PAPERREF#8242 Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium EditedbyM.Greene,J.ReyesandA.Castro.SantiagodeChile:PUC,2012.

ORDER,STRUCTUREANDDISORDERINSPACESYNTAXAND LINKOGRAPHY:intelligibility,entropy,andcomplexity measures

AUTHOR: KEYWORDS: THEME: TamerELKHOULY BartlettSchoolofGraduateStudies,UCLFacultyoftheBuiltEnvironment,UniversityCollegeLondon UCL,UnitedKingdom email:t.elkhouly@ucl.ac.uk AlanPENN BartlettSchoolofGraduateStudies,UCLFacultyoftheBuiltEnvironment,UniversityCollegeLondon UCL,UnitedKingdom email:a.penn@ucl.ac.uk

Linkography,Order,Disorder,Stringsofinformation,Intelligibility,Complexity,Entropy MethodologicalDevelopmentandModeling

Abstract There has been great interest in the use of linkographies to describe the events that take place in design processeswiththeaimofunderstandingwhencreativitytakesplaceandtheconditionsunderwhichcreative moments emerge in the design. Linkography is a directed graph network and because of this it gives resemblancetothetypesoflargecomplexgraphsthatareusedinthespacesyntaxcommunitytodescribe urban systems. In this paper, we investigate the applications of certain measures that come from space syntaxanalysesofurbangraphstolookatlinkographysystems.Onehypothesisisthatcomplexityiscreated indifferentscalesinthegraphsystemfromthelocalsubgraphtothewholesystem.Themethodofanalysis illustratestheunderlyingstateofanysystem.Integration,complexityandentropyvaluesaremeasuredat each individual node in the system to arrive at a better understanding on the rules that frame the relationshipsbetweenthepartsandthewhole.

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INTRODUCTION Alinkographyisarepresentationoftheseriesofeventsthatcanbeobservedtooccurandcanbeusedto helpanalyseprocessesofcreativityduringadesignsession.Thedifferencebetweenlinkographyandspatial system is that linkography has a time factor. A linkograph is constructed from nodes that represent each segment in the design process (according to time) and is based on parsing the dependency relationships betweenthosenodes. Becauseitisarepresentationthattracestheassociationsofeverysingleutterance,thedesignprocesscan be looked at in terms of a linkographic pattern that displays the structure of the design reasoning. The venuesofdenseinterrelations(clustersofthedesignutterances)areovertlyhighlightedonthegraphand canbefurtherinterpretedthroughtheemergingartefactsalongtheprocess. Thelinkographysystemishypothesisedtodeliveravariationofcomplexitydegreesondifferentoccasions. Theaimistouncoverthesignificanteventsthatmightbeassociatedwithcreativeinsightsandinspectthe artefacts that are formulated at such events. Linkography and urban systems deal with multilevel complexities,theoverallgoaloftheproposedanalyticalmethodistorevealtherelationshipbetweenthe parts(subnetworks)thatconstitutethesystemandthewhole. The relationship between the subsystems or the partial assemblies is inspected looked at from two perspectives, information theory and entropy theory, to see whether a conflict occurs between uncoordinated suborders despite being orderly structured (Arnheim, 1971; Laing, 1965) or whether an order systemunderlies an entire disorderstate (Planck,1969) an entity that is dependent on arandom dispersionoflimitedsuborders(Arnheim,1971;Kuntz,1968). Acomputationalmodelisproposedthatcoversthedependencyrelationshipsoccurringbetweennodes,all of which appear to have a sophisticated group of relations. The algorithm used is inspired by the Tcode stringmeasuredevelopedbyTitchener(1998a;1998b;1998c;2004). 1.APOINTOFDEPARTURE A gridiron urban system is perceived as a highly organised structure if it delivers different chances to navigate fromoneplace to another. It ishighly intelligible in this circumstance,but to some extent it can becomeconfusing.Inaverysymmetricalandidenticalsystem,theexplorerhasequalchancestomovefrom one point in the system to another and might get lost. Since intelligibility is the correlation between connectivity and integration, hence the same correlation value is constituted for any element in this particularsystem. In reality, no system is perfectly set up as a 100% identical gridiron. Every city has some sense of differentiation that adds to the structure and provides the capacity to grasp the relation between the whole and the parts. The example of two forests, naturalspontaneous and farmedgrid, reflects two differentstates.Inthefirstcase,treesarenotalignedandthedistributionischaotic,whileinthesecond, treesarestrictlyplantedalongstraightlinesandthearrangementissimilareverywhereinthenetwork.In bothcases,systemsdisorientatetheexplorerfromapropernavigation.Yetthehighlyorderedforestand thedisorderedonearebothconsideredextremeexamplesintermsofintelligibility. Whatdeservesattentionishowweconstructasystem;acityforinstance.Hanson(1989)haspointedthat order might be misleading about its function and that it could be a manifestation of another underlying

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state.Hence,theimportanceofdistinguishingthiskindofrelationshipiscrucialtorevealtherealstateat each stage of a multilevel complex system. What we mean is that something might occur on the system midwaybetweentotalchaosandtotalorder,acertainpointwhereitstartstobehavedifferentlyfromthe precedingstate(s). Thedemonstrationofthegridironorder,despitebeingasingularityinintelligibilityterms,isasunintelligible as the total chaos state. Both systems deliver lack of intelligibility for the thinking subject. Order, in this particular case, is just the same as complete disorder in delivering a lack of intelligibility. However, if we imposeadifferentiationonthegridironbyaddingsomediagonalsandroutes,thewholestructurehasnot drastically changed but its intelligibility moves from one state to another (the system becomes more intelligibleotherwise). Infact,workingwithsystemsthathavemultilevelcomplexityondifferentscalesiscommoninurbanand linkography systems. One view is that there is a clear order and that the structure of the system can be easilygraspedandunderstood.Theotherviewisthatthereisnoruleinthecomplexworldandthatitis actually just random. The paradox is that if it is truly random is there a simple way to describe it? Can a complexworldbereducedtoasinglevalue? Thispaperproposesahypothesisthatinmultilevelcomplexsystemshighorderlinesstendstobecomeless complexoverall,andthereforeahighlylinkednodedeliversfewchoicesandprobabilities.Thealternativeto inspectingthesystemisthereforetomeasuretheprobabilityforeachnodeandcomplexityateachlevel(at every subnetwork) included within the system. In doing so, we propose the adoption of strings of informationtocodeprobabilitiesateachpointandcomputetheinformationcontentfromit.Thepractical aimsofusingthismethodaretwofold. First,sincealltheinspectedsubnetworkshavethesamesubgraphsizeeffect,themeasuresofstringsat eachpointinthesystemarealreadyrelativisedandeligibleforcomparison.Thisisbecausetheinformation isextractedforallthepossiblerelationsthatcouldbemadefromanypointinthesystemtotheothers(the subgraphsizealwaysequalsn1). Second,integrationvaluesarealsorelativisedtothesubgraphsize.Thus,integration,complexity,rateand contentofinformationarerelativisedparametersthatwelookatinordertospecifytherelationbetween thepartsconstitutingthewhole. 2.ENTROPYANDINFORMATION Space syntax and design process are multiscaled complex contexts. The information content at different scalesreflectsthecomplexityateachlevelinthesystem.Intheproposedmethod,thesystemcanbereadin two ways. The first looks at the probability of choice at any item, point, or node, while the second looksattherateofinformationmeasuredforasequenceofitems. The methods correspond to entropy theory and information theory respectively. But while entropy is concernedwithsetsofindividualitems,informationisconcernedwiththeindividualsequenceofthose items. The entropy theory asserts that a set should be treated as a microstate; the microstates constitutethecomplexionsoftheoverallprocess.1 Atthispoint,themainobjectofinquiryininformation
1

Arnheim(1971)describedthemicrostateintheprincipleofentropytheoryas:theparticularcharacterofanymicrostatedoesnot matter;itsstructuraluniqueness,orderlinessordisorderlinessdoesnotcount.Whatdoesmatteristhetotalityoftheseinnumerable complexionsaddinguptoaglobalmacrostateofthewholeprocess.Itisnotconcernedwiththeprobabilityofsuccessioninaseriesof itemsbutwiththeoveralldistributionofkindsofitemsinagivenarrangement.

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theoryistoinvestigatetheprobabilityofoccurrencebyestablishingthenumberofpossiblesequences.The sequence of items is not covered in entropy theory but is necessary for information theory. Table 1 illustratesthedifferencesthatdistinguishthetwoperspectives.
Structure Entropytheory Itemsconstitutethemaincharacteristicsofthe structure Concernedwithsetsofindividualitems Central points Isabouttheoveralldistributionofkindsofitemsina givenarrangement Themoreremotethearrangementofsetsisfroma randomdistribution,theloweritsentropy,andthe higheritsorderrepresentation Arandomiseddistributionwillbecalledbytheentropy theoristhighlyprobableandthereforeofloworder becauseinnumerabledistributionsofthiskindcan occur Forexample,KanandGeros(2005a;2007;2008) estimationmethodtoacquireentropyfrom linkography Forexample,Turners(2007)adoptionofShannons formulatoestimateentropyforurbansystemswith Depthmap Informationtheory Structuremeansnothingisbetterthanthosecertain sequencesofitemsthatcanbeexpectedtooccur Focusedontheindividualsequenceofitems Isaboutsequencesandarrangementsofitem. Thelesspredictablethesequence,themoreinformation thesequencewillyield,andthemoreremoteits representationfromorder Ahighlyrandomisedsequencewillbesaidtocarry muchinformationbytheinformationtheoristbecause informationinthissenseisconcernedwiththe probabilityofthisparticularsequence Forexample,Titcheneretal.s(2005)computationof stringsofinformation Forexample,Brettels(2006)adoptionofTitcheners (2004)tcodemeasurestoestimateentropyfor navigationroutes

Example

Application

Table1:Thedifferencesthatdistinguishentropytheoryandinformationtheory

An observer would find that the most highly ordered system provides maximum information content and thusisoppositetoprobabilisticentropysincethepredictionisveryhigh.Iftotaldisorderprovidesmaximum informationaswell,thenmaximumorderisconveyedbymaximumdisorder(Arnheim,1971).Howeverthe distinction can be made through a parameter that measures the underlying system of any order. Since informationisacrudemeasurethatconfirmsaclearincreaseinregularityoverall,extremeregularityand apparentsimilarityarelikelytodeliveraverylowprobabilityvalue. Entropygrowswiththeprobabilityofastateofaffairswhileinformationdoestheoppositeandincreases withtheimprobability.Thelesslikelyaneventistohappen,themoreinformationitsoccurrencerepresents. Theleastpredictablesequenceofeventswillcarrythemaximuminformation.Hence,thispaperfocuseson howentropycouldbeestimatedformultilevelsystemsinawaythatviewstherelationshipbetweenthe nature of complexion between the partial assemblies that are made at each point and the whole. The proposed method therefore adopts entropy and complexity as independent measures to assess complex systems such as linkography. However, it should be noted that the structure state of any system needs a variationofcharacteristicsinordertoconstructanintelligiblesystem.2 Thenextsectionreviewsmethodsto estimateentropyandintroducesthecomputationalmethodofstringsofinformation.
2

Referringbacktotheexampleofthegridironsystem,allelementsdeliverthesamecorrelationvaluebetweenconnectivityand integration,howeveranyimposeddifferentiationonthegridironcausevariationsonintelligibility,andthensystemchangesfroma statetoanother.

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3.ENTROPYOFSPATIALSYSTEMSANDLINKOGRAPHY The estimation of entropy for spatial systems is based on the frequency distribution of the point depths (Turner, 2007). The point depth entropy of a location, si, is expressed by utilising Shannons formula of uncertaintyasshownintheequation:
dmax PointDepthEntropyforspatialsystem

si = Pd log2 Pd
d=1

(I)

WheredmaxisthemaximumdepthfromvertexviandPdisthefrequencyofpointdepthdfromthevertex

Estimatingpointdepthentropyinthiswayshowshoworderlyaspatialsystemisstructuredfromacertain location.Themethodisafunctionalequationbasedonmeandepth.InDepthmap,theinformationfroma point is calculated with respect to the expected frequency of locations at each depth. Turner (2007) explained that the expected frequency is based on the probability of events occurring depending on a single variable, the mean depth of the jgraph. The benefit of calculating entropyor information froma point in space syntax pertains to how easy it is to traverse to a certain depth within the system. Low disorderiseasy;highdisorderishard. Inlinkography,withreferralto(Geroetal.;2011,KanandGero,2005b;2005c;2007;2008;2009a;2011b; andKanetal.;2006;2007),Shannonstheoryofinformation(1949)isadoptedtoinspecttheoccurrenceof dependency relationships between utterances.3 This gives two possible choices to code the system: linkedandunlinked(oronandoff).Theformulausedis:
ShannonEntropyforLinkography

H = (plinked.log2 plinked) + (punlinked.log2 punlinked)

(II)

Kan and Geros method looks at the overall distribution of sets (items of relations) regardless of the sequenceofoccurrenceofelementsconstitutingthelinkographyaccordingtotime.TheexampleinFigure 1emphasisesthatthedifferencesbetweentwolinkographicpatternsarenotconsideredintheestimation processofentropy.Thisisowingtothesummationstepprocessedoverthewholenetworkforeachof thetwoprobabilities,linkedandunlinked,regardlessofthepositionofitemsinthesystemthatshould precedetheestimation.4

Goldschmidt(1992)definedadesignmoveorstepinthefollowingterms:amoveisanactofreasoningthatpresentsacoherent propositionpertainingtoanentitythatisbeingdesigned.Goldschmidt(1995)alsostated:astep,anact,oranoperation,which transformsthedesignsituationrelativetothestateinwhichitwaspriortothatmove.Seealso:Goldschmidt(1990). Rememberthatlinkographyisadirectedgraphaccordingtotimefactor.

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Bothgraphshavethesameentropyvaluedespitethecleardifferenceofarrangementsineachsystem.This isbecausetheequationisbasedonsummingthevaluesofeachprobabilitywithoutconsideringtheposition of each in the existing pattern. The next section provides a synopsis on intelligibility in space syntax. It illustrates a brief from a previous study (Brettel 2006) that combined string measures with integration values on spatial networks with distinctive configurations, investigating the connectivity between nodes throughnavigationinvarioussamples. 4.THECOMPUTATIONOFSTRINGSOFINFORMATION AninclinationtowardsthehypothesisisdeliveredthroughoutBrettels(2006)study,whichinvestigatedhow order, structure, and disorder of street layouts are perceived when navigating through an urban environment.Shestatedthatanorderedenvironmenttendstobemoreintelligiblewhenbrokenupbyan irregularityoccasionally.Inourstudy,weask:Underwhichcircumstancesdoesthesystemchangefromone statetoanother?ButmorespecificallyonBrettel,weask:Arehighlyintelligiblespatialsystemspredictable tonavigatethrough?andDoessimpletraversethroughurbanfabricdeliverlesscomplexstructure?5 The string of information measures to deal with event structure was introduced in Brettels study6 in ordertocomputebarcodesofeventsequencesextractedfromnavigationroutes,inadditiontosyntactical analysis.Thestringmeasureswereexpectedtorelatetotheperceivedorderalongaroute.Theentropyof
5

Inotherwords,ifthemechanismofaccessfromonepointtoanotherissimple,doesthesynthesisformofitsroutedeliverlow complexity? Aneventisdefinedasasegmentoftimeatagivenlocationthatisperceivedbyanobservertohaveabeginningandanend (TverskyandZacks,2001).

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each routes string was interpreted as the probability of the uncertainty that a route provides for the traveller,andwasexpectedtorelatetotheperceivedstructurealongroutes.7 Whenaroutehasveryfew turns, the probability of choices is too low (for example, gridiron patterns such as New York and San Francisco).However,entropydelivershighvalues(relatively)withcomplexpatternswhentherouteconsists of some turns and deviations within it (for example, composite fabrics such as London and Rome). Moreover,theisovistfieldsowedthedifferentiationofvisualcatchmentareasbetweentheanalysedcities not only according to the delineation in the route but also because of picking up structurally different catchmentareas,especiallyintheirregularpatterns. AccordingtoBrettelsanalyses,thecomputationprocessofstringscoulddelivermeaningfulcorrelationsfor theperceivedroute.Nevertheless,theassumptionthatorderlinessislikelytobemorerelatedtocomplexity measure and structure to entropy could not be proven in her study, possibly due to limits of the survey setup.8 So are we measuring Intelligibility versus complexity or integration versus complexity? The central pointofattentionistorealisethatintelligibilityisasystemproperty;thecorrelationbetweenconnectivity (C)andintegration(I).Complexity(CT)ofgraphsisalsoasystempropertythatreflectshowmanystepsare requiredtoconstructastringofinformationforthesystem(orsubsystem).Consequently,valuesofthetwo parameterscanbecomparedandcorrelatedtogether.Thesubgraphateachnodeisalsoasubsystemand thesamemeasurescanbeusedtoinspectthecharacteristicwithinthewhole. 4.1TheTcodeMeasure TheapplicationoftheTcodestringcomputationmethodisbasedonthedeterministicinformationtheory that was developed by Titchener (1998a; 1998b; 1998c; 2004). In this method, an algorithmic process is appliedtosetsofinformationtocomputethestringmeasures,denotedasTcomplexityandTentropy (see also: Titchener, 2004; Titchener et al., 2005; Speidel et al., 2006; Speidel, 2008). The string signifies varioustypesofinformationencodedintosymbols. If the string comprises a repeating sequenceof one symbol only (one attribute), then entropy declines to zerovalueandthecomplexitystructureofthestringgetlower,e.g.OOOOOOOOOOOOO,butifastringis composed of two or more symbols then the probability of appearance gets higher, e.g. LROoRRoRLOoLLLORLOooOoR. This means the complexity of string increases according to the size of the symbolsandthecomposition. Thesizeofstringisacrucialfactorsincelongerstringsgivemoreaccuratemeasurementsthanshortones. The complexity of string depends on the number of production steps that are required to construct this string (Titchener, 2004). Example 2 gives a tape of 100 digital codes that is spontaneously composed by typicallyduplicatingonesymbolcodetoanotherone,byprocessingtheTcodemeasure:
7

Theprobabilityofchoicesthatcouldbemadeatdecisionpointsfordirectionalturns.Accordingly,entropydescribeshowmuch informationisthereinasignalorevent. Thisresultmaybelimitedowingtothesmallsizeofsamplesandshortstrings.

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Thereareavarietyofmeanstoillustrateanetwork;seeFigures2and3forsomeexamples.Thescopeof this paper is not concerned with multiple representations to illustrate the system, but rather intends to understandtheconstitutingforcethatattunesthecomponentsofit(suchaswhatisbeyondthelinksand relationsbetweenthenodes).
Archiograph Linkography

Figure3:Twodifferentrepresentationsforthesamelarge system:adesignprotocolforonehourdesignsessionconsisting of453nodes. Aboveisthelinkographypatternandbelowisdisplayeduponthe connectivitystrengthpernodes. MarkovChain

Figure2:Avarietyofmeanstoillustrateasystem network:Linkography,Archiography,andMarkov Chain.

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Before embarking on an analysis of the distribution of integration in each of the individual nodes in the system,webeginwithanumberofcommonfeaturesofthesetoflinkographies,whichgivesomeideaof the nature of the processes envisaged. After a preliminary study on some samples of linkography, the concludedpointsaretwofold: First, since the total number of links in any system of size n is (n1), then the size of any nodes possible relations equals (n1) as well. This means that at any node, the sheer number of links in the subgraph createdfromthisnodetotheothersinthesystemhasthesamesizeeffectwitheverynode.Accordingly,all the measures are relativised at every level in the system before embarking on comparisons. A second featurethatdifferentiatesbetweensystemsisthevarieddistributionoflinks.Thisshouldbeconsideredin theestimationprocessofstringsofinformationtoincludethesequencesofsetsinourinterpretationrather thanviewingthesystematthenodelevelonly. Thelinkographycontainsastructuralhierarchy:thefirstlevelstartswiththe"nodes"thataggregatetoform the "network" or "subsystem". Nodes and networks together construct the linkography pattern. It might happeninsomecasesthatnetworks(subgraphs)donotintersecttogetherbecausethetrainofthoughtsin thisdesignvenueisdisconnectedandthechunksofideasareunrelated.However,inmostcasesnetworks intersectinoneormorenodes.Thismeansthedesignthoughtsarestructurallyinterrelatedandbuiltup.In thissense,linkographyhasdifferentpatternsandconfigurations:highlyordered/fullysaturated,structured, or disordered. There are some other configurations beyond these intrinsic types such as the mechanistic "sawtooth"patternthatreflectsahighlyorderedandsystematic(repetitive)process,orthe"fullysparse" disconnectedonethatresemblesatotally"unrelated"discourse,andsoforth. 4.2ProcessingtheSystemasMultipleSubgraphs Any system can be transferred into strings of information by coding the dependency relations between nodes.Inthecaseoflinkography,abinarydigitformatisproposed:1forlinkedrelationshipsand0for unlinked.Thepositionofeachsymbolinthestringreferstoitssequenceinthepatternaccordingtotime and thus the distribution of the dependency relationships is included while constructing the string. This section suggests a method to study the subgraph at any node and extract the strings from it in order to computetheTcodemeasureonthelinkographypatterns. Method:ComputingtheTcodemeasureonthesubgraphforeachnode Theestimationprocessisbasedontheconcatenationofbackandforelinkstogetherforeachnodein thesystem(seeFigure5).Despitethesubgraphs(concatenationoflinkspernode)havingequalsizesat every node, Tcomplexity and Tentropy values fluctuate along the linkography. An example of how to extractastringofinformationforacertainnodessubgraphisshowninFigure6.

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101110 Forestringofnode15

01111011011111 Backstringofnode15

Figure5:ProcessingdynamicTcomplexityoncompletelinkographybyconcatenatingthebackandforelinkstogetherpernode

Example3: AccordingtoFigure5,thesubgraphcreatedatnodeno.15consistsofthefollowingrelations:

Figure6:Exampleofextractingthestringofinformationpersubgraph

4.3Intelligibility,ComplexityandEntropy Intelligibilityandcomplexityarepropertiesofsystem.Foragraphthatconsistsof100nodes,eachnodewill havetwovalues:(1)intelligibility,whichisthecorrelationbetweentwovalues:connectivityandintegration; and (2) complexity, which is measured for the subgraph of relations at this particular node. Both measureshavesizeeffects.Forintelligibility,whereasystemsizen(n<50)thismeansintelligibilitywill tendtobehigh(forexample,asmallvillagewith50links,pathsoraxesgivestherangeofvalues0<0.5<1.0).

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Thesystemisintelligibleifthecorrelationvalueismorethan0.5,and"unintelligible"ifthevalueisless than0.5). Stringmeasuressuchascomplexity,informationcontentandentropyalsohavesizeeffects.Forastringof size n, (n<20), values are inaccurate. Accuracy for information and entropy is limited for short strings duetotheapproximationofboundbythelogarithmicintegralfunction(seeTitchener,2004).Forastringof (n>20),theTcomplexitywearelookingatisasubgraphofthewholelinkography,namelythosedirectly connectedtonodeweareestimating. Subsequently, the Tcomplexity and Tentropy measures are comparable to the integration value at that samenode.Hence,thehighlyconnectednodesatanysystemcouldbecorrelatedtothestringmeasuresat the same node in order to investigate the proposed hypothesis. According to Brettel (2006), that intelligibilityissignifiedthroughoutorderlysystems. Asaruleofathumb,theshortestlinebetweentwopointsisastraightlinethathasafirstordersynthesis form.Apiazzaishighlyaccessiblefromallitssurroundingpoints(areas),theproposedpathofnavigationis clearandeasiertotravel,andthustheexpectednessishighandthecomplexityislow.Aculdesachasa verylowintegrationvalueinthesystemandnotmanyoptionsexisttoapproachitonlyoneaccesspoint. Thatmakesitverycomplextoreach. Giving an example of a particular spatial structure, Figure 7 illustrates two hypothetical network systems that are connected via only one node (resembling a bridge between two riverbanks), the real relative asymmetry value of this single node equals zero. Since integration and real relative asymmetry (RRA) are inverselycorrelated,thismeansthatthemostintegratedpointinthesystemisthehighlylinkednode.Other nodesineachsideareequivalentinintegrationandRRAvalues(seeFigure7). Thisnetworkwillstillberepresentedinseveralways.Itisobvioustoinferthatbothnetworksidesarehighly ordered. However the string of information for each node in the system contains repeated symbols that indicateonlyonepossibleoption(symbol)ofinterconnectivityinsideeachside.Thiswillsignificantlyaffect thecomputedbarcodemeasuresforeachnodeinthesystem.Forexample,takingnode9:
String processed: 11111111111111111111 Length (chars): 20 T-COMPLEXITY 4.32 (taugs) 4.32 (taugs) T-INFORMATION 5.4 (nats) 7.9 (bits) T-ENTROPY 0.274 (nats/char) 0.396 (bits/char)

(N.B. Accuracy for information and entropy is limited for short strings, due to approximation of bound by the logarithmic integral function,li().

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Example4:

Figure7:RRAvaluesoftwohypotheticalnetworksystems(connectedthroughasinglenoderesemblingabridgebetweentwo riverbanks)

5.APPLICATIONS:EXAMPLESANDCASEMATERIAL 5.1HypotheticalCasesofShortStrings Thefollowinghypotheticalcasesaregeneratedtoinspecttherelationbetweenhighlyconnectednodesand the Tcomplexity and Tentropy measures. The patterns vary between orderliness and structured configurations. The RRA value is utilised to search for the most integrated node(s) in each pattern and processthecomparisonwiththestringmeasures.

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2 3

8 7 6 8

2 3 4 4 5

2 1 7

3 6

7 6 5

15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 10 12 14 16 1 2 13 3 4 14 5 6 12 11 7 8 10 9 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure8:ValuesofRRAandStringofInformationforHypotheticalCasesofSmallSystems

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Accordingtotheresultsofshortstrings,thefollowingpointscanbeconcludedatthispreliminarystage: 1. The high certainty of prediction in some networks might deliver only one choice (100% choice); thus entropy equals zero if applying Shannons equation, and Tentropy decreases if applying Tcode algorithms. First, the total number of relations in any system of size n is n(n1)/2. However, the size of any subgraphstringequals(n1).(SeeFigure6) DespitethedifferencesbetweentheRRAvaluesinanysystem,itmighthappenthatallnodeshavethe samestringmeasuressinceallhavethesamepercentagechoices(numberoflinks). ThefallofTcomplexityandTentropyindiceswiththeriseofRRAinthecaseslookedatmisleadsour hypothesisandcausesdisruptiontothecorrelationvalues.Thereasonforthisisthelackofaccuracy experiencedwithshortstringsofinformation(lessthan20codes). Either Shannon entropy or the deterministic entropy is inversely proportional with RRA, but sinceintegrationequals(1/RRA),thequestionarisesofwhetherthisconfusioncomesaboutbecauseof inaccuratecomputationofshortstrings,ormighttherebeanotherparameterthathasitseffectonboth measures?

2. 3. 4.

5.

The application of Tcomplexity and Tentropy is tricky in this sense. Two points can be made from our experienceofprocessingthecomputationmethod:(1)Thepositionofnodeswithinthesystemdetermines thesynthesis(structureofsymbols)oftheextractedstringsincetheconnections(links)thatcouldbemade fromacertainnodetotheother(s)arebasedonthechoicesofroutes/links;(2)Sinceeachnode'sforelink is another point's backlink within the system, then an introduction to some redundancy in this way should be considered in the estimation process to avoid replications (in case of concatenating the overall stringsintooneforthewholesystem).Toreconcilethesefindings,anotherseriesoflongstringcasesare analysedinthenextsection. 5.2HypotheticalCasesonLargeSystems Thecasestudiesareextendedtoincludetheanalysesofeightexamplesoflongerlengthinordertofurther test the hypothesis and to overcome the inaccuracy experienced with short strings. These hypothetical systems are divided into two categories: modular order and structural, where the former is known by its repetitive andrhythmic patterns and the latter is distinguished by its variation of choices. Syntactical and string measurements are applied to study the degree of correlation between integration and dynamic TcomplexityanddynamicTentropy.9 SeeFigures9aand9b. Table2showsthecorrelationvaluesforallthehypotheticalcases.AccordingtoFigure10(drawnfromthe results of Table 2), a strong inverse correlation between integration and Tcomplexity and Tentropy is proved in all the ordered cases. Figure 9a shows the highlighted nodes in each case. The shallower the system(e.g.case4),thehigherthedegreeofcorrelationbetweenintegrationandTcomplexity.Thedenser the system (e.g. case 3), the lower the degree of correlation between integration and Tcomplexity. However, in Figure 9b, only one case delivers a high correlation between integration and Tcomplexity, reaching0.55incase3.Thislackofevidenceisduetothelowdegreeofdiversificationinthestructureof thesystem(thepatternisshallow)thatwasnotthecaseintheotherpatterns.TcomplexityandTentropy areuncorrelatedalongorderedandstructuredcases.
9

Thetermdynamicentropy,introducedbyGeroetal.(2011)toindicatethateachnodeinthesystemhasitsownentropicmeasure andthereforethevaluesfluctuatealongthelinkography.Seealso:KanandGero(2011a;2011b).

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VariablesofCorrelation Integration:Tcomplexity Integration:Tentropy Tcomplexity:Tentropy Case1 0.76 0.17 0.25

ModularOrderSystems Case2 0.22 0.13 0.07 Case3 0.86 0.022 0.01 Case4 0.39 0.04 0.20 Case1 0.44 0.21 0.25

StructuredSystems Case2 0.21 0.24 0.07 Case3 0.55 0.28 0.24 Case4 0.01 0.09 0.18

Table2:Valuesofcorrelationforthehypotheticalsystems

T-complexity T-complexity Integration Integration Integration Integration

T-complexity

T-complexity

T-entropy T-entropy T-entropy T-entropy

Case1:OrderForm TwoNetworksSystemwithOne PivotalNode

Case2:OrderForm Three NetworksSystemwithFourPivotal Nodes

Case3:OrderForm Three NetworksSystemwithTwelve PivotalNodes

Case4:OrderedLinkography SystemComprisingSeven NetworksSixPivotalNodes

Figure9a:TherelationshipbetweenintegrationvaluesandTcomplexityandTentropyinOrderedLinkographysystem

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T-entropy T-entropy T-entropy T-entropy T-complexity T-complexity T-complexity T-complexity Integration Integration Integration Integration

Case1:LowDenseStructured LinkographySystem; ComprisingFiveNetworksSix PivotalNodes

Case2:SemiDenseStructured LinkographySystemComprising FiveNetworksSixPivotal Nodes

Case3:StructureForm Diffused NetworksLinkographySystem

Case4:StructureForm Highly denseNetworkLinkography System

Figure9b:TheRelationshipBetweenIntegrationValuesandTcomplexityandTentropyinStructuredLinkographySystem

Integration:Tcomplexity Integration:Tentropy

Case1 Order

Case2 Order

Case3 Order

Case4 Order

Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Structure Structure Structure Structure

Figure10:TheCorrelationValuesOfIntegration:TcomplexityandIntegration:Tentropy

AccordingtoFigure10(drawnfromtheresultsofTable2),astronginversecorrelationbetweenintegration andTcomplexityandTentropyisprovedinalltheorderedcases.AccordingtoTable2,Figure10illustrates the correlation values for each case study. It is apparent that some values are negative: negative

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correlation.Thismeansthatinarelationshipbetweenthetwovariablesonevariableincreasesastheother decreases and vice versa. Aperfectnegative correlationmeans that the relationshipthat appearsto exist between two variables is highly negative (might reach 1) of the time. 10 Nevertheless, the inverse correlationbetweenTcomplexityandTentropybringsoutanotherpointtotest.Itishypothesisedthatthe more complex a string (the variety of symbols), the higher the probability of uncertainty. In short, would entropy increase with higher complexity measures? How would the hypothesis of a converse correlation withintegrationbeaffected? 5.3ApplicationToRealLinkographies Figure11presentstwodifferentlinkographiesbasedonrealdesignprocesses.Themostintegratednodes areidentifiedandcorrelatedwithTcomplexityandTentropyinadditiontotwoothergraphparameters, betweenness and closeness centrality. The values of correlation are listed in Table 3. Both systems depictthefollowingoutcomes: 1. 2. Asignificantcorrelationbetweenintegrationandclosenesscentrality. AsignificantcorrelationbetweenTcomplexityandTentropyparticularlyprovestheearlierresultthat shortstringscomputationsareinaccurateandrequiretobeinspectedthroughlargesystems. Adirectcorrelationbetweenintegrationandclosenesscentrality. AninversecorrelationbetweenintegrationandeachofTcomplexity,Tentropyandbetweenness.

3. 4.

VariablesofCorrelation Integration Integration Integration Integration Tcomplexity Tcomplexity Tcomplexity Tentropy ClosenessCentrality Tcomplexity Tentropy ClosenessCentrality Betweenness Tentropy ClosenessCentrality Betweenness ClosenessCentrality Betweenness

Linkography1(sizen=328) 0.23 0.22 0.73 0.07 0.99 0.46 0.37 0.46 0.37

Linkography2(sizen=453) 0.23 0.23 0.85 0.21 0.98 0.39 0.24 0.39 0.41

Table3:Valuesofcorrelationfortwolargelinkographies

10

Acorrelationinwhichlargevaluesofonevariableareassociatedwithsmallvaluesoftheother;thecorrelationcoefficientis between0and1.Itisalsopossiblethattwovariablesmaybenegativelycorrelatedinsome,butnotall,cases.Aperfectnegative correlationisrepresentedbythevalue1.00,whilea0.00indicatesnocorrelationanda+1.00indicatesaperfectpositivecorrelation (definitionfromhttp://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/negativecorrelation.asp#ixzz1ceYmvKXE).

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Integration

Integration

Integration is conversely related with RRA, T-complexity, T-entropy, and

T-complexity

T-complexity

T-complexity and T-entropy are directly related. T-complexity is conversely related with integration and Betweenness. T-entropy

T-entropy

T-entropy is conversely related with integration, closeness centrality, and betweenness, and is directly related with T-complexity Betweenness Betweenness

Closeness Centrality is conversely related with Betweenness, T-complexity and T-entropy but directly related with integration. Closeness Centrality Betweenness is conversely related with integration, closeness centrality, T-complexity and T-entropy

Closeness Centrality

Figure11:Differentquantitativemeasurementsforadesigncasestudy 8242:18

Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium SantiagodeChile:PUC,2012.

6.INCONCLUSION Inthispaper,wehavebeeninvestigatingtheapplicationsofcertainmeasuresthatcomefromspacesyntax analysesofurbangraphstolookatlinkographysystems.Onehypothesisisthatcomplexityiscreatedfrom thelocalsubgraphatdifferentscalesinthegraphsystemthanfromthewholesystem.Sincelinkography andurbansystemsdealwithmultilevelcomplexities,theoverallgoaloftheproposedanalyticalmethodis torevealtherelationshipbetweentheparts(subsystems)thatconstitutesthesystemandthewhole. Twoperspectivesaregiven:theentropytheoristwholooksattheoveralldistributionofsetsofitemsthat formthesystemwhiletheinformationtheoristlooksattheindividualsequenceofitemsorthearrangement ofsetsthatwillprobablyoccur.Theapplicationtolinkographyandthepointdepthentropyareexamplesof theformerwhiletheTcodecomputationofstringsofinformationisadoptedinthispapertolookatthe latter. Two different contexts are given in the case studies. Since urban configurations and linkography systems are drawn from different characteristics, the assumption is thus made to examine whether the syntacticalandstringparametersreceivesimilarcorrelationresponsesinbothcontextsornot. The methodology merges syntactical and string measures to highlight the significant nodes in any system and investigate the proposed hypothesis: are highly intelligible systems associated with complexity and entropy? Since intelligibility, complexity, and entropy are system properties, the method to process any systemofnsizeisanaggregationofsubgraphsforeachnodeinthesystem.Thecasestudiesinclude small and large systems, hypothetical and real. In order to highlight the significant nodes further, other parametersareaddedintothecorrelation:realrelativeasymmetry,closenesscentralityandbetweenness. The relationships between string measures (Tcomplexity and Tentropy) and syntactical measures (integrationandrealrelativeasymmetryRRA)arenotclearlydefinedbecauseoftheinaccuracyofshort barcodes.Theassumptionisthenmadethatvariablelengthbarcodeholdswithinitmanypossibilitiesand choices.Provingthishypothesisrequiresfurtherinvestigationwithlargersystems. Themoreanodeisconnectedtothesurroundings,thegreatertherepetitionfrequencyinthebarcodes,the lesspredictabletheinformation,andthereforelowstringcomplexityresults.Theasymmetryoftheoverall distributionofnodeswithinthesystemaccountsfortheassociativenessinthesystemandconsequently givesanindicationofthestructure.RRAandintegrationvalues(inversemeasures)canbetrackedtotrigger thedegreeofassociativenessandincubationwithinthesystem. The importance of this study lies, on one hand, from the definition it purveys about the responsiveness between the configuration of a system and the internal structure. On the other hand, it provides an analyticalframeworktoacknowledgethedegreeofhomogeneitybetweenthepartsandthewhole. To study a configuration that underlies arrangements of nodes is about the exposition of facts that are called orderly when the observer can grasp both their overall structure and the ramifications in some details. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TheauthorwishestoacknowledgethecontributionbyDrUlrichSpeidel,whohasprovidedcleardirectionsin the study of deterministic information theory and the computation of string measures: entropy and complexity. I am grateful for his generous advice and comments. I am indebted also to Mr. Mohamed

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AbdullahforhisthoughtfulsuggestionsandtechnicalsupportandtoDrSheepDaltonforprovidingsoftware to compute the integration values. Last but not least, I wish to thank Prof. Alan Penn, Prof. Ruth ConroyDalton and Mr. Sean Hanna for the constructive supervision, critical and inspiring throughout. The authortakesfullresponsibilityforallremainingshortcomingsinthispaper. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnheim,R.(1971)EntropyandArt:AnEssayonDisorderandOrder,Berkeley,CA:UniversityOfCalifornia Press,(2001). Brettel,A.(2006)TheEffectofOrderandDisorderonHumanCognitivePerceptioninNavigatingthrough UrbanEnvironments,MScThesis,UniversityCollegeLondon. Gero,J.S,Kan,J.W.T.andPourmohamadi,M.(2011)AnalysingDesignProtocols:DevelopmentofMethods andTools,inICoRD'11onResearchintoDesign,IndianInstituteofScience,Bangalore,1012January2011. Goldschmidt,G(1990),Linkography:assessingdesignproductivity,inRTrappl(ed)Cyberbeticsandsystem 90WorldScientific,Singapore,pp291298. Goldschmidt, G. (1992) Criteria for Design Evaluation: A Processoriented Paradigm, in Y.E. Kalay (ed.) EvaluatingandPredictingDesignPerformance,NewYork:JohnWiley&Son,pp.6779. Goldschmidt,G.(1995)TheDesignerasaTeamofOne,DesignStudies,16(2),pp.189209. Hanson, J (1989) Order and Structure in Urban Space: A Morphological History of London, PhD Dissertation,UniversityCollegeLondon. Kan, J.W.T. and Gero, J.S. (2005a) Can Entropy Indicate the Richness of Idea Generation in Team Designing?inA.Bhatt(ed.),CAADRIA05,NewDelhi:TVB,Vol.1,pp.45157. Kan,J.W.T.andGero,J.S.(2005b)DesignBehaviourMeasurementbyQuantifyingLinkographyinProtocol Studies of Designing, in J.S. Gero and U. Lindemann (eds), Human Behaviour in Designing '05, Sydney, Australia:KeyCentreofDesignComputingandCognition,UniversityofSydney,pp.4758. Kan,J.W.TandGero,J.S.(2005c)EntropyMeasurementofLinkographyinProtocolStudiesofDesigning,In J.S.GeroandN.Bonnarde(eds),StudyingDesigners'05,Sydney,Australia:KeyCentreofDesignComputing andCognition,UniversityofSydney,pp.22945. Kan,J.W.T.andGero,J.S.(2007)CananObjectiveMeasurementofDesignProtocolsReflecttheQualityofa Design Outcome? International Conference On Engineering Design, ICED 07, Cite Des Sciences Et De L'Industrie,Paris,2831August2007. Kan,J.W.T.andGero,J.S.(2008)AcquiringInformationfromLinkographyinProtocolStudiesofDesigning, inDesignStudies,29(4),pp.31537. Kan,J.W.T.andGero,J.S.(2009a)UsingtheFBSOntologytoCaptureSemanticDesignInformationinDesign Protocol Studies, in J. McDonnell and P. Lloyd (eds), About: Designing: Analysing Design Meetings, CRC Press,pp.21329.

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