essentially a measure of the amount primary porosity that is preserved after burial and compaction. Secondary porosity also includes any enhancement or reduction in porosity that may have resulted from diagenetic processes after deposition, such as grain dissolution of shells and unstable feldspars or mineral alteration. Grain dissolution generally results in an enhancement or overall increase in porosity, while transformation of unstable minerals to clays and the alteration of clay mineral species often reduces porosity and permeability. Diagenetic processes can also precipitate new minerals from solution (cementation) that reduce or occlude porosity in a rock. Overall, diagenesis is a complex series of geochemical processes that are controlled by depth, temperature, the chemistry of pore fluids and the nature of the original rock. Secondary porosity in sandstones is classified according to origin and pore texture (Schmidt and McDonald, 1983). In terms of subsurface CO2 storage and petroleum exploration, porosity is an important factor in determining potential storage capacity or the size of an accumulation. Permeability determines the flow capacity available for injection (sequestration) into a reservoir or extraction (production) from a reservoir. Production from petroleum reservoirs with high porosity but low permeability can be increased through a range of options such as fracing the controlled subsurface fracturing of a reservoir to increase connectivity between pores. At this stage, such technology is not used to enhance reservoirs at potential geosequestration sites because CO2 injection and storage integrity depends on the predictable distribution of a reservoir. Thus, for successful injection to occur, viable permeability should be present naturally in the rocks. For these reasons, permeability is considered a more important factor in screening for potential geosequestration sites than porosity, although both factors will ultimately determine storage capacity. A minimum cut-off of 100 millidarcies (mD) has been used in previous CO2 site assessments (R. Causebrook, Geoscience Australia, pers. comm.), although successful CO2 injection has occurred in lower permeability sandstones (Cook, 2006). A porosity cut-off is more arbitrary because these analyses can include both intergranular and intragranular porosity. Intergranular pores provide the most effective porosity, while most intragranular porosity may lack connectivity to a larger network. A conservative porosity cut-off of 10% is used in this initial screening. As stated earlier, seal capacity is not considered as part of this screening step only potential presence or absence although seal capacity and integrity will ultimately determine the effective storage capacity.
Figure 55: Figure 54:
Diagram showing the relationship between the origin of porosity (primary and secondary) and depth (from Slatt, 2006).
Graphic representation of porosity and permeability (from Slatt, 2006).

53

Previous Observations of Reservoir Character
Reservoir quality has long been recognised as a significant risk for conventional petroleum exploration in the Sydney Basin (e.g., Australian Gas Corporation Limited, 1971). While porosity is present in varying amounts, permeability tends to be negligible in many samples. Tests of methane drainage from coals also attributes low permeability as a main factor in the tapering-off of gas flow rates in wells in the Camden area, although small reservoirs and high water saturations also appear to be involved (Continental Oil Company of Australia, 1968). Early petrographic studies of key wells such as Woronora-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Dural South-1, Kirkham-1, Cecil Park-2, East Maitland-1, Kulnura-1 and Stockyard Mountain-1 (Zabriskie, 1967) concluded that porosity destruction was caused by compaction, the presence of detrital and authigenic clays, and cementation (calcite, dolomite, siderite, authigenic quartz) in clay-free rocks. Zabriskie (1967) also noted the presence of a fibrous mineral of mica-like character that infills much pore space. This mineral has since been identified as Dawsonite in subsequent studies and linked to the presence of high concentrations of CO2 (Bai et al., 2001). A relinquishment report by Australian Oil & Gas Corporation Limited (AOGCL, 1972) summarised their exploration activity in Petroleum Exploration Licenses (PEL) -102, -103 and -104 over the period 1954 to 1971 (including 40 wells drilled) and cited poor reservoir character as a primary reason for license relinquishment sandstone reservoir rocks have zero to a few millidarcies of both horizontal and vertical permeability despite the fact that some of the porosities are fair to good. In addition, the highest methane flow recorded (prior to the 1972 relinquishment) from the Triassic Narrabeen Group at Camden-7 was not sustained due to low pressure and permeability. Analyses of Permian cores indicated the main reason for poor reservoir quality is the argillaceous and tuffaceous nature of the rocks, silicification, compaction and temperature effects from igneous intrusions and associated fluid flow (AOGCL, 1972). The Triassic section has better reservoir characteristics compared with the Permian section, but the permeability of sandstones is generally low because of a high (up to 20%) kaolinitic matrix and poor sorting of fluvial deposits. AOGCL (1972) also cite that hydrocarbon generation and migration in the Sydney Basin was probably late and occurred after diagenetic processes began to degrade reservoir quality, although noting that new engineering techniques may provide other options for future explorers. More recent studies such as Galloway and Hamilton (1988) have focused on determining reservoir character in the Narrabeen Group following the perception that older and more deeply buried rocks have low to nil permeability. This study identified viable reservoir units in the Triassic succession. Most of the prospective strata identified by Galloway and Hamilton (1988) lie above 800m depths and are therefore considered unsuitable for CO2 storage.
Figure 56:
Map showing the locations of wells with porosity and/or permeability data in the Sydney Basin overlain in the SEEBASE image.

54

Basin Subdivisions for Reservoir Characterisation
Five main structural domains are identified in the Sydney Basin for the purpose of reservoir characterisation (Figure 57). These broad subdivisions take into account that reservoir characteristics in the Sydney Basin are strongly influenced by syn-depositional and postdepositional processes. The domains reflect elements such as basement terranes, tectonic setting, basement-controlled accommodation, first-order sediment provenances (LFB-vs.NEFB), post-depositional deformation and proximity to the Tasman rifting. The outlines published by Bembrick et al (1980) have been modified to combine several of the structural subdivisions (Figure 57) which are described below: Hunter Valley Domes (HVD): Includes wells drilled on the north-northwest-trending anticlines that formed as a result of deformation along the Hunter-Mooki Thrust. The NEFB is regarded as the principal sediment provenance for this area. Wells with reservoir data in this area are Jerry Plains-1, Camberwell1, -2, Loder-1 and East Maitland-1. Western Onshore Basin (WOB): This area overlies thick LFB crust that is associated with low accommodation and a depositional hinge. The eastern LFB was the main provenance of sediments from the west, with localised areas of NEFB provenance to the east and axial deposition from the Gunnedah Basin to the north. Although there are hundreds of coal bores in this region, only one conventional exploration well has reservoir data Martindale-1/1A. Central Onshore Basin (COB): The main onshore depocentre of the Sydney Basin and includes the Hornsby Plateau, Woronora Plateau and Cumberland Basin of Bembrick et al (1980). The area lies basinward of a depositional hinge defined by thick LFB crust and is locally deformed by the reactivation of deeper faults during Late Triassic contraction and more recent events. Exploration wells are often sited on anticlines within the basin, or on structures associated with the Kurrajong Fault and Lapstone Monocline on its western edge. The majority of wells with reservoir data fall within this structural domain. Southern Plateau (SPL): This area covers the Southern Highlands that lie on the up-dip side of a monocline that dips into Central Onshore Basin domain, and includes the Illawarra, Sassafras and Boyne Mountain plateaus of Bembrick et al (1980). The area overlies the Capertee-Malacoota and Narooma basement terranes which have an overall thinner sedimentary cover due to lower accommodation and uplift. Wells in this area include the Moonshine wells, Victoria Park-1, Bargo-1, Yerrinbool-1, Stockyard Mountain-1 and the Jervis Bay Scout holes. Offshore Sydney Basin This area covers the present-day offshore extension of the basin and probably includes several sub-domains that are not defined from the current dataset. No wells have been drilled here.

Gunnedah Basin
NEFB
WOB HVD
COB
Eastern LFB
OSB
SPL
Tasman Sea
Figure 57:
Map showing wells with reservoir data (red dots) and the major structural domains for the red purpose of reservoir characterisation including: HVD=Hunter Valley Domes; WOB=Western Onshore Basin, COB=Central Onshore Basin, SPL=Southern Plateau; and, OSB=Offshore Sydney Basin. Reference to the original subdivisions of Bembrick et al (1980) and near surface structural features can be seen in Figure 26.

55

Porosity and Permeability Datasets
A dataset of porosity and permeability analyses compiled during this study were from four principal sources , Galloway and Hamilton (1988), Maung et al (1997), post-1997 well completion reports (WCR) and unpublished results of post-drill analyses available through the NSW DPI DIGS database. The information presented in Maung et al (1997) utilised reservoir data compiled in WCR prior to 1997, while similar data was collected from post-1997 well completion reports and post-drill analyses as part of the current study. Some of the data from the Maung et al (1997) compilation required amendments particularly depth measurements. The Galloway and Hamilton (1988) report summarised the findings of a two-year study that was organised by the Earth Resources Foundation of the University of Sydney. The study was based around eight regional cross-sections (Figure 58) that provided a basic framework for reservoir characterisation. The study used data from 216 petroleum and coal boreholes, and included extensive examination of drill cores. Fifteen key wells where selected where more detailed sedimentological and petrographic analyses were undertaken. The Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study provides a comprehensive analysis of the Triassic Narrabeen Group and the Upper Permian coal measures. The key wells in the study were Howes Valley-DDH1, Murrays Run-DDH1, Jilliby Creek-DDH1, Brush Creek-DDH1, LongleyDDH1, St Albans-DDH1, Bootleg-2A, Bootleg-8A, Cape Banks-DDH1, Coalcliff-17, Wollongong-45, Moonshine-7/7A, Picton-DDH1 and Picton-DDH2. More detailed findings relating the study are also presented in two unpublished Masters theses (Reynolds, 1988; Glasford, 1989).
Collectively, the four data sources provide information on 68 wells (Figure 59), although the quantity and type of data varies from well-to-well. There are over 1400 sample depths in the dataset. The distribution of wells (Figure 59) show the concentration of exploration drilling in the southerncentral and northern parts of the Sydney Basin, thus the datasets reflect this bias. Deep reservoirs in some areas of the basin are untested due to lack of drilling (offshore basin) or limited depth of penetration (shallow targets), although descriptions of outcrop (mainly the Triassic Narrabeen and Hawkesbury sandstones) are widespread. Most of the data points compiled lie above 800m depth which is above the level of interest for sequestration. However, the lesser amounts of data available from deeper strata (down to 3200m) are from a good geographic spread of wells across the basin. In general, there is more data on porosity than permeability.
Figure 58 (above): Map showing the locations of regional cross-sections used in the reservoir charcterisation study of Galloway and Hamilton (1988). The map also shows all petroleum exploration wells drilled in the basin. A subset of 15 of these wells were identified for further analysis by Galloway and Hamilton (1988).
Figure 59 (left):
Map showing the locations of wells with porosity and/or permeability data in the Sydney Basin.

56

Wells in the Sydney Basin
The majority of the compiled porosity and permeability dataset comes from wells drilled prior to 1986 - most of which are from the 40 well drilling campaign undertaken by Australian Oil & Gas Corporation until 1972, Esso Exploration Australia (Jerry Plains-1, Howes Swamp-1), Genoa Oil NL (Jervis Bay Scout holes), MIH (Macdonald-1, -2) and Bridge Oil (Bringelly-1, -2). From the early 1980s, AGL began actively exploring the Sydney Basin and drilled the series of Bootleg (-1 to -12) and Moonshine (-1 to -13) wells in the southern and central western parts of the basin. From 1984 to 1986, AGL followed-up with wells at Victoria Park1/1A, Cut Hill-1, -3/3A and Lake Nepean-1. During this period, Sydney Oil Company drilled the follow-up well at Camberwell-2 in the northern Sydney Basin. In 1989, Command Petroleum drilled Shearman-1, a coal bed methane (CBM) well, in PEL267. Amoco Australia Petroleum Company subsequently farmed-in to permit PEL267 (with Command Petroleum) and actively explored permit PEL260 to assess the CBM potential of the basin. From 1991 to 1995, Amoco drilled 18 CBM wells and carried out extensive coal maceral and gas analyses, coal desorption and micro-fracture tests to assess potential CBM reservoir characteristics. Porosity and permeability analysis of conventional clastic reservoirs became less frequent with the shift to CBM exploration. ELECOM (Electricity Commission of New South Wales), subsequently trading as Pacific Power, drilled 10 wells from 1991 to 1995, include three deep CBM investigation holes in PEL5, PEL 278 and PEL279 (Hawkesbury Lisarow-1, Hawkesbury Bunnerong-1 and Hawkesbury Eveleigh-1). Only Bunnerong-1 and Eveleigh-1 had conventional reservoir analyses. Since 1999, Sydney Gas Company has drilled a series of CBM wells including the Johndilo, Logan Brae, Elizabeth Macarthur, Mt Taurus and Hunter Coal wells. The Camden joint venture partners AGL Energy and Sydney Gas drilled their second conventional exploration well during mid-2007 the EM31 well which reach TD at 918m. The reservoir target was the Marrangaroo Formation in the Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures. The well underwent fracture stimulation to assess where the Marrangaroo Sandstone is a viable gas production reservoir. Reservoir shut-in pressure was 820 psi (gas pressure) and production flow testing was due to commence in August 2007 (Sydney Gas Ltd, 2007). The following pages show plots of porosity and permeability data points for the whole Sydney Basin, and then subdivided on the basis of structural domains to assess possible regional variations related to provenance, diagenesis or volcanic activity. The lack of wells and/or well data in the Western Onshore Basin (WOB) and the Offshore Sydney Basin (OSB) means that a direct understanding of reservoirs in these areas is limited.

Gunnedah Basin
NEFB
WOB HVD
COB
Eastern LFB
OSB
SPL
Tasman Sea
Figure 60:
Map showing wells with reservoir data (red dots) and the major structural domains for the red purpose of reservoir characterisation including: HVD=Hunter Valley Domes; WOB=Western Onshore Basin, COB=Central Onshore Basin, SPL=Southern Plateau; and, OSB=Offshore Sydney Basin. Reference to the original subdivisions of Bembrick et al (1980) and near surface structural features can be seen in Figure 26.

57

% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30
Sydney Basin Porosity All Wells

Porosity data for 68 wells in the Sydney Basin (1400 data points) were plotted against well depth to look for apparent trends that may be related to depth of burial and compaction (Figure 61). Cut-offs of 10% and 5% porosity are shown by the solid and dashed blue lines, respectively. The optimal upper depth window of 800m for subsurface CO2 storage is indicated on the plot.
decreasing porosity with increasing depth
500
800m
1000
Sample depth below KB
1500m
1500 Below 1500m most samples have <10% porosity 2000
The majority of data points are from samples above 800m this is influenced to some degree by the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) sampling program, but also reflects the general target depth of many of the petroleum and coal exploration wells. An overall trend of decreasing porosity with increasing depth is indicated by the blue arrow. Samples between 800 to 1500m still show good porosities of 2 to 20%. Below 1500m, most samples have less than 10% porosity, although the number of data points from these depths also decreases. Most of deep data points below 2000m are from only a few wells (Dural South-1, East Maitland-1, Kirkham1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Loder-1, Mulgoa-1, -2 and Woronora-1). The blue-shaded area on the graph shows where deep porosity ranging from 2 to 15% is present between 1000 to 3100m depth. These samples are from Camberwell-1, East Maitland-1, Dural South-1, Jerry Plains-1, Kirkham-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Loder-1, Mulgoa-2 and Woronora-1.
2500
3000
Figure 61:
3500
Plot of percentage porosity against well depth for 68 wells in the Sydney Basin. An arbitrary cut-off 10% porosity is noted by the blue line, with a lower cut-off of 5% noted by the dashed-blue line. dashed-
5%
10% porosity cut-off

58

Permeability (Horizontal) mD 0.01 0 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Sydney Basin Permeability All Wells

A plot of permeability data (log scale) against depth for the same 68 wells shown in Figure 62 shows a broad spread of permeability values that range from nil (<0.01 mD) to 5000mD. The optimal upper depth window of 800m for subsurface CO2 storage is indicated on the plot. An overall trend of decreasing permeability with increasing depth is indicated by the blue arrow. The 100mD cut-off used in this study indicates the desirable range for commercial subsurface CO2 storage, while the range for pilot/non-commercial storage is between 15 to 50mD; virgin reservoirs* with <15mD are deemed as non-viable for commercial storage (J. Bradshaw, Geoscience Australia, pers. comm.). Samples with permeability values of 100mD or greater (solid blue line; desirable permeability range) occur shallower than 650m depth. Wells with permeability above 10mD occur in the basin succession shallower than 850m present-day depth (dashed blue line). Below 900m depth, permeability ranges from 0.1 to a maximum of 8mD (pink box). Data within this range (pink box) are from Kurrajong Heights-1, Mulgoa-2, Camberwell-1, -2, Bootleg-2A, -8, Martindale-1A and Victoria Park-1. Of these wells, only Bootleg-8, Camberwell-1, -2, Kurrajong Heights-1 and Mulgoa-2 have permeability values above 1mD. Camberwell-1 and -2 are located southwest of Singleton in the northern Sydney Basin, while the remaining three wells are located in the central Sydney Basin. Permeability above 1mD was recorded from the following stratigraphic intervals: Bootleg8/Wilton Formation, Camberwell-1 and -2/Dalwood Group and Greta Coal Measures, Kurrajong Heights-1/Narrabeen Group and Upper Permian Coal Measures and Mulgoa2/Nowra Sandstone. Despite the presence of porosity in sediments down to 3100m depth (see previous figure), there are no analysed samples with permeability greater than 10mD below 850m depth. Between 850m to 1525m, some samples have permeability of 1 to 8mD (pink box). Below 1525m, permeability drops to near-zero values. The wells with no permeability below 1525m include East Maitland-1, Dural South-1, Kirkham-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Loder-1, Mulgoa-2 and Woronora-1. There are also samples with no permeability over depths ranging from 50 to 3050m. Based on the current dataset, there is an absolute permeability barrier present below 1525m in the basin, and a potential shallow permeability barrier (10mD or less) between 850m and 1525m depths.
* The term virgin reservoir refers to rocks that have not previously hosted petroleum accumulations, and is used to differentiate from these reservoirs from those of depleted petroleum fields.
500 decreasing permeability with increasing depth
800m
1000
Sample Depth below KB
1500
1525m
Below 1525m all permeability values are close to zero
2000 Note that many samples with 0.01md or less permeability are obscured on this plot. 2500
3000
3500
Figure 62:
10mD
100mD
Plot of horizontal absolute permeability measured in millidarcies (mD) against well depth (metres in true vertical depth) for 68 wells in the Sydney Basin. A cut-off of 100mD permeability is noted by the blue line.
59

% Porosity 0 10000 Samples with >10% porosity and >100md permeability. 10 20 30 40
Porosity and Permeability All Wells

A cross-plot of porosity and permeability data from 68 wells in the Sydney Basin is shown in Figure 63. Visual porosity and permeability estimates were not included in the assessment. The plot of porosity against permeability clearly shows there are many samples with greater than 10% porosity and 100mD permeability (blue box in Figure 63). However, as indicated in the previous plots, all of these data points occur in strata that lies shallower than 850m subsurface depths. Permeability in deeper strata is clearly the controlling factor for reservoir quality in the Sydney Basin. A review of the basic data (Excel spreadsheet) indicates that 54% of the samples analysed have permeability values of 1.0mD or less (note that many of these data points plot along the x-axis as near zero values and may be unclear in this figure). A further 23% of data points have a permeability range of 1.0 to 10mD, and a further 12% range from 10 to 100mD. Only 12% of the samples yielded permeability values greater than 100mD, and all of these lie above the depth for optimal sequestration. It should be noted that while 100mD is desirable for sequestration, reservoirs at In Salah (Algeria) have around 5md of permeability that is locally enhanced by fractures and high-permeability streaks. Sandstones of the Bald Hill Operational Unit were identified as the most consistently high quality reservoir unit by the Galloway and Hamilton (1988). A review of the data (as shown in this plot) that have values above 10mD or greater, indicates that these samples (which minor exceptions) are from the following Triassic-age stratigraphic units: Hawkesbury, Narrabeen, Bald Hill, Bulgo, Scarborough and Wombarra formations. Occasional samples with >10mD permeability are noted from the Greta Coal Measures (Camberwell-1, -2) and the Wilton Formation (Bootleg-8A). Further observations about porosity and permeability can be made by grouping the wells into structural domains in the basin (following pages). In addition, the distribution of reservoir analyses against stratigraphic unit shows the stratal distribution of reservoir data points.
1000
100
Permeability (Horizontal) mD
100 mD
10
0.1 Note that many samples with 0.01md or less permeability are obscured on this plot. 0.01
Figure 63:
Plot of percentage porosity against permeability (mD) for 60 wells in the Sydney Basin. Arbitrary cutoffs of 10% porosity and 100mD is shown by the blue lines. The permeability scale is logarithmic and the porosity scale is arithmetic.
10%
60

15000E 15100E
Western Onshore and Hunter Valley Domes
Western Onshore and Hunter Valley Domes

A location map and wells are shown in Figure 64 for the Western Onshore and Hunter Valley Domes structural domains. Porosity and permeability data from these wells are shown on the following pages.
Martindale-1/1A
Jerry Plains-1 Camberwell-1, -2
Loder-1
East Maitland-1
3300S
Western Onshore Basin
Hunter Valley Domes
3400S
Figure 64:
Map showing wells in the Western Onshore and Hunter Valley Domes structural domains.

61

% Porosity Permeability, Horizontal mD

Martindale-1
0 0
10
20
0.1
10
gamma sonic

Only one well in the Western Onshore Basin domain has conventional reservoir data available Martindale-1/1A and deep data below 800m is limited to three samples in the Greta Coal Measures (Figure 65). These samples have permeability of <1mD and are unsuitable for subsurface CO2 storage. The Martindale-1/1A well logs show there are a number of sandy intervals associated with the upper Mulbring Group and lower Tomago Coal Measures that are untested for reservoir potential. Given that this region has better prospects for quartzose input from the eastern LFB, further work is required to determine if the same low-to-moderate porosity and low-to-very-low permeability trend observed elsewhere also characterises strata in this region. The Martindale-1/1A well was drilled on the Coricudgy Anticline. Therefore, if potential reservoirs can be identified within the Late Permian Coal Measures, these rocks may lie off-the flanks of the anticline at depths appropriate for CO2 storage. Further work could also be undertaken on core bores in the region, although this dataset may be limited by the shallow TD of the wells.
200
c c c
c c
Tomago Coal Measures
400
c
Kulnura Flooding
600
Mulbring Sub-Group
800
Maitland Group
mf
Branxton Sub-Group
1000
c c c
Greta Coal Measures Dalwood Group
1200
10%
Figure 65:
Allendale Fm (volc)
10mD
Plots of porosity (%) and permeability (mD) for Martindale-1/1A in the Western Onshore Basin structural domain. The permeability scale is logarithmic and the porosity scale is arithmetic. The gamma and sonic logs for the well show the strata intersected much of this succession is untested for reservoir character.

62

% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30 40 0.1 1 Permeability, Horizontal mD 10 100 1000
Hunter Valley Domes
Hunter Valley Domes

Porosity and permeability plots for five wells within the Hunter Valley Domes domain (Jerry Plains-1, Camberwell-1, -2, Loder-1 and East Maitland-1) show an overall pattern similar to the plots of All Wells data variable porosity and generally low permeability (<10mD; Figure 66). The data indicates that porosity rarely exceeds 15%, and that permeability over 1mD is present in only two wells Camberwell-1 and -2 (purple circle). The data from Camberwell-1 may be questionable as reference is made to possible damaged core in Geoscience Australias on-line reservoir and facies database (RESFACS; www.ga.gov.au). Camberwell-2 tested a different play concept in the follow-up well and noted pervasive fracturing in the cores (Burnett, 1986). These observations probably account for the higher porosity and permeability values observed in the Greta Coal Measures sandstones and Dalwood Group sediments in these wells. East Maitland-1, Jerry Plains-1 and Loder-1 recorded nil permeability from near surface samples to total depth. It should be noted that East Maitland-1 was drilled on an anticline and the stratal position of sediments are presently well above their original depth of burial. Middleton and Schmidt (1982) estimate erosion at East Maitland-1 at 3.34km and Jerry Plains-1 at 1.50km based on vitrinite values of near surface sediments. The principal sediment provenance of the Hunter Valley Domes domain is the NEFB and consists primarily or eroded mafic and felsic volcanic material.
500
800m
1000
1100m
1500
2000 Note that many samples with 0.01md or less permeability are obscured on this plot. 2500
3000
Non-viable permeability range (<10mD) Desirable permeability range (100mD)
Figure 66: Plots of porosity (%) and permeability (mD) for five wells in the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain (Jerry Plains-1, Camberwell-1, -2, Loder-1 and East Maitland-1). The permeability scale is logarithmic and the porosity scale is arithmetic.
3500
10%
10mD
100mD
63

15100E 15200E
Central Onshore Basin

A location map and wells are shown in Figure 67 for the Central Onshore Basin structural domain. Porosity and permeability data from selected wells are shown on the following pages. All wells are labeled with the following abbreviations used for wells in the Camden area:
Howes Valley-1
3300S

Higher Macdonald-1
Murrays Run-1
Jilliby Creek-1
B1 B2 B8
Bringelly-1 Bringelly-2 Bootleg-8 Cobbitty-DDH3 Cobbitty-DDH4 Cut Hill-3 Campbelltown-DDH1, -DDH2, -DDH3 Duncans Creek-1 Kirkham-1 Mount Hunter-1
St Albans-1 Kurrajong Heights-1 Bootleg-7
Longley-1
C3 C4
Cape Three Points-1
CH CT
Castlereagh-1
Berkshire Park-1
Bootleg-2A Dural South-1
DC
Cape Banks-1
K MH
Mulgoa-1,-2
Cecil Park-1
3400S
DC B1 C4 CH B2 C3 B8 K CT MH
Eveleigh-1
Bunnerong-1 Woronora-1
Many of these wells only have porosity and permeability data for sediments shallower than 800m. Key wells with deeper data include Longley-1, Bootleg-2A, Dural South-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Mulgoa-1, -2, Kirkham-1, Bootleg-8 and Woronora-1.
Southern Plateau
Figure 67:
Map showing the location of wells with porosity and/or permeability data in the Central Onshore Basin structural domain. Key wells are noted in blue. blue

64

% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30 40 0.1 1 Permeability, Horizontal mD 10 100 1000 10000

Porosity and permeability plots for wells within the Central Onshore Basin structural domain of the Sydney Basin are shown in Figure 68. Given that these wells comprise the majority of data points in the reservoir database, it is not surprising that the plots show similar characteristics to the All Data plots in previous Figure 61 and 62. It is clear that good porosity (10 to 20%) and excellent permeability (>100mD) are present in rocks that lie above 800m in the central onshore Sydney Basin. Overall, an decrease in porosity and permeability is observed with increasing depth (blue arrow). Below 1200m, porosity continues to decrease to less than 10%, while permeability decreases to <10mD below 850m. Although most of the permeability values drop to near zero below 850m, some permeability (1 to 9mD) is observed down to 1550m. Below 1550m, all permeability values are near zero, although porosity of 0 to 10% is observed to 2600m. The deepest data with permeability is from Mulgoa-1/2 in the Nowra Sandstone. The highest value (2315mD at 1230m in Bootleg-2A) is anomalous and probably be due to core damage. Based on the available data, there is evidence of a partial permeability barrier below 850m in the Central Onshore Basin domain, and an absolute permeability barrier below 1550m. It should be noted that most of the data points below 2000m are from only a few wells (Kurrajong Heights-1, Kirkham-1 and Dural South-1). Some wells in this dataset are plotted on a well-by-well basis on the following pages and show the stratal units tested.
500
800m
1000
850m
1200m
1550m
1500
Nowra Sst
2000
2500
Note that many samples with 0.01md or less permeability are obscured on this plot.
3000
Non-viable permeability range (<10mD) Desirable permeability range (100mD)
Figure 68: Plots of porosity (%) and permeability (mD) for wells in the Central Onshore Basin structural domain. The permeability scale is logarithmic and the porosity scale is arithmetic.
3500
10%
10mD 100mD
65

Permeability, Horizontal mD
Kirkham-1
% Porosity
0 0
10
20
30
40
0.1
10
100
1000
gamma sonic
Kirkham-1
Kirkham-1 is one of the deepest wells in the Sydney Basin with a good dataset of down-hole porosity and permeability analyses (Figure 69). The data indicates that porosity is highest above 1300m and, although reduced, still present near total depth. However, permeability clearly drops to near-zero below 600m depth. A correlation with log data indicates that permeability is limited to the Triassic Narrabeen Group and younger succession. Nearby at Bootleg8A, some permeability (2.9mD) was present in the Wilton Formation (Upper Permian Coal Measures), however this was not detected in similar age strata at Kirkham-1. Early petrographic studies of key wells such as Kirkham-1, Woronora-1, Dural South-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Cecil Park-2, East Maitland-1, Kulnura-1 and Stockyard Mountain-1 (Zabriskie, 1967) concluded that porosity destruction was caused by compaction, the presence of detrital and authigenic clays, and cementation (calcite, dolomite, siderite, authigenic quartz) in clay-free rocks. Zabriskie (1967) also noted the presence of a fibrous mineral of micalike character that infills much pore space. This mineral has since been identified as Dawsonite in subsequent studies and linked to the presence of high concentrations of CO2.. A sample from the Nowra Sandstone at Kirkham-1 (1963m/Core 20) indicated porosity destruction by dolomite cement (Zabriskie, 1967).
500
600m
Base Narrabeen
800m
1000
1300m
Base Coal Measures
1500
Shoalhaven Group
2000
2500
10%
Figure 69:
10mD
100mD
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Kirkham-1, along with gamma and sonic logs for the well and the formations intersected.

66

Kurrajong Heights-1
% Porosity
0 0
10
20
30
40
0.1
10
100
1000
gamma
Kurrajong Heights-1
Similar to Kirkham-1 located to the south, Kurrajong Heights-1 also has a good down-hole dataset of porosity and permeability analyses (Figure 70). The data indicates that porosity up to 10% is present down to 1450m depth, and although reduced, still present near total depth including a rise to 16% porosity which is observed around 2400m. Permeability decreases to less than 15mD below 650m, and to near-zero below 1450m depth. A correlation with log data indicates that the best permeability (>100mD) is limited to the Triassic Narrabeen Group and younger succession. Limited permeability of 1 to 10mD is observed between 1200 to 1450m depth. These intervals correlate to sandstones near the Base Coal Measures unconformity and within the Shoalhaven Group. Further analyses will clarify the reservoir characteristics of rocks within the Coal Measures (1000 to 1250m), and validate the nature of this limited permeability down to 1450m. A sample at Kurrajong Heights-1 from 1277m (Core 16/Tomago Coal Measures) indicates porosity destruction by detrital and authigenic clay with an abundance of fibrous mica (possible zeolite), while a sample at 2054m (Core 25/Nowra Sandstone) recorded dolomite, siderite, minor authigenic quartz and fibrous micas (Zabriskie, 1967). Middleton and Schmidt-1 (1982) estimate erosion of 0.88km of sediment from Kurrajong Heights-1 as calculated from vitrinite reflectance of near-surface sediments.
500
800m
1000
650m
Base Narrabeen
1450m
1500
1450m
Base Coal Measures
Shoalhaven
2000
Group
2500
10%
Figure 70:
10mD
100mD
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Kurrajong Heights-1, along with gamma logs for the well showing the formations intersected.

67
Woronora-1
% Porosity
0 0
10
20
30
40
0.1
10
100
1000
Woronora-1
Woronora-1 recorded down-hole porosity of >10% in sandstones down to 1300m (Figure 71). Permeability analysis was not undertaken above 915.6m (Core 11) due to insufficient samples or poor core recovery. Analysis of the 14 cores between 915m and 2245.8m measured nearzero (nil) permeability in all samples.
500
800m
900m
gamma
Base Coal Measures
1000
1300m
Permeability calculated from logs identified the only permeable zone in the well as watersaturated sandstones from 1556.9m to 1572.2m (Relph and Wright, 1964). However, a sample from within this interval (Core 18/1560.6m) yielded 6-8% porosity, but nil permeability. Woronora-1 lies in an area with typically high vitrinite maturity in near surface sediments, where an estimated 2.88km of erosion has calculated from the Illawarra bores data (Middleton and Schmidt, 1982). The well also reached total depth in a granite and this may also contribute to elevated heat flow.
1500
poss permeable zone Shoalhaven Group
2000
2500
10%
Figure 71:
10mD
100mD
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Woronora-1, along with gamma logs for the well showing the formations intersected.

68
Longley-1
% Porosity 0 0 10 20 0.1
Permeability, Horizontal mD 1 10 100 gamma
Longley-1
Longley-1 recorded down-hole porosity in sandstones of >10% to near total depth (1031m), although the maximum permeability recorded was a single sample at 11.5mD (Figure 72). Below 650m depth, porosity decreases to <10mD. The well reached TD approximately 100m into the Upper Permian Coal Measures, thus the reservoir analysis were from the Narrabeen and younger succession. The well was drilled on the flanks of the Kulnura Anticline, downdip from the Kulnura-1 well. Diagenetic alteration of mafic, volcanic and felsic constituents are responsible for the lack of reservoir quality at the well (Nicholas Papalia and Associates, 1976).
200
400
600
650m
800
1000 Well TD=1031m
Base Narrabeen (903.7m)
1200
10%
10mD
100mD
Figure 72:
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Longley-1, along with gamma logs for the well.

69
Mulgoa-1
% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30 0.1
Permeability, Horizontal mD 1 10 100
Mulgoa-1, -2
At Mulgoa-1, -2, the data indicates that porosity and some permeability are present in the shallow sediments of the Narrabeen Group sediments (Figure 73). Permeability decreases to near zero values below 800m, except for a sample from the Nowra Sandstone at 1522m. This sample correlates to a 46m thick, whitish-grey conglomeratic quartz sandstone. However, of the five analyses undertaken on this core, four recorded zero permeability and only one sample recorded measurable permeability of 5mD. Nearby wells, Mt Hunter-1, also confirms porosity and permeability in the Narrabeen Group, but reached total depth in the Coal Measures, therefore confirmation of the Nowra Sandstone permeability can not be extrapolated.
200
Narrabeen Group
400
600
800m
800
1000
1200
1400
Nowra Sst
1600 Well TD=1716m 1800
10%
10mD 100mD
Figure 73:
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Mulgoa-1 and -2.

70
Dural South-1
% Porosity 0 1500 10 20 0.1
Permeability, Horizontal mD 1 10 100
Dural South-1
Nine cores were taken at Dural South-1 below 1679.4m in the Maitland Group and Branxton Formation (Figure 74). The data indicates the absence of permeability from 1679.4 to TD, although some porosity is present. The lack of porosity in cores was attributed to an abundance of kaolinitic matrix in terrestrial facies, while marine sandstones were occluded by secondary quartz overgrowths (Shell, 1967). Middleton and Schmidt (1982) estimate erosion of 1.16km at the nearby Dural-1 and -2 wells.
1700
1900
2100
2300
2500
2700
2900
3100
10%
10mD 100mD
Figure 74:
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Dural South-1.

71

Permeability, Horizontal mD 0.01 300 0.1 1 10 100
Bootleg-2A
Bootleg-2A
Post-drill analysis of core samples from Bootleg-2 and -8 (4 and 3 samples, respectively) targeted the Marrangaroo Conglomerate for reservoir assessment (Herbert, 1984a; Figure 75). The same program sampled similar facies in Picton-1, Moonshine-7A and -13, but a depths shallower than 576m. The stratigraphic log of the well is shown in Figure 77 the interval of interest is also noted. The interpreted depositional setting of the Marrangaroo Conglomerate is shown in Figure 76. Three of the four results at Bootleg-2A indicate permeability of between 1.0 to 4.8 mD. The fourth sample yielded a value of 2315mD and was deemed unreliable due to possible core damage (Herbert, 1984a). The Marrangaroo Conglomerate is an alluvial, pebbly sandstone to cobble conglomerate that was sourced from the western margin of the basin (Lachlan Fold Belt; Herbert, 1984a). Deposition was interpreted to be contemporaneous with structural movement along the basin margin, and also contemporaneous with deposition of the Erins Vale Formation and Kulnura Marine Tongue. The unit is more quartzose than typically found in the Late Permian Coal Measures. The Marrangaroo Conglomerate is now recognised to be more widely developed across the Sydney Basin than previously interpreted, with correlative age rocks also extending northwards into the Gunnedah Basin (Yoo, West and Bradley, 1984).
500
700
900
1100
Marrangaroo Conglomerate
1300
10mD
Figure 75:
100mD
Down-hole plot of permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Bootleg-2A.
Figure 76 (above): Depositional model for the Marrangaroo Conglomerate on the western margin of the Sydney Basin (from Herbert, 1984a). Figure 77 (right): Stratigraphic log for the AGL Bootleg-2A well (from Herbert, 1984a).

72

Permeability, Horizontal mD 0.01 300 0.1 1 10 100
Bootleg-8
Bootleg-8
Similar to Bootleg-2A, three samples of the Marrangaroo Conglomerate from Bootleg-8 yielded permeability 3.5 to 4.8mD (Figures 78 and 80). Shallower samples from other wells ranged from 5 to 13mD (Herbert, 1984a). Overall, the reservoir quality of the Marrangaroo Conglomerate improves towards shallower, less mature, peripheral areas of the basin and deteriorates in central, more mature areas (Herbert, 1984). In more basinward locations, higher clay content may decrease permeability and reservoir stimulation techniques may be necessary to achieve satisfactory production (Herbert, 1984a). A petrological study of these samples was undertaken by Martin (1984). An isopach and palaeogeographic map of the Marrangaroo Conglomerate shows its distribution along the margins of the Sydney and Gunnedah basins (Figures 79a and b). An extensive river dominated deltaic complex was interpreted along the western margin with coarse clastics prograding basinward for up to 100km (Herbert, 1984). This unit will be of interest as a potential reservoir for CO2 storage as a hydrodynamic trap, although fine-grained sealing facies may be problematic for traditional structural traps.
500
700
900
A.
B.
1100
1300
10mD
Figure 78:
100mD
Down-hole plot of permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies for Bootleg-8.
Figure 79a (Centre left): Isopach map of the Marrangaroo Conglomerate in the western Sydney and Gunnedah basins (from Herbert, 1984). Figure 79b (Centre (right): Palaeogeographic map showing the Marrangaroo delta (from Herbert, 1984) Figure 80 (Far right): Stratigraphic log for the AGL Bootleg-8 well (from Herbert, 1984).
73

15200E
Southern Plateau
Southern Plateau
Western Onshore Basin Central Onshore Basin
A location map and wells are shown in Figure 81 for the Southern Plateau structural domain. Porosity and permeability data from these wells are shown in the following pages. The following abbreviations are used for wells in the Camden area:
O1 O2
Oakdale-DDH1 Oakdale-DDH2 Oakdale-DDH3 Weromba-DDH1 Weromba-DDH2
W2 3400S
O3 W1
O3
W2
O1
O2
W1
Victoria Park-1 Yerinbool-1
Most of these wells have porosity and permeability data for sediments shallower than 800m. Stockyard Mountain-1 is the only deep well in the area with porosity and permeability data.
Moonshine-7, -10, -11 Avon River-1 Moonshine-13 Lake Nepean-1
Southern Plateau
Stockyard Mountain-1
Figure 81:
Plots of porosity (%) and permeability (mD) for wells in the Southern Plateau structural domain. Key wells are noted in blue. blue

74

% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30 0.1 1 Permeability, Horizontal mD 10 100 1000 10000
Southern Plateau
Southern Plateau
Porosity and permeability plots for wells within the Southern Plateau structural domain of the Sydney Basin are shown in Figure 82. The available reservoir data only extends to around 1100m and the results are largely wells sampled during the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study. Overall, this area has the highest permeability observed in any of the structural domains (many in excess of 1000mD). The high permeability samples (>100mD) are generally shallower than 500m depth, and include the Bald Hill Formation, lower Bulgo Formation, Scarborough Sandstone, Wombarra Formation and the Marrangaroo Conglomerate. Clearly, this area has potential for favourable petroleum reservoirs, particularly in the Narrabeen Group and Sydney Sub-group (Illawarra Coal Measures). The deepest sample with permeability >10mD is from the Marrangaroo Conglomerate (19.7mD in Picton-DDH3). Generally, permeability drops to near zero values below this depth, with all values near-zero below 970m. The Nowra Sandstone recorded log calculated permeability of 1.6mD in Victoria Park-1 (953.5m depth). Stockyard Mountain-1 is the only well with deep reservoir data and this profile is shown on the following page.
200
400
530m
600
800
800m
Nowra Sandstone
980m
1000
970m
Figure 82: Plots of porosity (%) and permeability (mD) for wells in the Southern Plateau structural domain. The permeability scale is logarithmic and the porosity scale is arithmetic.
1200
10%
10mD 100mD
75
Southern Plateau
% Porosity 0 0
Berry Siltstone
Permeability, Horizontal mD 20 0.1 1 10 100
10
Stockyard Mountain-1
The Southern Plateau domain overlies the Capertee-Malacoota and Narooma basement terranes which have an overall thinner sedimentary cover due to lower accommodation and uplift. Wells in this area include the Moonshine wells, Victoria Park-1, Bargo-1, Yerrinbool-1, Stockyard Mountain-1 and the Jervis Bay Scout holes. The Moonshine wells were included in the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study and all the data collected is shallower than 600m depth, while Victoria Park-1 has only log derived reservoir data from two intervals. Stockyard Mountain-1 intersected Gerringong Volcanics and the Shoalhaven Group and recorded limited porosity to total depth, while permeability was near-zero for all but a single sample at 583m in the Nowra Sandstone (9mD average; Figure 83). This sample also recorded the highest measured porosity in the well (16%). Log derived porosity was calculated over the same interval from 569.1 to 624.8, where porosity was estimated at 10 to 14%. The Nowra Sandstone flowed during water during a DST. Similar permeability and porosity results were observed at Mulgoa-2. The remaining rocks have low porosity and near-zero permeability as a result of detrital and authigenic clays, and cementation (Hare and Associates, 1963). Stockyard Mountain-1 lies within an area of the Southern Plateau that has been strongly affected by uplift. Middle and Schmidt (1982) suggest up to 2.88km of uplift as interpreted from the Illawarra bores. This is consistent with the near surface values of near-zero permeability this trend is also observed in the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain where the degree of uplift has been similar but timing and causes are different. This region has hundreds of core bore, although most will be too shallow for relevant reservoir data below 800m. However, the bores in this region should be screened for possible information on the Nowra Sandstone.
200
400
Nowra Sst
600
Wand. Siltst
Nowra Sst
800
Snapper Point and older rocks
1000
1200
10%
10mD
100mD
Figure 83:
Down-hole plots of percent porosity and permeability (horizontal) in millidarcies Stockyard Mountain-1.

76

As no well data exists for the offshore Sydney Basin, the closest onshore wells with good reservoir data are used as a proxy. In the north, East Maitland-1 intersected a truncated section of the Tomago Coal Measures overlying sediments of the Maitland Group, Greta Coal Measures and Dalwood Group. Reservoir quality at East Maitland-1 was very poor due to near-zero permeability in samples from the near surface to total depth. Poor reservoir quality in near surface sediments is due in part to poor provenance (NEFB) and diagenesis, but also the extensive uplift and erosion that has occurred in parts of the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain. Middleton and Schmidt (1982) estimate 3.34km of erosion at the East Maitland-1 well site based on vitrinite values. A similar age sedimentary section and structural style have been interpreted on this offshore seismic line (Figure 84). Sayers et al (2004) identified this northern part of the offshore basin as having adequate Cenozoic cover (Newcastle Syncline) to serve as possible sealing rocks for CO2 storage within the subcropping Permian section if reservoir quality is adequate (Figure 85). Arditto (2003) argues that the central offshore region of Sydney Basin (southern part of PEP-11) is well positioned to contain clean, quartz-rich, fluvial to nearshore marine reservoir facies within the Late Permian Coal Measures. If adequate reservoirs exist, these facies are also well positioned to receive hydrocarbons from the adjacent coal and carbonaceous mudstone source rocks (Arditto, 2003). Should these reservoirs be present in this part of the basin, a intraformational seal would be required within the Permian section to seal the CO2 in a supercritical state (>800m depth).
East Maitland-1
700+m of Cenozoic cover
HVD
91-014
area of potential petroleum reservoir facies
Cenozoic wedge ?Top Coal Measures

Two-way time (sec)
Top Maitland Group Top Dalwood Group

Basement-2
Figure 84 (above): Isopach map of the Cenozoic cover in the Sydney Basin (from Sayers et al., 2004) Figure 85 (right): Interpreted seismic line 91-014 across the northern offshore Sydney Basin. The line location is shown on the adjacent map, along with the East Maitland-1 well and the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain (red shading). red
Basement
West
10 km
East

77

Stratigraphic Unit Hawkesbury Sandstone Number of Analyses 16 Results Range in mD 0 487
Permeability By Stratigraphic Unit

Data on the number of core samples analysed, the permeability range and the stratigraphic interval assessed has been compiled from the data sources. The compilation has used stratigraphic nomenclature as stated in the original reports and no attempt has been made to update this information to more recent schemes published by Maung et al (1997) and Alder et al (1998; Figure 86). Approximately 76% of the data points have been tagged to a stratigraphic unit. The compilation undoubtedly has some errors given that many of the wells were drilled while the stratigraphic nomenclature evolved. However, the data gives an good overview of reservoir quality and data gaps can be identified. Table 2 presents data for the West-Central-Southern Sydney Basin, and Table 3 (following page) presents data for the Northern Sydney Basin.
Narrabeen Group (undifferentiated) Bald Hill Formation Upper Bulgo Sandstone Lower Bulgo Sandstone Scarborough Sandstone Wombarra Formation Colovale Sandstone Coal Cliff Sandstone
110 90 117 132 129 60 95 23
0 1330 (approx half the samples are <0.1) 0.2 2563 0.1 528 0.2 1957 0.2 936 0.01 58.3 0.1 163.3 (mostly <1.0) 0.1 1.9
Illawarra Coal Measures (undifferentiated) Wilton Formation Lithgow Coal Marrangaroo Conglomerate Erins Vale Formation Pheasants Nest Formation
7 2 6 22 5 1
0 0.5 8 01 1.2 - 19.7 0 0
Shoalhaven Group (undifferentiated) Berry Siltstone Nowra Sandstone Wandrawandian Siltstone Snapper Point Formation Pebbly Beach Formation Wasp Head Formation
7 6 17 9 3 9 3
0 01 05 (mostly 0) 0 0 0 0 0.4
Table 2 (above): Compilation of the number of reservoir analyses and the approximate range of permeability in millidarcies (mD) for the West-Central-Southern Sydney Basin. Figure 86 (right): Stratigraphic column for the Sydney Basin (from Maung et al., 1997; Alder et al., 1998).

78

Stratigraphic Unit Newcastle Coal Measures Tomago Coal Measures Muswellbrook Coal Measures Singleton Coal Measures Upper Coal Measures (undifferentiated) Number of Analyses 4 2 3 1 4 Results Range in mD 0.1 not determined 0 0.6 0 0.5 - 7

The highest permeability values are clearly within the Narrabeen Group and Hawkesbury Sandstone with the Bald Hill Formation having the highest and most consistent permeability recorded. The Bald Hill Operational Unit was the stratigraphic interval identified by the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study as the best reservoir in the Sydney Basin. The Upper Permian Coal Measures (Illawarra, Newcastle and Tomago) are vastly under-sampled by comparison. However, existing samples from the Coal Measures suggest much lower permeability with the exception of the Wilton Formation and Marrangaroo Conglomerate. In the northern basin, a systematic sampling of the sandstones interbedded within the coaly succession are particularly under-sampled.
Maitland Group (undifferentiated) Mulbring Siltstone Muree Sandstone Branxton Formation Greta Coal Measures (undifferentiated)
18 1 10 87 33
0 0 0 0 5.3 (Mostly 0) 0 13
Dalwood Group (undifferentiated) Farley Formation Rutherford Formation Allandale Formation Total number of samples keyed to stratigraphic unit
19 20 3 30 1104
0 2.8 (pervasive fractures in core) 0 0 0
Table 3:
Compilation of the number of reservoir analyses and the approximate range of permeability in millidarcies (mD) for the Northern Sydney Basin.
Permeability appears to decrease significantly in the Late Permian Erins Vale Formation and within the underlying strata. Some indication of permeability is suggested by the Nowra Sandstone analyses, although the results are highly variable between wells. It should also be noted that it is doubtful if the Nowra Sandstone is identified consistently between wells outside of the Camden area. Analyses of the equivalent-age Muree Sandstone are not as encouraging. The Branxton Formation has been heavily sampled and only four samples (of 87 total) have permeability above 0.1mD. Overall, permeability is lacking in the Maitland and Dalwood groups, based on the existing dataset. Analysis of further samples in the Wilton Formation, Marrangaroo Conglomerate, Nowra Sandstone and various interbedded sandstones within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures is recommended. Additional reservoir data from coal bores should also be incorporated into this dataset.
Figure 87 :
Stratigraphic column for the Sydney Basin (from Maung et al., 1997; Alder et al., 1998).

79

Reservoir Quality Summary-1
Depth profiles show the expected trend of decreasing porosity and permeability with increasing depth. This would suggest that highly fractured reservoirs at depth are of limited extent in the Sydney Basin. Some of the gas shows recorded in the basin are consistent with trapping in locally developed fractures systems. Porosity above 10% is observed in sediments down to 1500m, although this trend varies slightly between the structural domains. Below 1500m, porosity ranges from 1 to 10%. Some deep porosity (16%) is observed at 2400m in Kurrajong Heights-1, but other wells suggest this is anomalous. The presence of detrital and authigenic clays in deeper sediments means that at least some of the measured porosity is intracrystalline and thus largely ineffective. Permeability is the critical issue for all wells in the dataset. An analysis of all available permeability data as a whole dataset, split into regions and on a well-by-well basis shows a consistent permeability cut-off (<10mD) at relatively shallow depths mainly between 600 to 850m. Below 850m depth, permeability decreases to between 1 and 8mD in a dozen samples (in 5 wells of which two have fractures present), while in other samples permeability approaches near-zero values immediately below 850m. Permeability is consistently highest in the Narrabeen Group, and the Southern Plateau recorded some of the highest permeability in the basin (all above 530m depth). The stratigraphic intervals which may have some scope for permeability below 850m are the lower Narrabeen Group, Wilton Formation (Marrangaroo Conglomerate), sandstones within the Upper Permian Coal Measures and the Nowra Sandstone. Further analyses are required to establish consistent patterns of permeability within those units. All permeability is absent below 1550m and this appears to be the absolute permeability cut-off across the basin. The absence of permeability in near-surface sediments in the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain is due to uplift of formerly deeply buried rocks along the Hunter-Mooki Thrust, and this trend should not be extrapolated across the Central Onshore Basin which has been more moderately affected by Late Triassic contraction and younger events. It is also likely that sediments along the evolving thrust front were sourced by poorer provenance material from the New England Fold Belt. The absence of permeability in near-surface sediments is also observed in parts of the Southern Plateau structural domain for similar reasons (estimated uplift of up to 2880m; Middleton and Schmidt, 1982). Bai et al (2001) suggest erosion in the Camden region at around 1500 to 2100m, following uplift associated with Tasman Sea rifting at approximately 100Ma. Elsewhere in the Sydney Basin, uplift (or moderate inversion of the basin succession) has been concentrated around the western margin of the basin, where basin sediments are juxtaposed against more rigid basement-type crust. Deposition of the quartzose Marrangaroo Conglomerate may have been related to such an event. The Western Onshore Basin structural domain has only one well with reservoir data (Martindale-1/1A) and this area should be investigated further given the proximity of a potentially favourable sediment provenance (eastern Lachlan Fold Belt).
Reservoir Quality - Summary
Figure 88:
Map showing the location of wells with porosity and/or permeability data in the Sydney Basin along with structural domains and surface structural elements.
80

Reservoir Quality Summary-2
Galloway and Hamilton (1988) have established the paragenetic sequence of the Upper Permian and Triassic successions with thorough analysis and extensive petrography (Figure 89). The sequence includes early phases of cementation and replacement, followed by deeper burial processes such as clay formation, grain dissolution, suturing, microstylolite formation and quartz overgrowths. The final phases are carbonate replacement, cementation, dissolution and Dawsonite formation. Fluid inclusion, petrographic and isotopic studies have been used to determine the effects of excessive CO2 and fluids associated with magmatic intrusive and extrusive events in the southern and central onshore Sydney Basin (Bai, et al., 2001). These effects include illite formation to greater depths and higher temperatures to the east over the period 146 to 90.5Ma; evidence of higher paleoheatflow (80 to 100C) due to post-Tasman uplift and a regional peak in heatflow in mid-Cretaceous time; and the late precipitation of Dawsonite associated with high concentration of magmatic CO2 during Tertiary times. It should also be noted that the samples studied came from two rock units Narrabeen Group (9 samples) and Wilton Formation (7 samples). Similar approaches to Galloway and Hamilton (1988) and Bai et al (2001) should target key wells and intervals within the underlying Upper Permian Coal Measures and the Nowra Sandstone to determine: a) sediment composition, grain size and provenance; b) a paragenetic sequence; and, 3) the effects of uplift, elevated heatflow, magmatic fluids and late stage precipitation of clay minerals. The risk factors relating to reservoir quality in the Sydney Basin, include: Sediment provenance lack of quartz-rich detrital sources high component of detrital clay abundance of unstable minerals (felsic and mafic volcanics) and their subsequent alteration (authigenic clays) depositional environments Structural uplift consequences for depth of burial and compaction of sediments; particularly south of the Hunter-Mooki Fault and in the eastern and southern onshore basin. Also critical for the offshore basin but no samples are currently available. Magmatic activity including the Late Permian Gerringong Volcanics, volcanics associated with Tasman rifting and Tertiary volcanism (Liverpool Range); increased heat flow, high CO2 levels and increased fluid flow has resulted in a complex diagenesis history that includes extensive mineral alteration, cementation and late precipitation of clay minerals (Dawsonite). Fault reactivation associated with Late Triassic and mid-Cretaceous uplift may have increased fluid flow in affected areas; also a factor for trap integrity.
Reservoir Quality - Summary
Siderite Cementation & Replacement Ankerite Cementation & Replacement Siderite/ Ankerite Dissolution Authigenic Clay Formation
? ? ?
Framework Grain Dissolution Grain Suturing & Microstylolites Quartz Overgrowth Cementation Calcite/ Ankerite Replacement & Cement Calcite/ Ankerite Dissolution Dawsonite Formation
? ? ? Early Late ? ?
Burial History
Figure 89: Paragenetic sequence for Narrabeen and upper coal measure sandstones as defined by Galloway and Hamilton (1998, Figure 56).
Despite the lack of wells in the offshore Sydney Basin, some extrapolation of onshore geology and observed reservoir trends suggest that overall reservoir quality in the northern and southern regions would be poor due to provenance (New England Fold Belt), the influence of the Gerringong Volcanics and multiple episodes of uplift. In addition, the offshore region is closest to the effect of Tasman rifting and the influence of associated Jurassic-Cretaceous volcanism could have been potentially catastrophic for reservoir quality. The offshore basin may benefit from a detailed study of gravity and magnetic data to determine the possible extent of Tasman volcanic influence.
81
SEDIMENT DISTRIBUTION MAPS & AREAS OF INTEREST

82

Sediment Distribution Maps
Present-day sediment distribution in the Sydney Basin is the result of basement-controlled subsidence (rift and foreland basin settings), first-order depositional controls such basement topography and hinges, sediment preservation after subsequent episodes of deformation, and on-going erosion. A series of depth and thickness maps have been constructed by combining various datasets such as the depth-to-basement grid derived from potential field interpretation (SEEBASE), well intersections (coal and petroleum wells), and depth-converted maps derived from seismic interpretations. As noted earlier, modern seismic data in the onshore Sydney Basin is sparse, thus there is a heavier reliance on potential field and well data in some areas. Offshore, some regional seismic dataset are available, however there are no wells and a poorer quality potential field dataset. These maps are intended to be used in conjunction with the reservoir dataset to identify areas of interest with reservoir potential, sufficient thickness and adequate depth of burial. .
Gunnedah Basin
NEFB
depositional hinge
Comp Eastern LFB

t Ex
Tasman Sea
Figure 90:
SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region (FrOG Tech, 2005). The most grey) easterly extent of Lachlan Fold Belt crust (dashed red line) and major faults (grey are also shown.
Figure 91:
Sediment outcrop map of the Sydney Basin.

83

Depth to Top Triassic Input Data
The depth to the Top Triassic surface (Figure 92) is constrained by two data sets. In the onshore region where the Triassic succession outcrops, the surface is calculated from 1:250k geological map surface outcrop and the digital elevation model. In the central part of the offshore basin, the distribution of Triassic sediments and the two-way travel times to the Top Triassic surface and the ocean floor have been determined from the seismic interpretation and mapping of Arditto (2003). Two-way travel times derived from the seismic data have been converted to depth contours, using velocities from Sayers et al (2004) given as follows: water = 1.49 km/sec and Cenozoic sediments = 2.3 km/sec. No data is available for the offshore region south of the Arditto (2003) study area. The extent of the Triassic units in this area is unknown and values in this region are assigned by extrapolation. The Top Triassic surface is used in the calculation of a Triassic Isopach map.
Figure 92:
Distribution of input datasets used to calculate the Top Triassic depth grid. Dark grey polygons are onshore Triassic outcrop from 1:250k geology maps. The blue lines in the offshore region are depth contours estimated from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003). The dashed red line is a fundamental basement boundary.

84

Depth to Top Triassic
t ic An gy ud r ic e l in
Hu
A depth to Top Triassic map (Figure 93) was created in ArcGIS by interpolation of the input datasets described on the previous page. Triassic sediments outcrop across much of the onshore basin and here the Top Triassic surface is represented by present-day topography.
nt er Va
Co
lle y
Do me s
Uplift has been focused along the margins of the basin during Late Triassic and younger contractional events. Here, significant erosion of the Triassic section has occurred, and edge of the Triassic section is an erosional boundary (not depositional) in most areas. The depth to the Top Triassic surface shallows along the western margin of the basin to the east and northeast of Lithgow. This region is probably basementcontrolled as shown by the interpreted eastern limit of thick Lachlan Fold Belt crust (dashed grey line). Some influence of uplift along the Lapstone Monocline a much younger feature is also evident. Erosion of the Triassic section along the crest of the Coricudgy Anticline is also evident.
Lapstone Monocline
Offshore Uplift
The area most affected by uplift lies south of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust. Here, basement-controlled uplift is associated with the reactivation of deeper faults. In the Southern Sydney Basin, the area of Triassic erosion is underlain by different terranes which have been reactivated during Tasman extension. Elsewhere in the central onshore basin, variations are due to on-going erosion by modern fluvial systems. Offshore, the surface dips seaward, beneath the Cenozoic wedge, although the offshore Triassic sediment distribution is not well constrained. The seismic interpretation by Arditto (2003) indicates the eastward extent of these sediments is limited to nearshore zones in the central offshore region and also confined to the western side of the Offshore Uplift. Offshore, most of the Triassic section is buried by a westward-thickening, progradational wedge of Cenozoic sediments up to 700m thick.
shallow basement
Figure 93:
Depth grid of the Top Triassic surface, relative to mean sea level. The grid cell size is 500m. The thin grey lines are major faults extracted from the OZ SEEBASETM structural interpretation (FrOG Tech, 2005), while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary.

85

Depth to Top Permian Input Data
The depth to the Top Permian surface (Figure 94) is constrained by the four main datasets; a) where Permian strata outcrop onshore, the Top Permian surface is calculated from the 1:250k geological maps and the digital elevation model. b) subsurface information for the Top Triassic was extracted from petroleum exploration wells compiled during this study, and from stratigraphic picks in coal bores as supplied by NSW DPI (combined dataset of 1650 wells); c) in the central part of the offshore basin, the two-way travel time to the Top Permian surface and the ocean floor has been determined from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003). d) in the northern part of the offshore basin, Sayers et al (2004) publish depth contours to the base of the Cenozoic wedge. This surface is assumed to also represent the Top Permian surface, as seismic interpretations indicate that Triassic sediment thicknesses in this region are negligible (Arditto, 2003; Maung et al., 1997). The two-way travel times for the base of the Cenozoic wedge have been converted to depth contours, using the velocities from Sayers et al (2004; water = 1.49 km/s; Cenozoic sediments = 2.3 km/s. A velocity of 3.67 km/s is used for the pre-Cenozoic sediments. This is determined from the time-depth curve of the Balmain-1 well which is the closest onshore well to the Arditto (2003) study. No data is available for the southern and eastern offshore regions, and the extent of the Permian units in these areas is unknown and values are assigned by extrapolation.
Figure 94:
Distribution of input datasets used to calculate the Top Permian depth grid. Dark grey polygons show where onshore Permian sediment outcrop as derived from 1:250k geology maps. The red dots indicate wells with Top Permian stratigraphic depth picks. The blue lines are offshore depth contours that are derived from the seismic interpretation of Arditto (2003). The red lines are offshore depth contours as estimated from the seismic interpretation of Sayers et al (2004).

86

Depth to Top Permian
Hu
shallow
nt er
Va
lle y
Do me s
The Top Permian depth surface (Figure 95) has been created in ArcGIS by interpolation of the previously described input datasets. Onshore, the depth to the Top Permian is deepest in the central part of the basin similar to the pattern observed in the Top Triassic map. Triassic and younger contractional events have resulted in uplift being focused along the margins of the basin, such as in the Hunter Valley Domes structural domain. The Top Permian also shallows along the western part of the basin. This is in part due to an overall thinner succession of Permian sediments as controlled by underlying thick Lachlan Fold Belt crust (dashed grey line). Some influence of uplift along the Lapstone Monocline a much younger feature is also evident. Shallowing of the Top Permian surface that is evident south of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust is also basement controlled due to uplift associated with the reactivation of deeper faults. In the Southern Sydney Basin where the Triassic section has been eroded, the depth to the Top Permian is influenced by on-going erosion by modern fluvial systems. In the central and northern parts of the offshore basin where the geometry of the Top Permian surface is constrained from some seismic interpretations (Arditto, 2003; Sayers et al., 2004), the surface shallows over the Offshore Uplift. In the southern offshore basin and beyond the edge of the continental shelf, no data is available and depths are assumed to follow the sea floor (due to very thin sediment on the lower continental slope) until the basin limits are reached (oceanic seafloor).
Offshore Uplift Lapstone Monocline
Figure 95:
Depth grid of the Top Permian surface, relative to mean sea level. The grid cell size is 500m. The thin grey lines are major faults extracted from the OZ SEEBASETM structural interpretation (FrOG Tech, 2005), while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary.

87

Triassic Sediment Thickness
Co
gy ud r ic
t ic An
e l in
Hu nt er
The Triassic isopach map in metres (Figure 96) has been calculated by subtracting the Top Permian surface from the Top Triassic surface. The present-day thickness of the Triassic section largely reflects its preservation in areas less affected by Late Triassic and younger deformation events and ongoing fluvial erosion. The three main areas affected lie outboard of the HunterMooki Thrust (Hunter Valley Domes), the Coricudgy Anticline, the western margin of the basin, the southern Sydney Basin and the offshore basin. It is also likely that Triassic sediment were initially thinner in the western and southern parts of the basin due to depositional hinges and reduced basement-controlled subsidence.
Va
lle y
Do me s
Offshore Uplift
shallow basement
Figure 96:
Triassic isopach map in metres. The grid cell size is 500m. The thin grey lines are major faults extracted from the OZ SEEBASE structural interpretation (FrOG Tech, 2005), while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary.

88

Permian Sediment Thickness
The Permian isopach map in metres (Figure 97) has been calculated by subtracting the SEEBASETM surface from the Top Permian surface. This assumes that the oldest sediments overlying basement are Permian and younger. Permian sediment thickness patterns are similar to those shown by the total sediment thickness map (see Figure 98), and reflect both depositional controls and the effects of subsequent post-Permian uplift and erosion across the basin.
Hu
nt er
Va
lle y
Do me s
Major depocentres in the Sydney Basin have a strong north to northeasterly trend, in part controlled by a basement depositional hinge that coincides with the most easterly extent of thick Lachlan Fold Belt crust (Figure 97). The strong segmentation of these depocentres may be partly due to uplift associated with the Lapstone Monocline and the Hunter Valley Domes region. Sediments also thin along the western basin margin due to post depositional uplift and on-going erosion. The shallower basement terranes of the underlying Narooma Terrane (transitional-accretionary crust and subduction complex) and Capertee-Malacoota (continental crust) are expressed in the thinner sediments in the southernmost onshore basin. Offshore, sediment thickness is less constrained and the thickest sediments are located in the northeast. The dashed-blue line indicates the possible onshore extent of uplift associated with mid-Cretaceous deformation in the offshore basin.
Figure 97:
Permian isopach map in metres. The grid cell size is 500m. The thin grey lines are major faults extracted from the OZ SEEBASE structural interpretation (FrOG Tech, 2005), while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary. The dashed-blue line indicates dashedthe possible onshore extent of uplift associated with mid-Cretaceous deformation.

89

Total Sediment Thickness
The Total Sediment Thickness isopach map (Figure 98) has been calculated from the difference between the pre-Permian SEEBASETM surface and the digital elevation and bathymetry mosaic. Sediments are up to 5500m thick in the central basin.
thinner sediments
Hu
nt er
Va
lle y
Do me s
Overall, Total Sediment Thickness distribution reflects basement-controlled subsidence (rift and foreland settings), first-order depositional controls such basement topography and hinges, sediment preservation after subsequent episodes of deformation, and on-going erosion.
thinner sediments
Sediments are thickest in the central Sydney Basin, although this region is largely constrained by the interpretation of potential field datasets and deeper wells such as East Maitland-1, Jerry Plains-1, Kurrajong Heights-1, Kirkham-1 and Dural South-1. Depocentres in the central basin have a north-northeasterly trend and are located eastward of the fundamental boundary defined by edge of thick Lachlan Fold Belt crust. Total sediments are thinnest along the western margin of the basin due to both depositional controls (shallower basement) and reactivation. Sediment also thin south of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust due to reactivation and associated uplift. The influence of the Lapstone Monocline is also evident. Although sediment thickness in the offshore region is less constrained, the thickest sediments are located seaward of the Offshore Uplift. Sediments thin towards the coast and over the Offshore Uplift. The 800m thickness contour coincides with the colour transition from orange-toyellow as shown on the legend. This can be used a guide to define areas of minimal sediment cover as required for supercritical CO2 storage. Clearly, onshore areas west of the basement hinge, the Hunter Valley Domes domain, and the southernmost onshore Sydney Basin are unsuitable for storage due to inadequate sediment thickness alone. Offshore areas where sediment thin are also identified, although these areas are less constrained due to the nature of datasets used in the preparation of the isopach maps.
thinner sediments thinner sediments
Figure 98:
800m
Total Sediment Thickness isopach map in metres represents the interval from the ground surface to the pre-Permian basement. The grid cell size is 500m. The thin grey lines are major faults extracted from the OZ SEEBASE structural interpretation (FrOG Tech, 2005), while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary. The dashed-blue dashedline indicates the possible onshore extent of uplift associated with mid-Cretaceous deformation.

90
AOI Triassic Sediment Thickness

AOI - Triassic Sediment Thickness Map
The isopach map (Figures 97 and 99) shows that Triassic sediments are thickest in the central part of the onshore basin (1000+m; blue-dotted line in Figure 99). The available porosity and permeability dataset and previous studies (Galloway and Hamilton, 1988; Hamilton and Galloway, 1989) have also shown that the best reservoirs occur with the Triassic Bald Hill Formation, lower Bulgo Sandstone and the Scarborough Sandstone). The Triassic isopach map shows where at least some of these units may be thick and deep enough to be considered for potential CO2 storage assessment (Figure 99). Figure 100 shows a general land-use map for the AOI with thick Triassic sediments shown by the blue-dotted line. This map shows that the AOI underlie urban areas, forestry reserves or general waterways, and thus large parts of the AOI may not be suitable for storage consideration on current land-use criteria.
Legend
ProhibitedAreas
Reserves
FEATURETYPE
Forestry Reserve Nature Conservation Reserve W Supply Reserve ater Builtup_Areas Reservoirs Lakes
Roads
CLASS
Dual Carriageway Minor Road Principal Road Secondary Road Track
Figure 99:
Triassic isopach map in metres. The grid cell size is 500m. The near-surface anticlines and other features are shown, while the bold grey line is a fundamental basement boundary. The red dots are wells with existing reservoir data.
Figure 100:
General land-use map for the central onshore Sydney Basin. The Triassic AOI as identified in Figure 99 is also shown on this map by the blue dotted line. The basin outline is shown by the pink line.

91
AOI Permian Sediment Thickness

AOI - Permian Sediment Thickness Map
Gunnedah Basin
The Permian sediment thickness map is shown with wells that have conventional reservoir data in the Sydney Basin. The reservoir screening has shown that Permian sediments in the Hunter Valley Domes, parts of the Central Onshore Basin and Southern Plateau structural domains have poor reservoir quality at depths appropriate for subsurface CO2 storage. These areas are indicated on the map as Not Suitable (Figure 101). However, in the Central Onshore Basin, the Nowra Sandstone and the Marrangaroo Conglomerate (Wilton Formation) could be assessed further for reservoir potential given these intervals have shown hints of permeability and this aspect should be followed-up to conclusion. A large AOI in the western basin has been identified as suitable for further study based on the following criteria: sufficient sediment thickness (Permian=800 to 4000m thick), potentially better sediment provenance (LFB), virtually no existing conventional reservoir data (Martindale-1/1A), distal from the effects of Tasman rifting and minimal uplift documented. (excluding the Coricudgy Anticline). The northern part of this area may have been effected by intrusion of the Tertiary Liverpool Range Volcanics. A smaller tract has been identified near the Newcastle Coalfield as suitable for further study. While provenance was probably poor (NEFB), this areas is potentially data-rich (thousands of existing coal bores) and would benefit from an assessment of conventional reservoir quality focusing on the shallow Upper Permian sandstones interbedded within the coal measures. Currently, only one well (Jilliby Creek-1) has conventional data available, although there are also CBM wells in this area. A similar small tract has been identified near the Illawarra Coalfield for the same general reasons, except that volcanic activity in this region is more prevalent and may play a factor in reducing reservoir quality.
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
prob not suitable
sediments too thin
800m
The intervening area in the central onshore Sydney Basin has been assessed as Probably Unsuitable, although the evidence for poor reservoir in this area is more limited. Provenance is probably mixed and the limited dataset indicates low permeability in the section shallower than 800m. The offshore Sydney Basin is also deemed as Probably Unsuitable for the geological reasons stated in the previous Reservoir Characteristics section of this report. Other areas such as the Offshore Uplift are unlikely to have sediment of adequate thickness or quality.
Figure 101: Permian isopach map overlain with areas of further interest indicated by the pink-polygons, while those pinkdeemed as unsuitable are shown by the blue-polygons. Areas of uncertainty, but probably low potential blueare shown by the grey-polygons. grey-

92

Gunnedah Basin New England Fold Belt
AOI Depth to Top Permian

AOI Depth to Top Permian Map
The same AOI identified in Figure 102 are shown overlain on a depth to Top Permian map (see Figure 95). This map shows that the areas identified for further interest (pink polygons) cover some of the shallowest occurrence of the Permian rocks in the basin. These are also areas where Triassic sediments are thinner due to erosion. Figure 103 is a map of general-land use classifications overlain by the AOI. Similar to the Triassic AOI, land-use is a critical issue for much of the Permian AOI.
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
not suitable limited data sediments too thin not suitable
prob not suitable
Legend
ProhibitedAreas
sediments too thin
Reserves
prob not suitable
FEATURETYPE
Forestry Reserve Nature Conservation Reserve Water Supply Reserve Builtup_Areas Reservoirs
sediments too thin

Figure 102: Depth to Top Permian map overlain with areas of further interest indicated by the pinkpinkpolygons, while those deemed as unsuitable are shown by the blue-polygons. Areas of blueuncertainty, but probably low potential are shown by the grey-polygons. grey-
Lakes
Roads
CLASS
Dual Carriageway Minor Road Principal Road Secondary Road Track
Figure 103: General land-use map for the central onshore Sydney Basin. The Permian AOI as identified in Figure 95 are also shown on this map. The basin outline is shown by the pink line.

93
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

94

Executive Summary Overview Onshore Basin
Existing datasets of porosity and permeability analyses from onshore wells indicate that parts of the Sydney Basin have poor reservoir characteristics (<10mD permeability) at depths greater than 800m (optimal CO2 storage depths), and are therefore unsuitable for commercial geological storage of supercritical CO2. In addition to poor reservoir, these areas were affected by fault reactivation and volcanic activity making trap integrity another issue for consideration. These areas include the Camden-Kurrajong region and further north and east; and immediately outboard (south) of the Hunter-Mooki Thrust. However, these results should not be extrapolated as indicative of all rocks in the entire Sydney Basin, particularly as the datasets to equally evaluate other parts of the basin are not presently available in particular the western Sydney Basin and potential areas of interest in the Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields. A total sediment thickness map with an 800m minimum thickness cut-off was also used to constrain areas of further interest. The western Sydney Basin has been identified as a region where reservoir potential may be higher than currently observed elsewhere in the basin. The basis for this concept is that sediments sourced from the western margin of the basin (Lachlan Fold Belt provenance) may have been more favourable than from the eastern margin (New England Fold Belt provenance). However, the contribution of volcanic-derived material from Devonian rocks on the western margin cannot be discounted. Much of the western Sydney Basin is national park and land-use may be restricted. The lack of deep data from wells in the western and northern regions precludes a thorough rock-based assessment of these areas. It is recommended that further petrological work be undertaken to evaluate sandstone facies in existing coal bores from the Western and southern Gunnedah Coalfields. In addition, fluid inclusion and isotopes studies will help to constrain a paragenetic sequence and heat flow history which have proved valuable in the southern Sydney Basin (Bai et al., 2001). The Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields have thousands of coal bores and these are data-rich areas that merit further investigation of reservoir quality in sandstones that underlie and are interbedded within the Upper Permian Coal Measures. Reservoir data from coal bores across the basin should also be incorporated into the porosity and permeability dataset. Provenance studies are also essential to distinguish the relative contribution of sediment sources along the western and northern basin margins through time. It is critical to determine the relative contributions of pre-Devonian sediments/ metasediments, volcanic-derived Devonian rocks, and Silurian and Carboniferous granites to the sediment pile, and whether eroded sediments from the uplifted Darling Basin to the west have been transported into the Sydney Basin. Analysis of further samples in the Wilton Formation, Marrangaroo Conglomerate, Nowra Sandstone and various interbedded sandstones within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures is recommended.
Gunnedah Basin
Executive Summary
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
prob not suitable
sediments too thin
Tasman Sea
The SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASETM Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). Areas of interest for further study include the western and southern-most Sydney Basin (limited data). Areas deemed as not-suitable are based on reservoir core analyses, trap integrity and/or volcanic influence.

95

Executive Summary Overview Offshore Basin
No wells have been drilled in the offshore Sydney Basin therefore a prediction of reservoir quality is extrapolated from the onshore geology clearly rock samples are required for an absolute validation. In the onshore central Sydney Basin, the existing dataset shows that permeability decreases to less than 10mD below 800m depth, and further decreases to nearzero values below 1100m (except for Kurrajong Heights-1 where <8mD permeability is present some coal measure sands down to 1450m) Porosity of between 1 to 10% is observed down to 2600m depth. This permeability trend would suggest that the offshore extension of the basin in this region will have similar properties, and is therefore ranked as Probably Unsuitable. In addition, the offshore basin was closer to the Tasman rift and hence a stronger influence from rift-related volcanism could be observed. This effect could further degrade reservoir quality as observed by Bai et al (2001) in onshore wells in the Camden region. In contrast, Arditto (2003) has argued that the central offshore area was well positioned to receive clean, quartz-rich Late Permian sands of the coal measures, but that preservation of reservoir quality relies on early migration of hydrocarbons. This region may be more prospective for hydrocarbon exploration rather than geological storage of CO2, but these concepts could be strengthened through further basin modelling to constrain timing of migration from potential source rocks. The northern offshore basin may also have poor reservoir quality due to proximity to the New England Fold Belt (mafic and felsic rocks), rift and younger volcanic episodes, and uplift and erosion of the overlying Triassic and younger succession. The storage potential of the offshore basin was assessed by Sayers et al (2004) who modelled the Base Cainozoic wedge as a proxy for the Top Permian/Top Triassic surface (i.e., the top of structure for trap-style geosequestration and conventional petroleum plays). This approach has identified only two areas where Triassic and older rocks lie below 800m depth, although 15 potential geological CO2 storage sites were identified (Sayers et al, 2004). Key risk factors include injectivity due to poor reservoir quality, storage capacity on the order of several TCF, and that a pre-Cenozoic seal is required to seal CO2 in a supercritical state. Assessment of storage potential is further complicated by the limited extent of modern seismic data. The basin has clear cross-cutting tectonic elements that suggest a complex interaction of basement-controlled faults and fractures that have been subsequently overprinted by Tasman rifting and volcanism. It is possible that parts of the offshore basin were uplifted as a volcanic ridge that was emplaced along old basement fractures. More detailed analysis of potential field datasets may yield insights into the structural evolution of the offshore basin. The conclusions of previous sequestration potential studies of the Sydney Basin are supported based on the datasets available to these studies. However, there is scope to pursue further sequestration potential studies in the western basin.
Executive Summary
Gunnedah Basin
Lachlan Fold Belt
not suitable
prob not suitable
sediments too thin
Tasman Sea
The SEEBASE image of the Sydney Basin and surrounding region as produced by the OZ SEEBASETM Project (FrOG Tech, 2005). Areas of interest for further study include the western and southern-most Sydney Basin (limited data). Areas deemed as not-suitable are based on reservoir core analyses, trap integrity and/or volcanic influence.
96

Executive Summary Reservoir Characterisation
The study examined the characteristics of conventional sandstone reservoirs in the Sydney Basin. Cut-offs of 100mD permeability and 10% porosity were used to identify strata with the best reservoir properties. However, intervals of lower permeability (down to 10mD) have not been excluded from the screening based on the demonstrated successful injection of CO2 into low permeability reservoirs at In Salah (Algeria). The 100mD cut-off used in this study indicates the desirable range for commercial subsurface CO2 storage, while the range for pilot/non-commercial storage is between 15 to 50mD; virgin reservoirs with <15mD are deemed as non-viable for commercial storage (J. Bradshaw, Geoscience Australia, pers. comm.). These cut-offs do not apply to commercial production of hydrocarbons from reservoirs. Overall, the Sydney Basin is characterised by variable porosity (poor-to-very good) and low-to-very low permeability reservoirs. Of particular significance is the relatively shallow permeability cut-off (<10mD) that is observed in most wells in the existing database of core analyses. This cut-off ranges from 700 to 900m depth depending on the region. Below 900m, permeability >1mD is found in sands within the Upper Permian Coal Measures (Kurrajong Heights-1), the Nowra Sandstone (Mulgoa-1/2), or is related to fractures in cores samples (Camberwell-2), There are also many samples across the depth range of 50 to 3100m that have some porosity but near-zero permeability, thus depth is not the only controlling factor in permeability preservation. The Sydney Basin was sub-divided into five structural domains to determine regional variations in porosity and permeability trends. Three of these regions show similar patterns with regard to low permeability, although the present dataset is very limited west of the Lapstone Monocline. There is no data for the offshore basin. There are a few samples where non-fracture related, minor permeability is preserved at depth (such as Bootleg-8/Marrangaroo Conglomerate and Mulgoa-1/2>Nowra Sandstone) but insufficient petrographic data is currently available to pursue the reason for this effect. It would be useful to re-describe and re-sample these intervals to ascertain the basis of the permeability result. If it can be documented that fractures are not present, further petrographic work should reveal whether the increased permeability is a regional or local phenomenon. Either way, they are still likely to be <10mD permeability reservoirs. The conclusions of Galloway and Hamilton (1998) clearly show that the most effective petroleum reservoir in the basin exists within the Bald Hill Operational Unit. However, this unit is Early to Middle Triassic in age (Narrabeen Group) and probably lies too shallow for potential CO2 storage is many parts of the Sydney Basin. Depth of the unit is not an issue for petroleum entrapment, however the basin is strongly affected by late-stage faulting in some areas of predicted good reservoir potential. Analysis of further samples in the Wilton Formation (Marrangaroo Conglomerate), Nowra Sandstone and various interbedded sandstones within the Newcastle and Tomago Coal Measures (lowstand and transgressive sands) is recommended.
Executive Summary
% Porosity 0 0 10 20 30 40 0.1 1 Permeability, Horizontal mD 10 100 1000 10000 0
Note that many samples from 50 to 3100m depths have near-zero (<0.1mD) permeability.
500
500
Permeability Cut-off 700 900m
1000
1000
fractures coal measure sands
1500
1500
Nowra Sst
2000
2000
2500
Desirable porosity range (10%)
2500
3000
3000
3500
Porosity and permeability plots against depth (metres) for 60+ wells in the Sydney Basin.
3500
97

Executive Summary Resources and Other Issues
The Sydney Basin contain multiple intervals of potential source rocks that include coal, marine shale and oil shale. These rocks are predominantly Permian and older in age, and there is generally less source potential in the Triassic succession. Several of these intervals may have significant economic potential, although coal is the only resource to be widely exploited. Since 1999, exploration and exploitation of coal seam gas has dominated over conventional petroleum exploration. Potential source rocks for petroleum generation have reached maturation levels within both the oil and gas zones in different parts of the basin (Mullard, 1995). The relatively widespread temporal and spatial distribution of resource-significant rocks in the Sydney Basin means that there were probably multiple phases of petroleum generation, expulsion and migration. A general lack of regional burial history models for different parts of the basin contributes to a poor understanding of the hydrocarbon generation and entrapment history at a basin scale. It is recommended that further work be undertaken that will underpin a regional model and thereby provide critical information on petroleum prospectivity and potential sterilisation of resources from CO2 storage. Further analysis should be undertaken on the distribution of coals extending beyond the current coalfield areas, and should include a sequence stratigraphic approach which should help to predict lateral variations in the coal seam thickness, grade and maturity, as well as interbedded sandstones and shales (potential reservoirs/seals). Some of the Sydney Basin stratal units are well documented within a formation-based framework. An applied sequence stratigraphic approach to the whole basin would provide useful insights into the predicted spatial distribution of individual sand units (similar to Arditto, 1987, 1991, but at an expanded temporal and spatial scale). In addition to maturity and stratigraphic modelling, further work is needed to constrain the timing of trap development (available structures) and the preservation of these structures through time. This work will require further analysis of the regional seismic data, structural modelling on the timing of fault formation and reactivation, and trap preservation. Land-use and other access restrictions have not been considered when evaluating areas with reservoir potential. However, it is should be noted that the areas in the western basin that have been recommended for further assessment underlie reserves such as the Wollomi National Park. An fully-integrated understanding of the Sydney Basin system is probably severely compromised by a lack of regional seismic data, and the sometimes poor quality and inconsistency of available datasets. In particular, high quality, digital seismic data is available only in very limited areas. Much of the paper seismic collection held by NSW DPI is supported by field data in the archive collection at Spectrum Data Services. It is recommended that the field tapes of the 1960s data be reviewed for possible reprocessing, as many of these lines would be difficult to reacquire due to subsequent development and other present-day restrictions.
Executive Summary
Upper Permian Coal Measures isopach map with 500m grid cell size. The thin grey lines are major basin faults as interpreted in the OZ SEEBASETM Study (2005), while the bold dashed grey is a fundamental basement boundary.
98

Recommendations
Reservoir Characterisation and Stratigraphy
Recommendation 1 Western Sydney Basin Region Provenance and Petrography Aim: To evaluate reservoir quality through provenance and petrographic studies. Evaluate whether quartz-rich sediment from the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt contributed to better quality reservoirs in mid-to-Late Permian rocks through provenance studies that include petrography (grain composition, grain size, sorting, etc) and zircon analysis. Detrital zircons can typed to igneous and other rocks in the eastern LFB, and will also reveal if quartz-rich sediments eroded from Darling Basin during the Carboniferous inversion were transported eastward into the Sydney Basin. Establish the paragenetic sequence of events that affected mid-to-Late Permian rocks in the western Sydney Basin. Diagenesis of unstable minerals (epiclastic volcanic rocks), high detrital clay content, volcanic intrusions and multiple cementation events have previously been identified as reasons for poor reservoir quality (Hamilton and Galloway, 1988; Bai et al., 2001). Recommendation 2 Newcastle and Illawarra Coalfields Petrography Aim: To evaluate reservoir quality through petrographic studies. Use existing coal bores to establish a paragenetic sequence of events for mid-to-Late Permian rocks, similar to the Galloway and Hamilton (1988) study on the latest Permian and Triassic succession. This work is based mainly on petrography (grain composition, grain size, sorting, etc) and includes an analysis of diagenesis events. Recommendation 3 Onshore Sydney Basin Stratigraphy and Reservoir Correlation Aim: Undertake a sequence stratigraphic study of the Sydney Basin and evaluate the reservoir dataset within this framework. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in the Sydney Basin is wholly formation-based and by its nature does not recognise the lateral facies relationships between chronostratigraphically equivalent units. In addition, a separate nomenclature scheme is used for the northern and the southern parts of the basin (e.g. Alder et al., 1998). A sequence framework will to help constrain new palaeogeographic maps which require a more detailed understanding of spatial and temporal facies relationships. The now-consolidated dataset of porosity and permeability data should be rigorous reexamined to assign sequence ages and facies types (systems tract) to all data points below the Narrabeen Group. There has been no re-evaluation of the formation names associated with the core analyses since many of these the wells were drilled in the 1960s and early 1970s. These steps will provide a clearer understanding of where reservoir data are available (i.e., what units/facies were tested, how many analyses and the analytical results) and provide a more meaningful framework for understanding reservoir trends.
Recommendations
Acquisition and Re-processing of Onshore Seismic Data
Recommendation 4 Upgrade seismic datasets and structural models Aim: To acquire and upgrade datasets that will that will enable a structural evaluation and stratigraphic correlations across the Sydney Basin. A deep-seismic line across the Sydney Basin extending from the New England Fold Belt (east) to the Lachlan Fold Belt (west) would be valuable in determining the nature of the deep basin and to improve the understanding of basin forming processes and tectonic reactivation events. An extensive dataset of vintage seismic data exists across the onshore Sydney Basin. Much of this data was acquired over 40 year ago and only paper copies are available through the DPI NSW Thornton archive collection. Some data is being scanned into PDF to improve digital access. However, the field tapes for much of this data are held in the Perth-based Spectrum archive, and these data should be evaluated for potential reprocessing and enhancement. As these data provide the only regional seismic coverage across the Sydney Basin (and many lines would be not able to be re-acquired due to development, etc), the aim should be to maximise the asset of the existing seismic collection. The upgrading of the seismic datasets (Recommendation 4) will provide an opportunity to develop an integrated structural model for the basin.
Burial History Modelling

Recommendation 5 Build an integrated petroleum systems framework Aim: Compile datasets to model the generation and expulsion histories of multiple potential source rock intervals that can constrain the potential (or risk) for hydrocarbon occurrences in the Sydney Basin. The Sydney Basin is primarily considered a gas province due to the mostly terrestrial nature of potential source rocks. Burial history modelling to build an integrated petroleum systems framework for the basin is sparse, although earlier work on vitrinite suggests that uplift has played an important role in understanding present-day maturity trends (Middleton and Schmidt, 1982). A model of generation and expulsion/migration events, along with a sequence stratigraphic and structural analysis (Recommendation 3 and 6) will provide a framework to understand and predict hydrocarbon occurrence in the Sydney Basin.

99
REFERENCES

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APPENDIX 1
GIS METADATA SPREADSHEET

APPENDIX 1 GIS Metadata










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Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study

J Blevin, L Hall J Blevin J Chapman

Jane Blevin Senior Consultant

Tom Loutit Managing Director

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

New England Fold Belt

limited data prob not suitable

not suitable limited data sediments too thin

Lachlan Fold Belt

prob not suitable

sediments too thin

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

New England Fold Belt

limited data prob not suitable

not suitable limited data sediments too thin

Lachlan Fold Belt

prob not suitable

sediments too thin

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Permeability Cut-off 700 900m

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Burial History Modelling

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

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+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

INTRODUCTION, APPROACH & METHODOLOGY

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

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Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

6/50 Geils Court Deakin West ACT 2600 Canberra Australia

Tel: Fax: URL: Email:

+61 2 6283 4800 +61 2 6283 4801 www.frogtech.com.au tloutit@frogtech.com.au

Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Carbon Capture and Storage

Geological storage options for CO2 (image downloaded from www.co2crc.com.au ).

Conventional Trap or Depleted Field

Hydrodynamic/Residual Gas Saturation Trapping

Trap Structure Trap Structure

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Sydney Basin Reservoir Prediction Study MR705

Carbon Capture and Storage

9MT 5MT 2MT 0 0 0 0 0 10KT 2KT

Ketzin Otway TOTALS