Encyclopedia of Modern China Vol 4 Part 2

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Appendixes
Tables: International Relations, Treaties Primary Sources Bibliography Conversion Tables, Chinese Romanization Glossary of Chinese Characters Index
179 187 305 313 315 405
177
Tables: International Relations, Treaties
Table 1: Major international treaties of the Peoples Republic of China, 19492007

Treaty Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance between the USSR and the Peoples Republic of China Signing date 02/14/1950 Remarks Set out the foundations for Sino-Soviet alliance against external aggression and common threats, on the principles of equality, mutual interests, state sovereignty, territorial integrity, and noninterference. The contracting parties were to consult each other on important issues. Expired in 1980. Stipulated that the contracting parties develop friendship and cooperation, in accordance with the principles of sovereignty and equality, noninterference, and territorial integrity. The parties affirmed their respect of each others culture, and were willing to consult each other on important issues and strengthen mutually beneficial economic and technical cooperation. Expired in 1990 (upon the reunification of Germany). Cemented friendship and cooperation between the contracting parties, in accordance with the principles of sovereignty and equality, noninterference, and territorial integrity. The parties were to consult each other on important issues. Expired in 1967. Stipulated that the contracting parties develop friendship and cooperation, in accordance with the principles of sovereignty and equality, noninterference, and territorial integrity. The parties were to resolve interstate disputes peacefully. Valid until 1964. Stipulated that the contracting parties develop friendship and cooperation, in accordance with the principles of sovereignty and equality, noninterference, and territorial integrity. The parties were to consult each other on important issues. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution between the contracting parties. Set out the principles for Sino-Mongolian relations in the spheres of Asian security, mutually beneficial cooperation, economic aid, and peaceful conflict resolution. Set out principles of equality, mutual benefit, nonaggression, and nonalignment with third countries against a contracting party, for developing peaceful and friendly relations. Set out principles of equality, mutual benefit, and friendship in political, economic, and cultural relations. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. A formal delimitation of the entire Chinese-Burmese boundary, setting out the boundary line and border regulation rules. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. A formal delimitation of the entire China-Nepalese boundary, setting out the boundary line and border regulation rules. Set out the principles of political and military alliance between China and the DPRK. The contracting parties intended to strengthen their cooperative relationship for the purpose of socialist reconstruction. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. Formulated the principles of amicable relations between China and the Arab Republic of Yemen. The parties were to conform to principles of nonaggression and peaceful resolution of disputes. The parties intended to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. A formal delimitation of the entire Chinese-Pakistani boundary, setting out the boundary line and border regulation rules. continued
Sino-(East) German Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
12/25/1955
Sino-Czechoslovak Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
03/27/1957
China-Yemen Friendship Treaty
01/13/1958
Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation between the Peoples Republic of China and the Peoples Republic of Hungary Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-Aggression between the Peoples Republic of China and the Union of Burma Sino-Nepalese Treaty of Peace and Friendship Sino-Mongolian Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-Aggression between Afghanistan and China Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of Guinea Boundary Treaty between the Peoples Republic of China and the Union of Burma Sino-Cambodian Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-Aggression Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of Indonesia Boundary Treaty between the Peoples Republic of China and the Kingdom of Nepal The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance between the Peoples Republic of China and the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of Ghana Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Arab Republic of Yemen
05/06/1959
01/28/1960 04/28/1960 05/31/1960
08/26/1960
09/13/1960
10/01/1960 12/19/1960
06/14/1961
10/05/1961 07/11/1961
08/18/1961
06/09/1964
Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville) Boundary Agreement between the Peoples Republic of China and the Government of Pakistan
10/02/1961
03/02/1963
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MODERN CHINA
179
Table 1: Major international treaties of the Peoples Republic of China, 19492007 [CONTINUED]
Treaty Boundary Treaty between the Peoples Republic of China and the Peoples Republic of Mongolia Boundary Treaty between the Peoples Republic of China and the Kingdom of Afghanistan Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of Mali Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the United Republic of Tanzania Shanghai Communiqu between the Peoples Republic of China and the United States Signing date 03/26/1963 11/22/1963 04/20/1965 Remarks A formal delimitation of the entire Chinese-Mongolian boundary, setting out the boundary line and border regulation rules. A formal delimitation of the entire Chinese-Afghan boundary, setting out the boundary line and border regulation rules. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. Stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. Began the process of normalization of China-U.S. relations. It called for Sino-American joint effort to maintain peace in Asia, and formulated the rationale for this. The parties refused from seeking hegemony in Asia and clarified their position on reducing tensions in Indochina, the Korean Peninsula, and South Asia. The parties agreed over the gradual withdrawal of US military from Taiwan, on the basis of the One China formula. The Treaty confirmed the five principles of peaceful coexistence as the foundation for Sino-Japanese relations. Though the Treaty is not directed against third countries, the parties oppose any countrys hegemony in Asia-Pacific. The Treaty makes provisions for enhanced Sino-Japanese economic ties. The statement of Sino-U.S. mutual recognition and the establishment of diplomatic relations between the parties on January 1, 1979. The parties affirmed their antihegemonic posture and reiterated their adherence to the One China principle. The statement of respect for each others sovereignty and territorial integrity and noninterference each others internal affairs. It formulated the two parties position regarding the Taiwan issue and the U.S. arms sales to Taiwan. Accomplished the delimitation of the 4,200-km boundary line between China and Russia, except for a few disputed areas. Determined the border as the center of the main river channel. Set out peaceful principles of border dispute resolution. Finalized the demarcation of the 700-km boundary line between the two countries. Set out principles of peaceful settlement of the boundary questions.
02/20/1965
02/27/1972
Treaty of Peace and Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and Japan
08/12/1978
Joint Communiqu on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Peoples Republic of China and the United States of America Sino-U.S. Joint Communiqu
01/01/1979
08/17/1982
Sino-Soviet Border Agreement on the Eastern Section of the Boundary
05/16/1991
Boundary Agreement between the Peoples Republic of China and the Peoples Democratic Republic of Laos Sino-Indian Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility Along the Line of Actual Control in the Sino-Indian Border Areas Border Junction Agreement between China, Laos, and Myanmar Sino-Kazakhstan Boundary Agreement Treaty on Friendly Relations and Cooperation between the Peoples Republic of China and Mongolia Agreement on the Western Section of the Boundary between China and Russia Sino-Kyrgyzstan Boundary Agreement Agreement on Confidence Building Measures in the Military Field along the Line of Actual Control in the China-India Border Areas Complimentary Sino-Kazakhstan Boundary Agreement Treaty of Land Border between China and Vietnam Treaty of Good Neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation between the Peoples Republic of China and the Russian Federation
12/03/1993 09/07/1993
04/08/1994 04/26/1994 04/29/1994
Demarcated the border junction between the three countries located in the middle of the Mekong River. Identified the Sino-Kazakhstan boundary line except a few disputed border areas. Reaffirmed the principle of sovereignty and noninterference in bilateral relations, and precluded either partys alignment with third countries targeted against the other. Delimited the 53-km boundary between China and Russia to the west of Mongolia. Accomplished the delimitation process of the 858-km-long Sino-Kyrgyzstan border. Further developed confidence-building measures at the disputed Sino-Indian border areas. Comprehensive settlement of the 1,700-km Sino-Kazakh border. Resolved the outstanding disputed border issues between the two countries. Set out the fundamentals of Sino-Russian strategic partnership, based on the principles of the international law, and mutual respect of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and national characteristics. Determined the fields of mutually beneficial cooperation and reaffirmed the absence of territorial claims toward each other. continued
09/03/1994 07/04/1996 11/29/1996
07/04/1998 12/31/1999 07/16/2001
180
Tabel 1: Major international treaties of the Peoples Republic of China, 19492007 [CONTINUED]
Treaty Treaty of Friendship between the Peoples Republic of China and the United Republic of Tanzania Complementary Agreement on China-Tajikistan Boundary Treaty of Good Neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation between the Peoples Republic of China and the Kyrgyz Republic Supplementary Agreement on the Eastern Section of the China-Russia Boundary Line Signing date 04/25/2002 Remarks The Treaty stipulated nonaggression obligations and peaceful resolution of disputes between the contracting parties. The parties were to develop mutually beneficial economic and cultural cooperation. The agreement marked the complete solution of the Sino-Tajikistan 430-km boundary issues. Set up a framework for bilateral cooperation between the two countries, including the issues of international and regional security, trade, separatism, and economic cooperation. Finalizes the delimitation of the Chinese-Russian border to the east of Mongolia, resolving the last two disputed parcels of land in the eastern section of Sino-Russian borderBolshoy Ussuriyski (Heihaizi) Island and Tarabarov (Yinlong) Island at the confluence of the Amur (Heilongjiang) and Ussuri Rivers. Provides a legal foundation for Sino-Pakistani friendship and strategic cooperation, neutralizing the other great powers influence in South and Central Asia. Stipulates that the PRC and Uzbekistan develop friendly cooperation based on equality and mutual trust. The contracting parties refrain from any kind of relationships with third parties or support any activities detrimental to the parties sovereignty and territorial integrity. Develops bilateral comprehensive and cooperative partnership, with a special emphasis on nontraditional security threats (terrorism and separatism), trade and economy. Sets up the foundation for coordination of the two countries policies in multilateral organizations. China pledges to participate in the process of Afghanistan reconstruction. Cements border delimitation agreements of 19912004, setting border inspection, signing, resource division rules, and cross-border regulations. Cements border delimitation agreements of 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, setting border inspection, signing, resource division rules, and cross-border regulations. Covers the issues of cooperation, separatism, terrorism, and One-China policy, and calls for stability secured bilaterally and within the SCO.
05/17/2002 06/24/2002
10/14/2004
China-Pakistan Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good-Neighborly Relations China-Uzbek Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
04/05/2005
05/25/2005
China-Afghanistan Treaty on Friendly Cooperation
06/19/2006
Agreement on Border Regime between Russia and China Agreement on Border Regime between Kazakhstan and China Good-Neighborly Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between China and Tajikistan
11/09/2006 12/20/2006
01/15/2007
SOURCE: China International Laws and Treaties with Foreign Countries Handbook. Washington, DC: International Business Publications, 2008; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China. http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/default.htm; Online Collection of the Treaties of the Peoples Republic of China. Beijing University. http://www.fsou.com/Html/mulu/eag/2.html; Rhode, Grant F., and Reid E. Whitlock. Treaties of the Peoples Republic of China, 19491978: An Annotated Compilation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980.
181
Table 2: Chinas membership in the international arms control and nonproliferation treaties
Signing/ accession date August 1952
Table 3: China as a state party to international human rights treaties

Signing/ accession date July 1952 July 1952 July 1980 December 1981 September 1982 April 1983 December 1986
Treaty Geneva Protocol (Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare) Treaty of Tlatelolco (Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean) Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material Inhuman Weapons Convention (IWC) The Antarctic Treaty Treaty on Principles Concerning the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons and on Their Destruction Treaty of Rarotonga (South Pacific Nuclear-FreeZone Treaty) Agreement between the Peoples Republic of China and the International Atomic Agency for the Application of Safeguards in China Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof (Seabed Arms Control Treaty) Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (Non-Proliferation Treaty, NPT) Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction Treaty of Pelindaba (African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty) Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
Treaty Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Times of War Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War
August 1973
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
June 1974 September 1981 June 1983 December 1983
November 1984
August 1990 October 1997 October 1998
February 1987 September 1988
December 1988 February 1989 February 1991
SOURCE: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/default.htm; United Nations Office of High Commissioner for Human Rights, http://www .ohchr.org; Wan, Ming. Human Rights Lawmaking in China: Domestic Politics, International Law, and International Politics. Human Rights Quarterly 29 (2007): 727753.
March 1992 January 1993
April 1996 September 1996 June 2005
SOURCE: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China. List of Arms Control, Disarmament and NonProliferation Treaties that China has Joined, http://www .fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/jks/tyylb/t141338.htm; Nuclear Threat Initiative, www.nti.org; Online Collection of the Treaties of the Peoples Republic of China. Beijing University, http://www.fsou.com/Html/mulu/eag/2.html.
182
Table 4: Countries recognizing the Peoples Republic of China and dates of establishment of diplomatic ties
Country Soviet Union Republic of Bulgaria Romania Republic of Hungary Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK, North Korea) Czechoslovakia (former Czechoslovak Socialist Republic) Republic of Poland Republic of Mongolia German Democratic Republic Republic of Albania Socialist Republic of Vietnam (formerly Democratic Republic of Vietnam-North Vietnam) Republic of India Republic of Indonesia Kingdom of Sweden Kingdom of Denmark Union of Burma Switzerland (Swiss Confederation) Principality of Liechtenstein Republic of Finland Islamic Republic of Pakistan Kingdom of Norway Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal Arab Republic of Egypt Syria (Syrian Arab Republic) Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Kingdom of Cambodia Republic of Iraq Kingdom of Morocco Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria Republic of the Sudan Republic of Guinea Republic of Ghana Republic of Cuba Republic of Mali Somalia Laos (Lao Peoples Democratic Republic) Republic of Uganda Republic of Kenya Republic of Burundi Tunisia (Tunisian Republic) France (French Republic) Republic of Congo United Republic of Tanzania Central African Republic Republic of Zambia Republic of Benin Islamic Republic of Mauritania Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen) Canada Republic of Equatorial Guinea Italy (Italian Republic) Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Republic of Chile Federal Republic of Nigeria State of Kuwait Republic of Cameroon Republic of San Marino Republic of Austria Republic of Sierra Leone Republic of Turkey Date 10/03/1949 10/04/1949 10/05/1949 10/06/1949 10/06/1949 10/06/1949 10/07/1949 10/16/1949 10/27/1949 11/23/1949 01/18/1950 04/01/1950 04/13/1950 05/09/1950 05/11/1950 06/08/1950 09/14/1950 09/14/1950 10/28/1950 05/21/1951 10/05/1954 01/02/1955 01/20/1955 08/01/1955 05/30/1956 08/01/1956 09/24/1956 02/07/1957 07/19/1958 08/25/1958 11/01/1958 12/20/1958 02/04/1959 10/04/1959 07/05/1960 09/28/1960 10/25/1960 12/14/1960 04/25/1961 10/18/1962 12/14/1963 12/21/1963 01/10/1964 01/27/1964 02/22/1964 04/26/1964 09/29/1964 10/29/1964 11/12/1964 07/19/1965 01/31/1968 10/13/1970 10/15/1970 11/06/1970 11/24/1970 12/15/1970 02/10/1971 03/22/1971 03/26/1971 05/06/1971 05/28/1971 07/29/1971 08/04/1971 Remarks Succeeded by the Russian Federation in 1991
Succeeded by the Czech Republic in 1993
Succeeded by Federal Republic of Germany in 1990
Renamed Union of Myanmar 06/18/1989
Succeeded by Serbia in 2003
Succeeded by the Republic of Yemen in 1990
Relations were disrupted 19651971
Successor of Tanganyika and Zanzibar (relations established in 1961 and 1963, respectively) From 07/1991 to 01/1998 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China From 04/1966 to 12/1972 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China Succeeded by the Republic of Yemen in 1990
continued
183
Table 4: Countries recognizing the Peoples Republic of China and dates of establishment of diplomatic ties [CONTINUED]
Country Islamic Republic of Iran Kingdom of Belgium Republic of Peru Lebanon (Lebanese Republic) Republic of Rwanda Republic of Senegal Republic of Iceland Republic of Cyprus Republic of Malta Mexico (United Mexican States) Argentina (Argentine Republic) United Kingdom Republic of Mauritius Kingdom of the Netherlands Greece (Hellenic Republic) Cooperative Republic of Guyana Togo (Togolese Republic) Japan Federal Republic of Germany Republic of Maldives Zaire Republic of Madagascar Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg) Republic of Jamaica Republic of Chad Commonwealth of Australia New Zealand Kingdom of Spain Burkina Faso Republic of Guinea Bissau Gabon (Gabonese Republic) Malaysia Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Republic of Niger Federative Republic of Brazil Republic of The Gambia Republic of Botswana Republic of the Philippines Republic of Mozambique Kingdom of Thailand Democratic Republic of So Tom and Prncipe Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Republic of the Fiji Islands Independent State of Samoa Union of the Comoros Republic of Cape Verde Republic of Suriname Republic of Seychelles Independent State of Papua New Guinea Republic of Liberia Date 08/16/1971 10/25/1971 11/02/1971 11/09/1971 11/12/1971 12/07/1971 12/08/1971 12/14/1972 01/31/1972 02/14/1972 02/19/1972 03/13/1972 04/15/1972 05/18/1972 06/05/1972 06/27/1972 09/19/1972 09/29/1972 10/11/1972 10/14/1972 11/19/1972 11/06/1972 11/16/1972 11/21/1972 11/28/1972 12/21/1972 12/22/1972 03/09/1973 09/15/1973 03/15/1974 04/20/1974 05/31/1974 06/20/1974 06/28/1974 07/20/1974 08/15/1974 12/14/1974 01/06/1975 06/09/1975 06/25/1975 07/01/1975 07/12/1975 10/04/1975 11/05/1975 11/06/1975 11/13/1975 04/25/1976 05/28/1976 06/30/1976 10/12/1976 02/17/1977 Remarks
From 01/1996 to 10/2005 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
Charg daffaires level since 06/1954 Charg daffaires level since 11/1954
Currently Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 02/1994 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China From 05/1990 to 04/1998 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
From 06/1992 to 08/1996 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China In 07/1995 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
In 05/1997 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
From 10/1989 to 08/1993 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. From 09/1997 to 10/2003 diplomatic relations were frozen.
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Barbados Sultanate of Oman Libya (Great Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) United States of America Republic of Djibouti Portugal (Portuguese Republic) Ireland
04/07/1977 05/30/1977 05/25/1978 08/09/1978 01/01/1979 01/08/1979 02/08/1979 06/22/1979
continued
184
Country Republic of Ecuador Republic of Colombia Republic of Zimbabwe Republic of Kiribati Republic of Vanuatu Antigua and Barbuda Republic of Angola Republic of Cte dIvoire Kingdom of Lesotho United Arab Emirates Republic of Bolivia Grenada Republic of Nicaragua Belize Oriental Republic of Uruguay State of Qatar Palestine Kingdom of Bahrain Federated States of Micronesia Republic of Namibia Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Republic of Singapore Republic of the Marshall Islands Republic of Estonia Republic of Latvia Republic of Lithuania Brunei (Brunei Darussalam) Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Kazakhstan Republic of Tajikistan Ukraine Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic) Turkmenistan Republic of Belarus State of Israel Republic of Moldova Republic of Azerbaijan Republic of Armenia Republic of Georgia Republic of Slovenia Republic of Croatia Republic of Korea (South Korea) Slovakia (Slovak Republic) State of Eritrea Republic of Macedonia Principality of Andorra Principality of Monaco Bosnia and Herzegovina Commonwealth of The Bahamas Cook Islands Saint Lucia Republic of South Africa Kingdom of Tonga Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (East Timor) Republic of Nauru Date 01/02/1980 02/07/1980 04/18/1980 06/25/1980 03/26/1982 01/01/1983 01/12/1983 03/02/1983 04/30/1983 11/01/1984 07/09/1985 10/01/1985 12/07/1985 02/06/1987 02/03/1988 07/09/1988 11/20/1988 04/18/1989 09/11/1989 03/22/1990 07/21/1990 10/03/1990 11/16/1990 09/11/1991 09/12/1991 09/14/1991 09/30/1991 01/02/1992 01/03/1992 01/04/1992 01/04/1992 01/05/1992 01/06/1992 01/20/1992 01/24/1992 01/30/1992 04/02/1992 04/06/1992 06/09/1992 05/12/1992 05/13/1992 08/24/1992 01/01/1993 05/24/1993 10/12/1993 06/29/1994 01/16/1995 04/03/1995 05/23/1997 07/25/1997 09/01/1997 01/01/1998 11/02/1998 05/20/2002 07/21/2002 Remarks
In 11/2003 established diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
From 07/1989 to 01/2005 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China In 11/1990 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China In 10/1989 established diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
In 11/1998 established diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
Successor state of former Czechoslovakia
In 04/2007 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China
In 05/2005 resumed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China continued
185
Country Commonwealth of Dominica Montenegro Republic of Costa Rica Niue Republic of Malawi Date 03/31/2004 07/06/2006 06/01/2007 12/12/2007 12/28/2007 Remarks
SOURCE: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/default.htm; Online Collection of the Treaties of the Peoples Republic of China. Beijing University, http://www.fsou.com/Html/mulu/eag/2.html.
Table 5: Countries maintaining diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Year of establishment/ resuming of diplomatic relations 1942 1954 1956 1957 1957 1960 1961 1965 1968 1979 19802002; 2005 1981 1983 1983 19841997; 2007 1989 1990 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2003
Table 6: Major unequal treaties

Treaty Treaty of Nanking Treaty of the Bogue Treaty of Wanghsia Treaty of Whampoa Treaty of Aigun Treaty of Tientsin Convention of Peking Treaty of Tientsin Chefoo Convention Treaty of Tientsin Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking Treaty of Shimonoseki Li-Lobanov Treaty Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory Boxer Protocol Year 1842 1843 1844 1844 1858 1858 1860 1861 1876 1885 1887 1895 1896 1898 1901 Imperialist powers United Kingdom United Kingdom United States France Russia France, United Kingdom, Russia, United States United Kingdom, France, Russia Prussia, German Customs Union United Kingdom France Portugal Japan Russia United Kingdom United Kingdom, United States, Japan, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, AustriaHungary, Belgium, Spain, Netherlands
Country Vatican City (The Holy See) Republic of Panama Republic of Haiti Dominican Republic Republic of Paraguay Republic of Guatemala Republic of El Salvador Republic of Honduras Kingdom of Swaziland Tuvalu Republic of Nauru Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Solomon Islands Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Belize Republic of Nicaragua Burkina Faso Republic of The Gambia ~ Democratic Republic of Sao Tom and Prncipe Republic of the Marshall Islands Republic of Palau Republic of Kiribati
SOURCE: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan), http://www.mofa.gov.tw.
186
Primary Sources
Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria Lin Tse-Hsu (Lin Zexu), 1839 Treaty of Nanking August 29, 1842 The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom 1853 A Proclamation against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi Zeng Guofan, 1854 Treaty of Tianjin 1858
189 190 192
The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth Chiang Kai-shek, 1938 How to Be a Good Communist Liu Shaoqi, 1939 On Art and Literature Mao Zedong, 1942 Chinas Destiny Chiang Kai-shek, 1943 Cairo Declaration Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Chiang Kai-shek, 1943 The Common Program of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference 1949 The Chinese People Have Stood Up Mao Zedong, 1949 San Francisco Peace Treaty 1951 Treaty of Taipei 1952 On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People Mao Zedong, 1957 A New Population Theory Ma Yinchu, 1957 On Khrushchovs [Khrushchevs] Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World Mao Zedong, 1964
211 214 217 218 220
193 195
On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons and On the Adoption of Western Learning 196 Feng Guifen, 1861 Letters of a Chinaman to English Readers Ah Sin [pseudonym], 18921902 Treaty of Shimonoseki 1895 A Boxer Doggerel c. 1900 A Boxer Edict, Issued by the Lord of Wealth and Happiness c. 1900 Revolutionary Army tract Tsou Jung (Zou Rong), 1903 Twenty-one Demands 1915 The Three Peoples Principles Sun Yat-sen, 1924 197 202 204
221 224 225 226
205 205 208 209
228 230
240
187
Primary Sources
The Twenty-three Articles Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, 1965 Sixteen Points: Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution 1966 Preface to Quotations from Chairman Mao Lin Biao, 1967 Shanghai Communique (First Joint of the USA and the PRC) Communique 1972
241
Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China 1982
277
Joint Communique on Arms Sales to Taiwan 279 1982 247 252 Sino-British Joint Declaration 1984 280
Implementing The Three Peoples Principles 282 Jiang Jingguo, 1985 The Struggle with Communists Is a Struggle over Lifestyle Jiang Jingguo, 1987 Another Discussion of One-Party Autocracy 1989 Reflections on the Chinese Communist Party 1989 Hunger Strike Manifesto Liu Xiaobo, with Zhou Duo, Hou Dejian, and Gao Xin, 1989 The Truth about the Beijing Turmoil 1990 White Paper on Human Rights, Preface State Council Information Office, Peoples Republic of China, 1991 283 283
253
On the Social Basis of the Lin Piao [Lin Biao] Anti-Party Clique 256 Yao Wenyuan, 1975 Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 1978 The Fifth Modernization: Democracy Wei Jingsheng, 1978 Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future Deng Xiaoping, 1978 Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Peoples Republic of China and the United States of America 1979 A Message to Compatriots in Taiwan National Peoples Congress, 1979 Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles Deng Xiaoping, 1979 Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriani Fallaci Deng Xiaoping with Oriana Fallaci, 1980 Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 1981
284 285
256 257
288 290
262
268 269 270
The Taiwan Question and Reunification of China Taiwan Affairs Office, 1993 Marriage Law of the Peoples Republic of China 2001 Jiang Zemins Speech at the Meeting Celebrating the 80th Anniversary of the Founding of the Communist Party of China Jiang Zemin, 2001 Anti-Secession Law 2005 Charter 08 2008
291
293
272
298 300 301
276
188
LETTER OF ADVICE TO QUEEN VICTORIA

SOURCE
Lin Tse-Hsu (Lin Zexu). Letter to the English Ruler. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 202205. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. This famous 1839 letter prepared by Lin Zexu, an imperial commissioner, for the emperor to send to Queen Victoria, vividly reflects the cultural gap between the Confucian order of China and the thrusting mercantilism of Britain. Neither Lin s moral reasoning against the opium trade nor his condescending tone was likely to persuade the British to change course.
INTRODUCTION
persons and bad, unevenly. Consequently there are those who smuggle opium to seduce the Chinese people and so cause the spread of the poison to all provinces. Such persons who only care to profit themselves, and disregard their harm to others, are not tolerated by the laws of Heaven and are unanimously hated by human beings. His Majesty the Emperor, upon hearing of this, is in a towering rage. He has specially sent me, his commissioner, to come to Guangdong, and together with the governor-general and governor jointly to investigate and settle this matter. . . . We find that your country is sixty or seventy thousand li [one li is roughly a third of a mile] from China. Yet there are barbarian ships that strive to come here for trade for the purpose of making a great profit. The wealth of China is used to profit the barbarians. That is to say, the great profit made by barbarians is all taken from the rightful share of China. By what right do they then in return use the poisonous drug to injure the Chinese people? Even though the barbarians may not necessarily intend to do us harm, yet in coveting profit to an extreme, they have no regard for injuring others. Let us ask, where is your conscience? I have heard that the smoking of opium is very strictly forbidden by your country; that is because the harm caused by opium is clearly understood. Since it is not permitted to do harm to your own country, even less should you let the harm be passed on to other countriesmuch less to China! Of all that China exports to foreign countries, there is not a single thing that is not beneficial to people; they are of benefit when eaten, or of benefit when used, or of benefit when resold; all are beneficial. Is there a single article from China that has done any harm to foreign countries? Take tea and rhubarb, for example; the foreign countries cannot get along for a single day without them. If China cuts off these benefits with no sympathy for those who are to suffer, then what can the barbarians rely upon to keep themselves alive? Moreover the woolens, camlets, and longells [i.e., textiles] of foreign countries cannot be woven unless they obtain
A communication: Magnificently our great emperor soothes and pacifies China and the foreign countries, regarding all with the same kindness. If there is profit then he shares it with the peoples of the world; if there is harm, then he removes it on behalf of the world. This is because he takes the mind of Heaven-and-earth as his mind. The kings of your honorable country by a tradition handed down from generation to generation have always been noted for their politeness and submissiveness. We have read your successive tributary memorials saying: In general our countrymen who go to trade in China have always received His Majesty the Emperors gracious treatment and equal justice, and so on. Privately we are delighted with the way in which the honorable rulers of your country deeply understand the grand principles and are grateful for the Celestial grace. For this reason the Celestial Court in soothing those from afar has redoubled its polite and kind treatment. The profit from trade has been enjoyed by them continuously for two hundred years. This is the source from which your country has become known for its wealth. But after a long period of commercial intercourse, there appear among the crowd of barbarians both good
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Treaty of Nanking
Chinese silk. If China again cuts off this beneficial export, what profit can the barbarians expect to make? As for other foodstuffs, beginning with candy, ginger, cinnamon, and so forth, and articles for use, beginning with silk, satin, chinaware, and so on, all the things that must be had by foreign countries are innumerable. On the other hand, articles coming from the outside to China can only be used as toys. We can take them or get along without them. Since they are not needed by China, what difficulty would there be if we closed the frontier and stopped the trade? Nevertheless, our Celestial Court lets tea, silk, and other goods be shipped without limit and circulated everywhere without begrudging it in the slightest. This is for no other reason but to share the benefit with the people of the whole world. The goods from China carried away by your country not only supply your own consumption and use but also can be divided up and sold to other countries, producing a triple profit. Even if you do not sell opium, you still have this threefold profit. How can you bear to go further, selling products injurious to others in order to fulfill your insatiable desire?. . . We have further learned that in London, the capital of your honorable rule, and in Scotland, Ireland, and other places originally no opium has been produced. Only in several places of India under your control, such as Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Patna, Benares, and Malwa, has opium been planted from hill to hill and ponds have been opened for its manufacture. For months and years work is continued in order to accumulate the poison. The obnoxious odor ascends, irritating Heaven and frightening the spirits. Indeed you, O King, can eradicate the opium plant in these places, hoe over the fields entirely, and sow in its stead the five grains [i.e., millet, barley, wheat, and so on]. Anyone who dares again attempt to plant and manufacture opium should be severely punished. This would really be a great, benevolent government policy that will increase the commonweal and get rid of evil. For this, Heaven must support you and the spirits must bring you good fortune, prolonging your old age and extending your descendants. All will depend on this act. . . . Now we have set up regulations governing the Chinese people. He who sells opium shall receive the death penalty and he who smokes it also the death penalty. Now consider this: If the barbarians do not bring opium, then how can the Chinese people resell it, and how can they smoke it? The fact is that the wicked barbarians beguile the Chinese people into a death trap. How then can we grant life only to these barbarians? He who takes the life of even one person still has to atone for it with his own life; yet is the harm done by opium limited to the taking of one life only? Therefore in the new regulations, in regard to those barbarians who bring opium to China,
the penalty is fixed at decapitation or strangulation. This is what is called getting rid of a harmful thing on behalf of mankind. . . . Our Celestial Dynasty rules over and supervises the myriad states and surely possesses unfathomable spiritual dignity. Yet the emperor cannot bear to execute people without having first tried to reform them by instruction. . . . May you, O King, check your wicked and sift out your vicious people before they come to China, in order to guarantee the peace of your nation, to show further the sincerity of your politeness and submissiveness, and to let the two countries enjoy together the blessings of peace. How fortunate, how fortunate indeed! After receiving this dispatch will you immediately give us a prompt reply regarding the details and circumstances of your cutting off the opium traffic. Be sure not to put this off. The above is what has to be communicated. [Vermilion endorsement of the emperor:] This is appropriately worded and quite comprehensive.
TREATY OF NANKING
SOURCE
William Frederick Mayers, ed. Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers, 13. Shanghai and London, 1877. Reprint. Taipei: Cheng-Wen, 1966. This treaty signed at the conclusion of the first Opium War (18391842) was the first in a long series of unequal treaties subsequently imposed on China by eighteen foreign powers. It granted Britain the island of Hong Kong in perpetuity, promised a fair and regular tariff, opened the ports of Guangzhou (Canton in the document below), Xiamen (Amoy below), Fuzhou (Fuchau-fu), Ningbo (Ningpo) and Shanghai to British residence and trade, and promised an indemnity to pay for the opium confiscated by the Chinese and for the cost of the war.
INTRODUCTION
TREATY OF PEACE, FRIENDSHIP, AND COMMERCE BETWEEN HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND AND THE EMPEROR OF CHINA
Signed, in the English and Chinese Languages, at Nanking, 29th August, 1842. Ratifications exchanged at Hongkong, 26th June, 1843. Her Majesty, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, being desirous of putting an end to the misunderstandings and consequent hostilities which have arisen between the two countries, have resolved to conclude a treaty for that purpose, and have therefore named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: Her Majesty the
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Treaty of Nanking
Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Sir Henry Pottinger Bart., a Major-General in the service of the East India Company, &c., &c.; and His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China, the High Commissioners Ke-ying, a Member of the Imperial House, a Guardian of the Crown Prince, and General of the Garrison of Canton: and Ilpu , of the Imperial Kindred, graciously per mitted to wear the insignia of the first rank, and the distinction of a peacocks feather, lately Minister and Governor-General, &c., and now Lieut.-General commanding at Cha pu :Who, after having communicated to each other their respective full powers, and found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles: Article I. There shall henceforward be peace and friendship between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their respective subjects, who shall enjoy full security and protection for their persons and property within the dominions of the other. Article II. His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees, that British subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint, at the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy, Fuchau-fu, Ningpo, and Shanghai; and Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., will appoint Superintendents, or Consular Officers to reside at each of the abovenamed cities or towns, to be the medium of communication between the Chinese authorities and the said merchants, and to see that the just duties and other dues of the Chinese Government, as hereafter provided for, are duly discharged by Her Britannic Majestys subjects. Article III. It being obviously necessary and desirable that British subjects should have some port whereat they may careen and refit their ships when required, and keep stores for that purpose, His Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., the Island of Hongkong, to be possessed in perpetuity by Her Britannic Majesty, her heirs and successors, and to be governed by such laws and regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., shall see fit to direct. Article IV. The Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Six Millions of Dollars, as the value of the Opium which was delivered up at Canton in the month of March, 1839, as a ransom for the lives of Her Britannic Majestys Superintendent and
Subjects, who had been imprisoned and threatened with death by the Chinese high officers. Article V. The Government of China having compelled the British merchants trading at Canton to deal exclusively with certain Chinese merchants, called Hong-merchants (or Co-hong), who had been licensed by the Chinese Government for that purpose, the Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all ports where British merchants may reside, and to permit them to carry on their mercantile transactions with whatever persons they please; and His Imperial Majesty further agrees to pay to the British Government the sum of Three Millions of Dollars, on account of debts due to British subjects by some of the said Hongmerchants, or Co-hong, who have become insolvent, and who owe very large sums of money to subjects of Her Britannic Majesty. Article VI. The Government of Her Britannic Majesty having been obliged to send out an expedition to demand and obtain redress for the violent and unjust proceedings of the Chinese high authorities towards Her Britannic Majestys Officer and Subjects, the Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Twelve Millions of Dollars, on account of the expenses incurred; and Her Britannic Majestys Plenipotentiary voluntarily agrees, on behalf of Her Majesty, to deduct from the said amount of Twelve Millions of Dollars, any sums which may have been received by Her Majestys combined forces, as ransom for cities, and towns in China, subsequent to the 1st day of August, 1841. Article VII. It is agreed, that the total amount of Twenty-one Millions of Dollars, described in the three preceding Articles, shall be paid as follows: Six millions immediately. Six millions in 1843; that is, three millions on or before the 30th of the month of June, and three millions on or before the 31st of December. Five millions in 1844; that is, two millions and a-half on or before the 30th of June, and two millions and a-half on or before the 31st December. Four millions in 1845; that is, two millions on or before the 30th of June, and two millions on or before the 31st of December. And it is further stipulated, that interest, at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum, shall be paid by the Government of China on any portion of the above sums that are not punctually discharged at the periods fixed.
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The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom
Article VIII. The Emperor of China agrees to release, unconditionally, all subjects of Her Britannic Majesty (whether natives of Europe or India), who may be in confinement at this moment in any part of the Chinese Empire. Article IX. The Emperor of China agrees to publish and promulgate, under His Imperial Sign Manual and Seal, a full and entire amnesty and act of indemnity to all subjects of China, on account of their having resided under, or having had dealings and intercourse with, or having entered the service of Her Britannic Majesty, or of Her Majestys officers; and His Imperial Majesty further engages to release all Chinese subjects who may be at this moment in confinement for similar reasons. Article X. His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees to establish at all the ports which are, by the second Article of this Treaty, to be thrown open for the resort of British merchants, a fair and regular Tariff of Export and Import Customs and other dues, which Tariff shall be publicly notified and promulgated for general information; and the Emperor further engages that, when British merchandise shall have once paid at any of the said ports the regulated customs and dues, agreeable to the Tariff to be hereafter fixed, such merchandise may be conveyed by Chinese merchants to any province or city in the interior of the Empire of China, on paying a further amount as Transit duties, which shall not exceed per cent. on the Tariff value of such goods. Article XI. It is agreed that Her Britannic Majestys Chief High Officer in China shall correspond with the Chinese High Officers, both at the Capital and in the Provinces, under the term communication: the subordinate British Officers and Chinese High Officers in the Provinces under the term statement, on the part of the former, and on the part of the latter, declaration, and the subordinates of both countries on a footing of perfect equality; merchants and others not holding official situations, and therefore not included in the above, on both sides to use the term representation in all papers addressed to, or intended for the notice of the respective governments. Article XII. On the assent of the Emperor of China to this Treaty being received, and the discharge of the first instalment of money, Her Britannic Majestys forces will retire from
Nanking and the Grand Canal, and will no longer molest or stop the trade of China. The military post at Chinhai will also be withdrawn; but the islands of Ku lang-su , and that of Chusan, will continue to be held by Her Majestys forces until the money payments, and the arrangements for opening the ports to British merchants, be completed. Article XIII. The ratification of this Treaty by Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., and His Majesty the Emperor of China, shall be exchanged as soon as the great distance which separates England from China will admit; but, in the meantime, counterpart copies of it, signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on behalf of their respective Sovereigns, shall be mutually delivered, and all its provisions and arrangements shall take effect. Done at Nanking, and signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on board H.B.M.s ship Cornwallis, this 29th day of August, 1842; corresponding with the Chinese date, 24th day of the 7th month, in the 22nd year of TaouKwang. Approved and ratified by the Emperor on the 24th day of the 9th month, in the 22nd year of his reign (27th October, 1842.)
THE LAND SYSTEM OF THE HEAVENLY KINGDOM

SOURCE
Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 224 226. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. The Taiping Uprising (18511864) attracted millions of followers, affected much of China, and posed a serious threat to the Qing dynasty. Taiping ideology was based on the idea that, being born of the same Father, men and women were all brothers and sisters under Heaven and should be equal. Egalitarianism was reflected in their laws though not always in their practice. The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom, excerpted below, proposed that land should be equally divided among families on the basis of the number of family members over sixteen. It also made provision for the support of those who were unable to work.
INTRODUCTION
All officials who have rendered meritorious service are to receive hereditary stipends from the court. For the later adherents to the Taiping cause, every family in each military district (jun) is to provide one man to serve as a militia man. During an emergency they are to fight under the command of their officers to destroy the enemy and to
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A Proclamation Against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi
suppress bandits. In peacetime they are to engage in agriculture under the direction of their officers, tilling the land and providing support for their superiors. All land [in the country] is to be classified into nine grades. . . . The distribution of all land is to be based on the number of persons in each family, regardless of sex. A large family is entitled to more land, a small one to less. The land distributed should not be all of one grade but mixed. Thus for a family of six, for instance, three are to have fertile land and three barren landhalf and half of each. All the land in the country is to be cultivated by the whole population together. If there is an insufficiency [of land] in this place, move some of the people to another place. If there is an insufficiency in another place, move them to this one. All lands in the country are also to be mutually supporting with respect to abundance and scarcity. If this place has a drought, then draw upon the abundant harvest elsewhere in order to relieve the distress here. If there is a drought there, draw upon the abundant harvest here in order to relieve the distress there. Thus all the people of the country may enjoy the great blessings of the Heavenly Father, Supreme Ruler and Lord God-on-High. The land is for all to till, the food for all to eat, the clothes for all to wear, and money for all to spend. Inequality shall exist nowhere; none shall suffer from hunger or cold. . . . Mulberry trees are to be planted along the walls [of villages] throughout the country. All women are required to grow silkworms, to do weaving, and to make clothes. Every family of the country is required to raise five hens and two hogs, in keeping with the proper breeding seasons. During the harvest season, the Group Officer should direct [the grain collection by] the sergeants. Deducting the amount needed to feed the twenty-five families until next harvest season, he should collect the rest of the produce for storage in state granaries. The same method of collection is applicable to other kinds of products, such as barley, beans, ramie fiber, cotton clothes, silk, domestic animals, silver and copper cash, and so on, for all people under Heaven are of one family belonging to the Heavenly Father, the Supreme Ruler, the Lord God-on-High. Nobody should keep private property. All things should be presented to the Supreme Ruler, so that He will be enabled to make use of them and distribute them equally to all members of his great world-family. Thus all will be sufficiently fed and clothed. . . . The Group Officer must keep a record of the amount of grain and cash he has collected and report them to the Treasurers and Receiving and Disbursing Tellers. A state treasury and a church are to be established among every twenty-five families, under the direct administration of the Group Officer. All expenditures of the twenty-five families for weddings, births, or other festival occasions are to be
paid for out of the state treasury. But there is to be a fixed limit; not a penny is to be spent beyond that. . . . Thus, throughout the land in the contracting of marriages, wealth need be no consideration. In the twenty-five family units pottery-making, metalworking, carpentry, masonry, and other such skilled work should be performed by the sergeants and militiamen in the off-seasons from farming and military service. In conducting the different kinds of festival ceremonies for the twenty-five families under his administration, the Group Officer should hold religious services to pray to the Heavenly Father, the Supreme Ruler and Lord God-on-High. All the bad customs of the past must be completely abolished.
A PROCLAMATION AGAINST THE BANDITS OF GUANGDONG AND GUANGXI

SOURCE
Zeng Guofan. A Proclamation against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi, 1854. In The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection, ed. Pei-Kai Cheng and Michael Lestz with Jonathan D. Spence, 146 149. New York: Norton, 1999. By 1854 the Taiping Uprising, which had originated in Guangxi Province, established its capital in Nanjing, controlled much of the central and lower Yangzi (Yangtze) area, and threatened North China. The Qing official Zeng Guofan was one of the major figures in the suppression of the rebellion. This proclamation reflects Zengs deeply Confucian outlook as he attacks the Christianity of the Yue (Yueh) bandits (the Taipings).
INTRODUCTION
It has been five years since the rebels Hung Hsiuchuan and Yang Hsiu-ching started their rebellion. They have inflicted bitter sorrow upon millions people and devastated more than 5,000 li of chou [regions] and hsien [counties]. Wherever they pass, boats of all sizes, and people rich and poor alike, have all been plundered and stripped bare; not one inch of grass has been left standing. The clothing has been stripped from the bodies of those captured by these bandits, and their money has been seized. Anyone with five taels or more of silver who does not contribute it to the bandits is forthwith decapitated. Men are given one ho [1/10th pint] of rice per day, and forced to march in the forefront in battle, to construct city walls, and dredge moats. Women are also given one ho of rice per day, and forced to stand guard on the parapets at night, and to haul rice and carry coal. The feet of women who refuse to unbind them are cut off and shown to other women as a warning. The corpses of
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A Proclamation Against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi
boatmen who secretly conspired to fell were hung upside down to show other boatmen as a warning. The Yueh [Guangdong and Guangxi] bandits indulge themselves in luxury and high position, while the people in our own Yangtze provinces living under their coercion are treated worse than animals. This cruelty and brutality appalls anyone with blood in his veins. Ever since the times of Yao, Shun, and the Three Dynasties, sages, generation after generation, have upheld the Confucian teachings, stressing proper human relationships, between ruler and minister, father and son, superiors and subordinates, the high and the low, all in their proper place, just as hats and shoes are not interchangeable. The Yueh bandits have stolen a few scraps from the foreign barbarians and worship the Christian religion. From their bogus ruler and bogus chief ministers down to their soldiers and menial underlings, all are called brothers. They say that only heaven can be called father; aside from him, all fathers among the people are called brothers, and all mothers are called sisters. Peasants are not allowed to till the land for themselves and pay taxes, for they say that the fields all belong to the Tien Wang [Heavenly King]. Merchants are not allowed to trade for profit, for they say that all goods belong to the Tien Wang. Scholars may not read the Confucian classics, for they have their so-called teachings of Jesus and the New Testament. In a single day several thousand years of Chinese ethical principles and proper human relationships, classical books, social institutions and statutes have all been completely swept away. This is not just a crisis for our Ching dynasty, but the most extraordinary crisis of all time for the Confucian teachings, which is why our Confucius and Mencius are weeping bitterly in the nether world. How can any educated person sit idly by without thinking of doing something? Since ancient times, those with meritorious accomplishments during their lifetimes have become spirits after death; the Kingly Way governs the living and the Way of the Spirits governs among the dead. Even rebellious ministers and wicked sons of the most vicious and vile sort show respect and awe toward the spirits. When Li Tzu-cheng reached Chu-fu [Confucius birthplace in Shandong Province], he did not molest the Temple of the Sage. When Chang Hsien-chung reached Tzu-tung, he sacrificed to Wen Chang [the patron spirit of literature]. But the Yueh bandits burned the school at Shen chou, destroyed the wooden tablet of Confucius, and wildly scattered the tablets of the Ten Paragons in the two corridors all over the ground. Afterwards, wherever they have passed, in every district, the first thing they have done is to burn down the temples, defiling the shrines and maiming the statues even of loyal ministers and righteous heroes such as the awesome Kuan Yu and Yuen Fei. Even Buddhist and Taoist temples, shrines of
guardian deities and altars to local gods have all been burned, and every statue destroyed. The ghosts and spirits in the world of darkness are enraged at this, and want to avenge their resentment. I, the Governor-General, having received His Imperial Majestys command leading 20,000 men advancing together on land and water, vow that I shall sleep on nettles and ship gall [to strengthen my determination] to exterminate these vicious traitors, to rescue our captured boats, and to deliver the persecuted people, not only in order to relieve the Emperor of his strenuous and conscientious labors from dawn to dusk, but also to comfort Confucius and Mencius for their silent sufferings over the proper human relationships; and only to avenge the millions who have died unjust deaths, but also to avenge the insults to all the spirits. Therefore, let this proclamation be disseminated far and near so that all may know the following: Any redblooded hero who assembles a company of righteous troops to assist in our extermination campaign will be taken in as my personal friend, and the troops given rations. Any Confucian gentleman who cherishes the Way, is pained at Christianity running rampant over the land, and who, in a towering rage, wants to defend our Way, will be made a member of the Governor-Generals personal staff and treated as a guest teacher. Any benevolent person, stirred by moral indignation, who contributes silver or assists with provisions, will be given a treasury receipt and a commission from the Board of Civil Appointments for a donation of 1,000 chin [1 chin 1 1/5 lb.] or less, and a special memorial will be composed requesting a liberal reward for a donation of over 1,000 chin. If anyone voluntarily returns after a long stay among the bandits, and kills one of their leaders or leads a city to surrender, he will be taken into the army of the Governor-General to the Emperor, will be given an official title. Anyone who has lived under the bandits coercion for some years, whose hair has grown several inches long, but who discards his weapon when the fighting is about to commence and returns to the fold barehanded, will receive an amnesty from the death sentence, and will be given travel expenses to return home. In the past, at the end of the Han, Tang, Yuan, and Ming, bands of rebels were innumerable, all because of foolish rulers and misgovernment, so that none of these rebellions could be stamped out. But today the Son of Heaven is deeply concerned and examines his character in order to reform himself, worships Heaven, and is sympathetic to the people. He has not increased the land tax, nor has he conscripted soldiers from households. With the profound benevolence of the sages, he is suppressing the cruel and worthless bandits. It does not require any great wisdom to see that sooner or later they will all be destroyed.
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Treaty of Tianjin
Those of you who have been coerced into joining the rebels, or who willingly follow the traitors, and oppose the Imperial Crusade [are warned that] when the Imperial forces sweep down it will no longer be possible to discriminate between the good and evilevery person will be crushed. I, the Governor-General, am scant in virtue and of meager ability. I rely solely on two words, trust and loyalty, as the foundation for running the army. Above are the sun and the moon, below the ghosts and spirits; in this world, the vast waters of the Yangtze, and in the other world, the souls of loyal ministers and stalwart heroes who gave their lives in battle against previous rebellions. Let all peer into my heart and listen to my words. Upon arrival, this proclamation immediately has the force of law. Do not disregard it!
TREATY OF TIANJIN
INTRODUCTION
option of the British Government. He shall not be called upon to perform any ceremony derogatory to him as representing the Sovereign of an independent nation on a footing of equality with that of China. On the other hand, he shall use the same forms of ceremony and respect to His Majesty the Emperor as are employed by the ambassadors, ministers, or diplomatic agents of Her Majesty towards the Sovereigns of independent and equal European nations. It is further agreed, that Her Majestys Government may acquire at Peking a site for building, or may hire houses for the accommodation of Her Majestys Mission, and that the Chinese Government will assist it in so doing. Her Majestys Representative shall be at liberty to choose his own servants and attendants, who shall not be subjected to any kind of molestation whatever. Any person guilty of disrespect or violence to Her Majestys Representative, or to any member of his family or establishment, in deed or word, shall be severely punished.
VIII.
The Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Tianjin (1858), excerpted below, was a building block in the treaty port system. Originally intended to end the Second Opium War, the treaty included provisions whereby the Chinese government accepted western norms of diplomatic representation. In addition to reaffirming concessions made in the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, the Treaty of Tianjin gave the British the right of diplomatic residence at Beijing (Peking), the right to travel in the interior, a revised tariff rate and an indemnity. Hostilities broke out again soon after the treaty was signed but its provisions were confirmed in the 1860 Treaty of Beijing (The Convention of Peking).
The Christian religion, as professed by Protestants or Roman Catholics, inculcates the practice of virtue, and teaches man to do as he would be done by. Persons teaching or professing it, therefore, shall alike be entitled to the protection of the Chinese authorities, nor shall any such, peaceably pursuing their calling, and not offending against the law, be persecuted or interfered with.
XI.
II.
For the better preservation of harmony in future, Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and His Majesty the Emperor of China mutually agree that, in accordance with the universal practice of great and friendly nations, Her Majesty the Queen, may, if she see fit, appoint ambassadors, ministers, or other diplomatic agents to the Court of Peking; and His Majesty the Emperor of China may, in like manner, if he see fit, appoint ambassadors, ministers, or other diplomatic agents to the Court of St. James.
III.
In addition to the cities and towns of Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, opened by the Treaty of Nanking, it is agreed that British subjects may frequent the cities and ports of New Chwang, Tang-Chow, Tai-Wan (Formosa), Chau-Chow (Swatow), and Kiung-Chow (Hainan). They are permitted to carry on trade with whomsoever they please, and to proceed to and fro at pleasure with their vessels and merchandise. They shall enjoy the same privileges, advantages, and immunities, at the said towns and ports, as they enjoy at the ports already opened to trade, including the right of residence, of buying or renting houses, of leasing land therein, and of building churches, hospitals, and cemeteries.
LI.
His Majesty the Emperor of China hereby agrees that the ambassador, minister, or other diplomatic agent, so appointed by Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, may reside, with his family and establishment, permanently at the capital, or may visit it occasionally, at the
It is agreed, that henceforward the character I (barbarian) shall not be applied to the Government or subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, in any Chinese official document issued by the Chinese authorities, either in the capital or in the provinces.
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On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons and On the Adoption of Western Learning
LIV.
The British Government and its subjects are hereby confirmed in all privileges, immunities, and advantages conferred on them by previous Treaties; and it is hereby expressly stipulated, that the British Government and its subjects will be allowed free and equal participation in all privileges, immunities, and advantages that may have been, or may be hereafter, granted by His Majesty the Emperor of China to the Government or subjects of any other nation.
means to become their equal, and that depends solely upon human effort. With regard to the present situation, several observations may be made: in not wasting human talents, we are inferior to the barbarians; in not wasting natural resources, we are inferior to the barbarians; in allowing no barrier to come between the ruler and the people, we are inferior to the barbarians; and in the matching of words with deeds, we are also inferior to the barbarians. The remedy for these four points is to seek the causes in ourselves. They can be changed at once if only the emperor would set us in the right direction. There is no need to learn from the barbarians in these matters. . . . We have only one thing to learn from the barbarians, and that is strong ships and effective guns. . . . Funds should be allotted to establish a shipyard and arsenal in each trading port. A few barbarians should be employed, and Chinese who are good in using their minds should be selected to receive instruction so that in turn they may teach many craftsmen. When a piece of work is finished and is as good as that made by the barbarians, the makers should be rewarded with an official juren degree and be permitted to participate in the metropolitan examinations on the same basis as other scholars. Those whose products are of superior quality should be rewarded with the jinshi degree [ordinarily conferred in the metropolitan examinations] and be permitted to participate in the palace examinations like others. The workers should be paid double so that they will not quit their jobs. Our nations emphasis on civil service examinations has sunk deep into peoples minds for a long time. Intelligent and brilliant scholars have exhausted their time and energy in such useless things as the stereotyped examination essays, examination papers, and formal calligraphy. . . . We should now order one-half of them to apply themselves to the manufacturing of instruments and weapons and to the promotion of physical studies. . . . The intelligence and ingenuity of the Chinese are certainly superior to those of the various barbarians; it is only that hitherto we have not made use of them. When the government above takes delight in something, the people below will pursue it further their response will be like an echo carried by the wind. There ought to be some people of extraordinary intelligence who can have new ideas and improve on Western methods. At first they may take the foreigners as their teachers and models; then they may come to the same level and be their equals; finally they may move ahead and surpass them. Herein lies the way to self-strengthening. . . . It may be argued: Guan Zhong repelled the barbarians and Confucius acclaimed his virtue; the state of Chu adopted barbarian ways and [Confucius in] the Spring and Autumn Annals condemned them. Is not what you are proposing contrary to the Way of the sages? No, it is
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF FOREIGN WEAPONS AND ON THE ADOPTION OF WESTERN LEARNING

SOURCE
Feng Guifen. On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons; On the Adoption of Western Learning. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 235 238. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
INTRODUCTION
Chinas repeated military defeats by foreigners persuaded some high Qing officials that the Chinese needed to study the military sciences from other countries. What became known as the Self-strengthening movement of the 1860s1890s in which Chinese provincial officials set up language schools, arsenals, shipyards, coal mines and iron and steel works was to a large extent based on the ideas of the scholar-official Feng Guifen written in 1861.
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF FOREIGN WEAPONS
According to a general geography compiled by an Englishman, the territory of China is eight times that of Russia, ten times that of the United States, one hundred times that of France, and two hundred times that of Great Britain. . . . Yet we are shamefully humiliated by the four nations, not because our climate, soil, or resources are inferior to theirs, but because our people are inferior. . . . Now, our inferiority is not due to our allotment [i.e., our inherent nature] from Heaven, but is rather due to ourselves. If it were allotted us by Heaven, it would be a shame but not something we could do anything about. Since the inferiority is due to ourselves, it is a still greater shame but something we can do something about. And if we feel ashamed, there is nothing better than selfstrengthening. Why are the Western nations small and yet strong? Why are we large and yet weak? We must search for the
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not. When we speak of repelling the barbarians, we must have the actual means to repel them, and not just empty bravado. If we live in the present day and speak of repelling the barbarians we should ask with what instruments we are to repel them. . . . [The answer is that] we should use the instruments of the barbarians but not adopt the ways of the barbarians. We should use them so that we can repel them. Some have asked why we should not just purchase the ships and man them with [foreign] hirelings, but the answer is that this will not do. If we can manufacture, repair, and use them, then they are our weapons. If we cannot manufacture, repair, and use them, then they are still the weapons of others. . . . In the end the way to avoid trouble is to manufacture, repair, and use weapons by ourselves. Only thus can we pacify the empire; only thus can we become the leading power in the world; only thus can we restore our original strength, redeem ourselves from former humiliations, and maintain the integrity of our vast territory so as to remain the greatest country on earth. . . .
ON THE ADOPTION OF WESTERN LEARNING
and power by their own efforts. Is it not fully clear that they are similar to us and that their methods can easily be put into practice? If we let Chinese ethics and Confucian teachings serve as the foundation, and let them be supplemented by the methods used by the various nations for the attainment of prosperity and power, would it not be the best of all solutions? Moreover, during the past twenty years since the opening of trade, a great number of foreign chiefs have learned our written and spoken language, and the best of them can even read our classics and histories. They are generally able to speak on our dynastic regulations and civil administration, on our geography and the condition of our people. On the other hand, our officials from the governors down are completely ignorant of foreign countries. In comparison, should we not feel ashamed? The Chinese officials have to rely upon stupid and preposterous interpreters as their eyes and ears. The mildness or severity of the original statement, its sense of urgency or lack of insistence, may be lost through their tortuous interpretations. Thus frequently a small grudge may develop into a grave hostility. At present the most important political problem of the empire is to control the barbarians, yet the pivotal function is entrusted to such people. No wonder that we understand neither the foreigners nor ourselves and cannot distinguish fact from untruth. Whether in peace negotiations or in deliberating for war, we are unable to grasp the essentials. This is indeed the underlying trouble of our nation.
Western books on mathematics, mechanics, optics, light, and chemistry contain the best principles of the natural sciences. In the books on geography, the mountains, rivers, strategic points, customs, and native products of the hundred countries are fully listed. Most of this information is beyond the reach of the Chinese people. . . . If we wish to use Western knowledge, we should establish official translation bureaus in Guangzhou and Shanghai. Brilliant students not over fifteen years of age should be selected from those areas to live and study in these schools on double allowances. Westerners should be appointed to teach them the spoken and written languages of the various nations, and famous Chinese teachers should be engaged to teach them classics, history, and other subjects. At the same time they should learn mathematics. (Note: All Western knowledge is derived from mathematics. . . . If we wish to adopt Western knowledge, it is but natural that we should learn mathematics.). . . China has many brilliant people. There must be some who can learn from the barbarians and surpass them. . . . It is from learning that the principles of government are derived. In discussing good government, the great historian Sima Qian said (following Xunzi), Take the latter-day kings as your models. This was because they were nearer in time; their customs had changed from the past and were more similar to the present; and their ideas were not so lofty as to be impracticable. It is my opinion that today we should also take the foreign nations as our examples. They live at the same time and in the same world with us; they have attained prosperity
LETTERS OF A CHINAMAN TO ENGLISH READERS

SOURCE
Foote, G. W. Letters of a Chinaman to English Readers. In Letters of a Chinaman to English Readers on English and Chinese Superstitions and the Mischief of Missionaries, 116. London: Pioneer Press, 1903. These letters are selected from a volume of letters purporting to be written by a Chinese named Ah Sin. The letters present a reasoned attack on the activities of foreign missionaries in China, apparently from a Chinese antisuperstitious perspective. They had first appeared in the Freethinker, an atheist periodical founded by G. W. Foote in 1881. Foote provided the introduction to the collected volume and it is possible that he was the author of the letters. Certainly Ah Sin is now recognized as having been a pseudonym. Whatever the provenance of these letters, they offer a unique perspective on the missionary enterprise.
INTRODUCTION
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LETTER I
On Priests and Prayer I have always been much interested in the efficacy of prayers, and have always regretted that there were not more definite and reliable data at hand in regard to this subject. We have no exact data as to which form of prayer is the most efficacious. Then, again, we are completely in the dark as to the relative efficiency of prayers, whether addressed to the Trinity, to the individual members of the Trinity, or any of the saints. Many years ago, when Mr. Tyndall took this important subject up, I had great hopes that we might arrive at some definite and reliable knowledge on this great subject. Mr. Tyndall suggested that experiments should be conducted in a London hospital with a view of ascertaining how much prayer was equal to an ounce of quinine; this was referred to as Tyndalls prayer-gauge. Had the experiments been carried out as he suggested, they could not have failed to have been of great value to the whole world. As to the formulae of prayers, I think we may reasonably conclude, from all the knowledge at hand in England, that the Lords Prayer would have the highest efficiency. I should say that mathematically we might consider this as unity, and that all other prayers should be multiplied by some co-efficient less than unity. But who is to establish the coefficient of the numerous forms of prayer that we find in use among the clergymen of the Church of England? After long and careful observation of this subject, I am led to the belief that prayer is not so efficient as has been supposed; I think that nearly all prayers have a very low co-efficientin other words, in order to make them efficacious, we should employ a great number of them. If we look at the matter from a practical standpoint, I do not see that it is possible for there to be any misunderstanding on the subject; it matters not how low the coefficient of prayer may be, provided that the number of prayers is great enough. The question of prayer has been the subject of careful study for the last 6,000 years, and, as we know, the Chinese have probably given more attention to this subject than any other people in the world. I think that the conclusions that we Chinese have arrived at after long years of careful experiment and observation cannot fail to be of great value and interest to the religious world in England. We very soon learned that prayers were not very effectivei.e., when considered individually; to have any appreciable effect a great number of them was required. We, however, found by experiment that if a prayer was written on a piece of paper and put into a teacup and turned round once that it was just as effective as if it had been repeated orally. If we put ten prayers into a teacup and rotated the cup ten times, it recorded a hundred prayers, each one of which was just as effective as any other prayer; this was a great
and important discovery. Careful study and investigation also showed most conclusively that this system might be enlarged to any extent; so now we print a million prayers on thin, light paper, we place these in a large cylinder which rotates easily on a fine pivot, and by gearing it up and attaching it to a crank we are able to rotate it ten times by turning the crank round once. Suppose, now, that one wishes to pray; the only thing to be done is to give the crank one turn on its axis in order to register ten millions of prayers, each one of which is just as effective as any other prayer. By grinding away at the handle for a few minutes, as many prayers may be recorded by one person as could be prayed by a whole nation orally in a week. This system has other advantages; as we are completely in the dark as to the comparative efficiency of prayers, it may be possible, if one prays orally, that one may repeat over and over again a prayer that has only a very low efficiency; but, with the Chinese system, a good many different kinds may be included, some of which, according to the laws of chance, may be relatively efficient; therefore, there is a greater degree of certainty in the Chinese praying-machines than is possible in England, where the relative efficiency of prayer is unknown, and only a few can be repeated. May I, therefore, recommend to your clergymen that they should employ a Chinese praying-machine, which is easily made out of a tin can and a bit of wire? I feel certain that if this system is given a fair trial it will be found quite as effective, prayer for prayer, as any other system; moreover, it will save a lot of time. AH SIN
LETTER II
English and Chinese Superstition I thank you very much indeed for publishing my letter in the Freethinker. I have thought that my experiences might not be uninteresting to some of your thoughtful readers. When I had passed my examination in China, I took up the study of the English language, and when I had obtained a grasp of what appeared to me at that time a most difficult tongue, I made a study of English literature, making myself fairly well acquainted with the writings of Darwin, Spencer, Huxley, and many others. I was delighted with the great learning of your wise men. It appeared to me that if one understood the English language a totally new field of thought was open. I was surprised at the great skill of your leading scientific men; I was charmed with their system of reasoning. Quite true, nearly everything that I found in the writings of these men had been foreshadowed by Confucius and some of our great Chinese sages. But the completeness of the English system of reasoning and thought delighted me. However,
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as I progressed in English learning, I was constantly running across questions that greatly puzzled me. There were at that time in China a considerable number of English and American missionaries, representing a great variety of different kinds of religion. In order to get practice in speaking English I used to seek out these gentlemen and converse with them. Just imagine my surprise at their foolish twaddle, after having read Huxley, Darwin, and Spencer! Evidently there must be two totally different kinds of men in Englandthe scientific, who thinks and writes the works which I had so much admiredand the foolish, who never thinks and who seems to be completely without the power of reasoning. To say the least, I was greatly puzzled. I then went to America, and finally came to England and made a study of English literature and laws, and I flatter myself that after about six years of study. I was fairly proficient in the subjects I had taken up. The more I studied your literature, your laws and your religion, the more I became convinced that the people of Europe and America were divided into two distinct classesthe logical and the illogicalthose who could think, and those who seemed absolutely bereft of all power of reasoningthe extremes in both directions. I was greatly amused on meeting and conversing with your priests and parsonseuphoniously dubbed DevilDodgers by many. I found that these gentlemen were quite unable to give any logical reasons why they believed such impossible doctrines and absurd superstitions. For instance, I was at a complete loss to understand how it was possible for intelligent men to believe in the remarkable fish, snake, and devil stories in the Bible, It then occurred to me that these gentlemen connected with the Church only pretended to believe because their living depended upon doing so. In speaking to non-clerical people on the subject I found that only a very small number of the intelligent men I met believed anything at all; they generally said in an off-hand sort of way: Oh, it does well enough for the wife and the kids. Then again, I found that in good society it was considered very indelicate indeed to even refer to religious subjects. I very soon learnt that the so-called believers regarded their religion as a species of very delicate theological fungus, growing in a dark and dismal cavern, so delicate indeed that the least ray of the sunlight of reason would at once prove fatal to it. In some cases I attempted to discuss the relative merits of the Chinese and English systems of religion, and was met with the knock-down argument: You can reason on anything, on any mortal thing in this world, except Christianity. Christianity is above reason; one is not permitted to reason on anything that relates to the Christian Faith. This was said by people who pretended to believe in Christian mythology.
It never occurred to these gentlemen for one moment that any religion could be made unassailable if its adherents assumed the same position. Suppose, for instance, that the religious beliefs of the Fiji Islanders as they originally existed should be above reason, then of course it would be quite impossible for anyone to show the absurdity of their system of belief. In England I often see articles in the papers ridiculing Chinese superstitious and religion, and I have often attempted to reply to these articles. However, upon taking my attempt to the editor. I generally received the stereotyped reply: Oh! yes, this is very good indeed. I like it immensely. It is very witty, and at the same time very logical, but we publish a newspaper to sell, and people would not take it into their families if we should publish your letters. The fact is your people wish to hear but one side of the story. They cannot stand having the truth told to them by the other side. I think that I have made myself fairly familiar with all the leading superstitions of China and England, and I am quite willing to admit the truth, that in China we have a very large class who are extremely ignorant and unreasoning. They have ancient superstitions which have come down through countless ages, and unfortunately they believe implicitly in them. These ignorant people fancy that there are certain powers in the air and in the earth, that have to be dealt with through the agency of necromancers and geomancers, and they pay these charlatans a considerable amount of money to act as intermediaries between themselves and these imaginary air and earth dragons. This kind of superstition, which, however, only exists among our ignorant classes, is generally known as the Fung Shui. Certainly it is a bothersome and expensive form of superstition, and my countrymen would be much better off without it. Of this there can be no question. There is not a learned man in China to-day, or, in fact, a high official of any kind who would not be pleased to have our ignorant people relieved of all their superstitious fears and of all their belief in supernatural agencies. I have no hesitation in saying that if the very best men that one could find in Europe and America should go to China, and take with them a fair amount of physical apparatus, and deliver scientific lectures, that they would be very well received. If some clever European could thoroughly master our language and come to China and lecture on the system of Darwin and the theory of Herbert Spencer, it would do away with much of our superstition, and would do our people an immense amount of good. I am sure the Government and the wealthy and intelligent classes would do all in their power to help the matter on. But, unfortunately, these are not the kind of men that Europe and America send out to China. They do not send their best men, and they do not go to our country to ask us to do away with superstitions altogether, but rather to
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swap off our present Fung Shui and take on one which is still more expensive and bothersome. China is a very thickly populated country. The people, according to French philosophers, are able to get about twice as much out of the soil as the French are able to do, and the French are the cleverest agriculturists outside of China. The art of getting the most out of the land which will enable the greatest possible number to live off a given territory, has been greatly intensified in China, and even with this intensification of production, the population is so vast that it is necessary for the agriculturist to work unceasingly, or starve. Suppose, now, that our people should exchange their Fung Shui for the English system; suppose that they should take over the English Sunday Fung Shui, it would then require one entire day in every week to propitiate and make peace with these dragons and devils. It would also be necessary for them to say over certain formulae several times in the day to pacify other imaginary phantoms of the air. All this would take time. They would simply starve. It would therefore be evident that our people could not possibly exchange their present Fung Shui for one which would require at least ten times as much to propitiate. It would take too much time. Then, again, the English geomancers and necromancers demand much more to act as intermediaries between the people and the air phantoms than the Chinese necromancers, who perform the same imaginary service for the ignorant Chinese. All this might be considered very interesting from a purely philosophical standpoint, providing that it did not do any harm, but unfortunately there is a tragic side also. Your necromancers insist upon forcing their particular Fung Shui upon us, while our ignorant classes are equally determined to stick to their old Fung Shui and to reject the new one, which, according to our way of thinking, is at least a hundredfold as foolish and impossible as our own. We have learnt to till the soil to a greater degree of perfection than any other people that have ever lived in the world. Consequently, more of us are able to live in comfort off the land than is possible in any other country. But although we are very proficient in supporting human life off the products of the earth, we are extremely deficient in all systems and machinery intended for the purpose of destroying human life. In Europe and America, however, clever scientific men, having long made a study of destroying human life, have reduced their machinery and their system to a very high degree of perfection. In fact, incredible as it may seem, I have seen in England an automatic man-killer, which works by itself by simply touching a button. This is truly marvellous. It is also horrible. It therefore follows that, with your trained fighting-man and your automatic man-killers, you are able to invade our country and
attempt to thrust your Fung Shui upon us, and this has resulted in the death of many millions of Chinese during the last sixty years. We do not want your Fung Shui, we do not wish for any system of religion in which devils and miracles have any place whatsoever. We do not like supernaturalism. To every thinking man in the world supernaturalism is simply superstition, and we do not like superstition: we have too much of it already. We therefore pray you to treat us as you would like to be treated yourselves, and withdraw your Devil-Dodgers, necromancers, geomancers, and your foolish and degrading superstitions from our country, and allow us to work out our own salvation, and to gradually do away with our own Fung Shui as best we can. Both are bothersome and foolish. If, however, you will attend to your own Fung Shui, we will attend to ours. I have never yet seen an Englishman, or, in fact, any Christian who is able to hold an argument on religious subjects with a Chinese. I never have found the man that can show what advantage would accrue to us by abandoning our own superstitions and taking over the superstitions of the English. If there is such a man, I hereby challenge him to a fair discussion in his own language. AH SIN
LETTER III
Who Made the World? I thank you very much for publishing my two letters. With your leave I shall translate some of your publications and send them to my friends in China. A few weeks ago I heard some English gentlemen discussing the merits of Sir Robert Balls late work, entitled The Worlds Beginning. They all seemed to agree that it was a remarkable work, so simple and direct that anyone could understand it. I was told that Sir Robert was the leading astronomer in England, and that his late work had been written expressly for beginners. Evidently it was just what I wanted, and I lost no time in purchasing a copy and reading it. I was pleased I was more than pleasedI was delighted. The language was simple and easy to understand, the reasoning good, and the logic sound. It appears to me that there cannot be the least doubt about the absolute truth of the theory laid down and reasoned out. It must be so; and what is more, everyone that I have spoken to on the subject agrees with me. Nobody seems to question it. It appears to be accepted by everyone as a matter of course. This being so, let us see now what Sir Robert Ball teaches, and what is admitted to be quite true in England and America. He says that this world came into its present form by being condensed from a white hot cloud of gas, or matter
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so very hot and attenuated that it appeared in space as a nebula, or disorganised cloud of white-hot earthy substances such as lime, clay, sand, iron, etc. He says that this hot cloud very slowly condensed and formed our sun and all the planets, including this earth. He says that other worlds than ours are being formed at the present moment, and that we can actually see them with a large telescope in the process of forming in the great spiral nebula, all of which appears very wonderful indeed. I have read this remarkable work with great interest, and, strange as it may seem, I find that Sir Robert Ball does not once mention the name of the Jewish Jehovah or the Christian God as having had anything to do with the making of the world. Why is this? It is either true or false that Jehovah made the world in six days and rested on the seventh. If it is true, why did Sir Robert write this book, and why does everyone accept his theory as being true? If neither the Jehovah of the Jews nor the Christian God made this world, why do you spend good money to teach such a foolish falsehood to our people? Why do you in England accept Sir Robert Balls account of the Creation, and teach the old Jewish account to us in China? The Chinese philosophers have always taught us that the world has always existed, and therefore it was not created. They say, It has always been so and will always remain so; that everything came about in an ordinary manner and according to natural law; that there never was a special creation or a miracle, and never can be one. This is not far off what Sir Robert tells us now; it is certainly very near the truth as it is understood by all the learned men of today. Let us see now what the missionaries are attempting to teach in China. They tell us that this world, including the sun, moon, and stars, was snapped into existence out of nothing by the Jewish Jehovah in a few hours. That is something like taking a snapshot photograph. Then another snap, and all the animals and plants were made. Then a third snap, and man and woman made their appearance, full-grown, and able to walk and talk and eat. All was done inside of six days, and about six thousand years ago. Then the God that did all this rested on the seventh day. This is certainly why Sunday is observed, there is no question about it; and this is what your missionaries are attempting to make our people believe to-day. This is what you are paying hundreds of thousands of pounds a year to teach to my countrymen. True, it is not good enough for grown-up people in England, so you attempt to force it upon us. I wish it to be distinctly understood that this account of the so-called Creation appears to us to be foolish and absurd in the extreme. We could not believe such a grotesque fable if we tried to. Many of our people resent the attempt to force such stupid falsehoods upon us, and trouble and bloodshed result. I have no hesitation in saying that if you should send Sir Robert Ball to us, to teach the theories that he teaches so successfully in England, that he would be well received, his
doctrines would be accepted as they have been here, and there would be no trouble or bloodshed. You would find our people sensible enough to understand and accept his theory. There could be no trouble or opposition, because Sir Roberts theory is true, and he has the reasoning power to make others see that it is true. I would even say morehe leaves no door open to enable one to escape conviction. His theory is true, and in China we love and admire the truth. Once more allow me to contrast this with what the paid missionaries are now attempting to teach in China. The story they tell is foolish in the extreme, and has every appearance of being a fable; and the more they attempt to prove it the worse they make it appear. It is even too absurd for our children; really we are not such fools as you take us to be. We therefore pray you to withdraw your ignorant and misguided missionaries, and their stupid falsehoods, from our country, and send us your best scientific men; then all will go well. Peace and missionaries cannot both abide in China, and we prefer peace. AH SIN
LETTER IV
The Way Out of the Trouble Some few days ago I had the good fortune to meet a very pious English gentleman who had for years given large sums to keep up the Missionary Propaganda in China. I asked him what his object was in attempting to force his religion upon us. I called his attention to the fact that we had been a civilised nation for many thousands of years, and that before our country was invaded by missionaries we were a law-abiding people. Many European writers had shown that there was less crime amongst us than amongst any other people. Moreover, twice as many of us could live in comfort off a square mile of land as was possible in Europe or America. As our morality and conduct was of the highest order, and as we were contented and happy, what did he wish to change? What could be changed that would make it better for us? He admitted all this, but said our religion was all wrong. The missionaries that he was helping to support wished us to become a Christian people. They wished us to believe in the Lord Jesus and be saved. But I said countless millions of good and virtuous Chinamen have lived blameless lives and died thousands of years before Christ is said to have been born, and many millions have died since that never even heard of him. Certainly they got on very well for a long time without being saved. He said we were heathens, and the Bible held out no hope for us. Jesus Christ was the only name given under heaven whereby one could be saved. But certainly no one would believe for a moment that all the good people of the greatest empire on earth would be lost or burnt in fire and brimstone to all
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eternity because they did not believe something that they had never heard of. He could only say: Gods will be done. Why should we accept Christianity? We have three fairly good religions already, which will compare favorably with any three kinds of Christianity. If we changed our religion it would not put better coats on our backs. It certainly would not give us more to eat. Where could one find a Christian that could get as much out of soil as we do? Would our morals be improved? If so, where could we find an example of a higher morality amongst Christians than that possessed by us before we had ever seen a missionary. Would we be made happier? If so, where could we find a nation where peace and happiness would be more secure than in China before our country was invaded by foreigners? No. What then was the advantage to be gained? Why do you send missionaries to our country to stir up strife and cause an infinite amount of bloodshed and suffering if there is nothing to be gained by it? We certainly do not want them, we will never accept their religion, that is absolutely impossible. We would not have it at any price, and all attempts to force it upon us are vain and hopeless. Therefore why not keep the missionaries at home and save your own money and our lives? But, says he, our Lord has commanded and we must obey, Go thou and preach the Gospel to every living thing. This to my mind is a wicked and mischievous doctrine, and I have no hesitation in saying it ought to be abandoned at once, and before another life is added to the long list that have already perished. This supposed command contains ten words, every one of which has cost the Chinese nation a million and a half of human lives. I think it will be admitted by all, that it would be a good thing for all parties concerned if this doctrine could be disregarded or abandoned. There is plenty of precedent for doing so. Other mischievous doctrines have been abandoned with good results. Why not this, the worst of all? For instance, less than 300 years ago, innocent old women were hunted all over Europe and burnt at the stake for the impossible crime of witchcraft, a crime which every child knows to be impossible at the present moment. It was believed in those dreadful days that these old women had supernatural powers. Some of them were burnt for causing storms at sea by stirring up soap-suds with their stockings. The Pope of Rome, who is infallible, commanded his priests to use more vigilance in searching out witches and putting them to death, especially those that caused the bad weather; while the Protestants, not to be outdone by the Catholics, pursued and burnt supposed witches by the thousand because they found these words in their Bible: Thou shall not suffer a witch to live. It is admitted by Christian historians that some hundreds of thousands of poor old women suffered a painful and ignominious death because the teachers of
a debased theology found in their so-called Holy Book this dreadful command. But the number of lives which has been lost by this mischievous doctrine is nothing to be compared with the still more terrible doctrine, Go thou and preach the Gospel to every living creature. For instance, it has been estimated that about two hundred thousand innocent people lost their lives in Europe in 200 years on account of supposed witchcraft before this villainous doctrine was abandoned. But in China during the last sixty years rather more than fifteen millions of our people have lost their lives on account of the attempt to force Christianity upon us; or, say, about seventy-five times as many of my countrymen have perished on account of having the Gospel preached to them during the last sixty years as perished in Europe in 200 years on account of the twin doctrine of witchcraft. Confucius, in fact all our great sages, have taught us over and over again to have nothing whatsoever to do with anyone who pretends to have dealings with the supernatural. They have told us if we allow supernaturalism to enter our country it can only result in the most awful calamity. Add having all the horrors of the Middle Ages in Europe before us, we naturally believe that our great philosophers were quite right, and we have been attempting to keep all kinds of foreign superstition out of the country, while Christian nations have been equally determined to force their own particular kind of superstition upon us. We do not believe any of the supernatural doctrines brought to our country. They all appear extremely foolish and absurd to us, and I feel sure that no new form of supernaturalism can ever hope to find a foothold in our country. May I, therefore, pray you to abandon the wicked doctrine of the ten mischievous words, and withdraw your missionaries and Devil-Dodgers from our country? We do not want them. AH SIN
TREATY OF SHIMONOSEKI, 1895

INTRODUCTION
Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 18941895 came as an appalling shock to the Chinese. Japan, a much smaller country that had been regarded as a sort of disciple to China, had been more successful with its modernization efforts than China. The significant territorial and commercial concessions made by China to Japan in this treaty and the huge indemnity exacted caused great unrest among the Chinese scholar gentry and accelerated demands for reform.
ARTICLE 1
China recognises definitively the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea, and, in consequence,
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Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895
the payment of tribute and the performance of ceremonies and formalities by Korea to China, in derogation of such independence and autonomy, shall wholly cease for the future.
ARTICLE 2
China cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty the following territories, together with all fortifications, arsenals, and public property thereon: (a) The southern portion of the province of Fe ngtien [Fengtian] within the following boundaries [the Liaodong agreement in November 1895 deleted this and replaced it with an indemnity of 30 million taels of silver to be paid Japan]: The line of demarcation begins at the mouth of the River Yalu and ascends that stream to the mouth of the River An-ping [Anping], from thence the line runs to Fe ng-huang [Fenghuang], from thence to Hai-cheng [Haizheng?], from thence to Ying-kow [Yinzhou?], forming a line which describes the southern portion of the territory. The places above named are included in the ceded territory. When the line reaches the River Liao at Ying-kow, it follows the course of the stream to its mouth, where it terminates. The mid-channel of the River Liao shall be taken as the line of demarcation. This cession also includes all islands appertaining or belonging to the province of Fe ngtien situated in the eastern portion of the Bay of Liao-tung and the northern portion of the Yellow Sea. (b) The island of Formosa, together with all islands appertaining or belonging to the said island of Formosa. (c) The Pescadores Group, that is to say, all islands lying between the 119th and 120th degrees of longitude east of Greenwich and the 23rd and 24th degrees of north latitude. . . .
ARTICLE 4
China shall, however, have the right to pay by anticipation at any time any or all of the said instalments. In case the whole amount of the said indemnity is paid within three years after the exchange of the ratifications of the present Act all interest shall be waived, and the interest for two years and a half or for any less period, if any already paid, shall be included as part of the principal amount of the indemnity. . . .
ARTICLE 6
All Treaties between Japan and China having come to an end as a consequence of war, China engages, immediately upon the exchange of the ratifications of this Act, to appoint Plenipotentiaries to conclude with the Japanese Plenipotentiaries, a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and a Convention to regulate Frontier Intercourse and Trade. The Treaties, Conventions, and Regulations now subsisting between China and the European Powers shall serve as a basis for the said Treaty and Convention between Japan and China. From the date of the exchange of ratifications of this Act until the said Treaty and Convention are brought into actual operation, the Japanese Governments, its officials, commerce, navigation, frontier intercourse and trade, industries, ships, and subjects, shall in every respect be accorded by China most favoured nation treatment. China makes, in addition, the following concessions, to take effect six months after the date of the present Act: First.The following cities, towns, and ports, in addition to those already opened, shall be opened to the trade, residence, industries, and manufactures of Japanese subjects, under the same conditions and with the same privileges and facilities as exist at the present open cities, towns, and ports of China: Shashih [Shashi], in the province of Hupeh [Hubei]. Chungking [Chongqing], in the province of Szechwan [Sichuan]. Suchow [Suzhou], in the province of Kiangsu [Jiangsu]. Hangchow [Hangzhou], in the province of Chekiang [Zhejiang]. The Japanese Government shall have the right to station consuls at any or all of the above named places. Second.Steam navigation for vessels under the Japanese flag, for the conveyance of passengers and cargo, shall be extended to the following places: On the Upper Yangtze [Yangzi] River, from Ichang [Yichang] to Chungking [Chongqing].
China agrees to pay to Japan as a war indemnity the sum of 200,000,000 Kuping [Gubing] taels; the said sum to be paid in eight instalments. The first instalment of 50,000,000 taels to be paid within six months, and the second instalment of 50,000,000 to be paid within twelve months, after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. The remaining sum to be paid in six equal instalments as follows: the first of such equal annual instalments to be paid within two years, the second within three years, the third within four years, the fourth within five years, the fifth within six years, and the the sixth within seven years, after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. Interest at the rate of 5 per centum per annum shall begin to run on all unpaid portions of the said indemnity from the date the first instalment falls due.
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A Boxer Doggerel
On the Woosung [Wusong] River and the Canal, from Shanghai to Suchow [Suzhou] and Hangchow [Hangzhou]. The rules and regulations that now govern the navigation of the inland waters of China by Foreign vessels shall, so far as applicable, be enforced, in respect to the above named routes, until new rules and regulations are conjointly agreed to. Third.Japanese subjects purchasing goods or produce in the interior of China, or transporting imported merchandise into the interior of China, shall have the right temporarily to rent or hire warehouses for the storage of the articles so purchased or transported without the payment of any taxes or extractions whatever. Fourth.Japanese subjects shall be free to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in all the open cities, towns, and ports of China, and shall be at liberty to import into China all kinds of machinery, paying only the stipulated import duties thereon. All articles manufactured by Japanese subjects in China shall, in respect of inland transit and internal taxes, duties, charges, and exactions of all kinds, and also in respect of warehousing and storage facilities in the interior of China, stand upon the same footing and enjoy the same privileges and exemptions as merchandise imported by Japanese subjects into China. In the event additional rules and regulations are necessary in connection with these concessions, they shall be embodied in the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation provided for by this Article. . . .
ARTICLE 8
A BOXER DOGGEREL
SOURCE
Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. The following rhyme reflects the antiforeign sentiments of the Boxer movement. It attacks missionaries devilsand their heretical beliefs, blaming them for the drought of that period and promising the use of magic powers to destroy all that was foreign in China. Although the movement was originally anti-Qing as well as antiforeign, by the time of the Boxer insurgence (1899 1900), which did indeed kill foreigners and destroy their property, it had pledged loyalty to the dynasty.
INTRODUCTION
Divinely aided Boxers, United-in-Righteousness Corps Arose because the Devils Messed up the Empire of yore. They proselytize their sect, And believe in only one God, The spirits and their own ancestors Are not even given a nod. Their men are all immoral; Their women truly vile. For the Devils its mother-son sex That serves as the breeding style. And if you dont believe me, Then have a careful view: Youll see the Devils eyes Are all a shining blue. No rain comes from Heaven. The earth is parched and dry. And all because the churches Have bottled up the sky. The god are very angry. The spirits seek revenge. En masse they come from Heaven To teach the Way to men. The Way is not a heresy; Its not the White Lotus Sect. The chants and spells we utter, Follow mantras, true and correct. Raise up the yellow charm, Bow to the incense glow. Invite the gods and spirits Down from the mountain grotto. Spirits emerge from the grottos; Gods come down from the hills, Possessing the bodies of men, Transmitting their boxing skills.
As a guarantee of the faithful performance of the stipulations of this Act, China consents to the temporary occupation by the military forces of Japan of Weihaiwei, in the province of Shantung [Shandong]. [Later in the same day, Japan and China agreed to the terms of the occupation.] Upon payment of the first two installments of the war indemnity herein stipulated for and the exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and navigation, the said place shall be evacuated by the Japanese forces, provided the Chinese Government consents to pledge, under suitable and sufficient arrangements, the Customs revenue of China as security for the payment of the principal and interest of the remaining instalments of the said indemnity. In the event that no such arrangements are concluded, such evacuation shall only take place upon the payment of the final instalment of said indemnity. It is, however, expressly understood that no such evacuation shall take place until after the exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation. . . .
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Revolutionary Army Tract
When their martial and magic techniques Are all learned by each one of you, Suppressing the Foreign Devils Will not be a tough thing to do. Rip up the railroad tracks! Pull down the telegraph lines! Quickly! Hurry up! Smash them The boats and the steamship combines. The mighty nation of France Quivers in abject fear, While from England, America, Russia And from Germany nought do we hear. When at last all the Foreign Devils Are expelled to the very last man, The Great Qing, united, together, Will bring peace to this our land.
absolved from all future misfortunes, and if you gain ten adherents your whole village will be absolved from all calamities. Those who gain no adherents to the cause shall be decapitated, for until all foreigners have been exterminated the rain can never visit us.
REVOLUTIONARY ARMY TRACT

SOURCE
Tsou Jung (Zou Rong). The Revolutionary Army: A Chinese Nationalist Tract of 1903. Trans. John Lust. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1968. Zou Rong was only eighteen when he wrote this widely distributed revolutionary tract in 1903. He died in prison just two years later. Zou advocated the establishment of a parliament, equal rights for women, freedom of speech and freedom of the press, but seems to have had little idea how all of this was to be achieved. The tract was characteristic of the revolutionary writing of the time in its passion and its anti-Manchu racismrather shocking to modern sensibilities. The tract was taken up by Sun Yat-sen who distributed it in overseas Chinese communities.
INTRODUCTION
A BOXER EDICT, ISSUED BY THE LORD OF WEALTH AND HAPPINESS

SOURCE
Boxer handbill, issued by the Lord of Wealth and Happiness. In OConnor, Richard. The Spirit Soldiers: A Historical Narrative of the Boxer Rebellion, 1516. New York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1973. The rapid spread of the Boxer movement in North China (18981900) can largely be attributed to antiforeign feeling inspired both by foreign military and political pressure on China and by the activities of missionaries in North China. The edict reprinted below outlines an undertaking to cleanse China of foreigners (thus restoring normal weather) and the promise of rewards for those who support for the Boxer movement.
INTRODUCTION
The Catholic and Protestant religions being insolent to the gods, and extinguishing sanctity, rendering no obedience to Buddha, and enraging Heaven and Earth, the rain clouds no longer visit us; but eight million Spirit Soldiers will descend from Heaven and sweep the Empire clean of all foreigners. Then will the gentle showers once more water our lands; and when the tread of soldiers and the clash of steel are heard heralding woes to all our people, then the Buddhist Patriotic League of Boxers will be able to protect the Empire and to bring peace to all its people. Hasten, then, to spread this doctrine far and wide, for if you gain one adherent to the faith your own person will be absolved from all future misfortunes. If you gain five adherents your whole family will be
Revolution is the universal principle of evolution. Revolution is a universal principle of the world. Revolution is the essence of the struggle for survival or destruction in a time of transition. Revolution submits to heaven and responds to mens needs. Revolution rejects what is corrupt and keeps the good. Revolution is the advance from barbarism to civilization. Revolution turns slaves into masters. A man may have his own thoughts, ten men may have the thoughts of ten men, a thousand million men may have the thoughts of a thousand million men, a myriad of men may have the thoughts of a myriad of men. Nevertheless, even if each man has his own thoughts, there is not one who does not share these thoughts in common with the others. Dwellings, food, clothing, or utensils, whether good or bad, beautiful or ugly, are one and all buried deeply, and shift secretly, stir about in the bosom, clash in the brain, and lead to debate on what is good, what bad, what beautiful, what ugly. What is good is kept, what is not good is rejected, what is beautiful is kept, what is not beautiful is rejected, and the ultimate kernel of what should be kept and what rejected is precisely what emerges from revolution. Let us go a step further. If we take a panoramic view of things, above and below, ancient and modern, religion and ethics, politics and learning, we see on close examination that there is none which had not undergone weeding out by the process of evolution, and in the course of time appears as it is now. Since this is the case, revolution is an everyday thing. However, there are extraordinary ones,
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too. We have heard of the English revolution of 1688, the American revolution of 1775 and the French revolution of 1870, revolutions which submitted to heaven and responded to mens need, which removed the corrupt and kept what was good, which advanced from barbarism to civilization, and which turned slaves into masters. They sacrificed the individual to benefit the community, and they sacrificed the nobility to benefit the common people, so that everybody could enjoy equality and freedom. . . . When I read the Diary of Ten Days at Yangchow and Account of the Chiating Massacre, my tears came spontaneously before I finished reading them. I speak out to proclaim to my fellowcountrymen: Were not the Diary of Ten Days at Yangchow and Account of the Chiating Massacre typical of the slaughter of Han which the Manchus perpetrated in every chou and hsien? These two books are merely one or two cases treated very briefly. If you think of those days, when troops were let loose, burning and plundering, when strict orders were issued to shave heads, and wherever the cavalry of the Manchu scoundrels reached there was murder and pillage (you can imagine that), what really took place must have amounted to ten times more than the two episodes of which accounts exist. For these two incidents which are known to everyone, there are a hundred thousand Yangchows and Chiatings. When I think of them, the iron enters my soul and I cannot hold back, I am impelled to proclaim this to my fellowcountrymen: The Diary of Ten Days at Yangchow says: On the second day of the month, we heard that officials were already functioning in fu, tao, chou and hsien, having with them pacification notices, and distributing everywhere edicts enjoining the population not to panic. Again, orders went out to temples and monasteries to cremate the heaped corpses. Moreover, women had hidden themselves there and some had died of fright or from starvation. From the registers of burned corpses it can be estimated that in not less that eight days over 800,000 were disposed of in this way, and the figure does not include those who threw themselves into wells or rivers, or locked their doors and (died by) fire or hanging. I also say to my fellowcountrymen: When the Manchu scoundrels entered the Passes, were not those butchered by them the great great grandfathers of your great great grandfathers? Were they not the uncles of the great great grandfathers of your great great grandfathers? Were not those debauched by the Manchu scoundrels the wives, daughters or sisters of the great great grandfathers of your great great grandfathers? The Book of Rites says: A (filial) son cannot live under the same sky with the murderer of his father and elder uncles. Even a child understands this. Hence, if as a son, you cannot revenge
your father and his elder brothers, you entrust this duty to your own sons, and your sons must entrust it to your grandchildren, and they to your great grandchildren and so to the fifth and seventh generations. Now, this feud of your great great grandfathers (sic) is now the feud of your fathers and their brothers today. If it is not avenged and yet you continue to speak of filial piety, I cannot see what you mean by piety. If the spirits of your great great grandfathers are still living, they surely will be unable to close their eyes in peace in the Nine Springs. . . . If you want thoroughgoing construction, you must first have destruction. If you want thoroughgoing destruction, you must first have construction. This axiom has not changed since time immemorial. The revolution we are carrying out today is a revolution which will destroy in order to construct. However, if you wish to destroy you must first possess the means to construct. The great Italian leader Mazzini, founder of his country, once said finely: Revolution and education go hand-in-hand together. I cry out in front of my fellowcountrymen: Revolutionary education, and I explain it further as follows: Before revolution there must be education, after revolution there must be education. . . . Tseng Kuo-fan, Tso Tsung-tang and Li Hung-chang were granted posthumous titles of Wen-cheng, Wen-hsiang and Wen-chung by emperors of the Great Ching dynasty. They were distinguished officials, honoured as the Three Statesmen of the Tung-chih Revival, whom the man in the street respects as marquises and ministers of state, and about whom examination candidates and young people speculate and whom they revere. But I have heard that the German prime minister Bismarck upbraided Li Hungchang with the words: We Europeans regard it as a triumph to conquer foreign races. I have never heard that it is an achievement to butcher ones compatriots. If only I could bring back Tseng and Tso to listen to this. If only I could bring back the Tsengs and Tsos who lived before Tseng and Tso to listen to this. If only I could raise up the Tsengs and Tsos to come, those with full responsibility for affairs, and the mass of underlings who are not worth bothering about, so that they could all listen to this together. Tseng, Tso and Li flattered themselves over their scholarly attainments, and they saw themselves as the equal of sages and philosophers. But they were still inhumane and unscrupulous; they butchered their fellowcountrymen and they were the loyal and submissive slaves of the Manchus. It is not worth while continuing with this. I cannot find a comparison for them. I might compare them with Li Tzu-cheng and Chang Hsien-chung, but I despise them for being even worse. Li and Chang may have slaughtered their fellowcountrymen and led to the Manchus entering China as masters, but they were illiterate and ill-educated, and they were driven to it by the corrupt government of the Ming. There was nothing else they could do. For these
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reasons I can excuse them. Now Tseng, Tso and Li knew very well that they were members of the Han race, but to get hereditary rank for their families, they butchered their fellowcountrymen, and they begged the Manchus to rule again over China. I have tried over and over again to see their point of view, but I cannot find any excuses for them. . . . [I] am young, ignorant and brutish, not equal to speaking for the fundamental principles of revolutionary independence. Wary and fearful, I have carefully modelled (my proposals) on the principles of American revolutionary independence. I have summarized them under a number of headings, and with the utmost deference I offer to my most revered and beloved 400 million fellowcountrymen of the great Han people, to prepare them for the path they are to take: China is the China of the Chinese. Fellowcountrymen, you must all recognize the China of the Chinese of the Han race. Not to allow any alien race to lay their hands on the least rights of our China. Any obligations subordinating people to the Manchus are one and all annulled. First, to overthrow the barbaric government set up by the Manchus in Peking. To expel the Manchus settled in China or kill them in order to revenge ourselves. To kill the emperor set up by the Manchus as a warning to the myriad generations that despotic government is not to be revived. To oppose any intervention directed either by Chinese nationals or from foreign soil against Chinese revolutionary independence. To set up a central government, which will act as a general body to run affairs. In each area and province, a deputy to a general assembly is to be elected by vote in public elections. From these deputies, one is to be elected by vote to serve as provisional president to represent the whole country. A vice-president also is to be elected, and all chou and hsien are to elect a number of deputies. The whole population, whether male or female, are citizens. All men have the duty to serve as citizen soldiers. Everybody has the duty of bearing the burden of taxation. The whole country has the duty to show loyalty to the newly established state.
Everybody in the country, whether male or female, is equal. There is no distinction between upper and lower, base or noble. All inalienable rights are bestowed by nature. The freedom to live and all other privileges are natural rights. Freedoms, such as that of speech, thought, the press, etc. cannot be infringed on. All rights must be defended. The government which must be set up by public agreement, must employ all the powers granted it purely to defend popular rights. If, at any time, the actions of a government lead to an infraction of peoples rights, they have the right to carry out a revolution, and overthrow the old government to retrieve their peace and contentment. Once these have been obtained, the question of rights must be publicly discussed and a new government set up. This also is to be a right of the people. Once a government is set up, certain matters may arise which conflict with peoples wishes and consequently they may wish to carry out a revolution, and there are continual changes as in an uncertain situation in chess. This is not the way to run a new state. The country cannot be entirely free from evils, but if one values above all things peace and tranquillity, and does not allow these evils to do great harm to the people, then rather than overthrow the existing government and attempt to extend their rights, (the maintenance of) tranquillity would be the best policy. But if elements in the government were to act continuously in a corrupt and tyrannical manner, and place the whole country under a despotic system, the people will rise and overthrow the government and establish a new one with the aim of keeping their rights intact. Surely this is the greatest right of a people, and the duty on which they place the greatest importance. We Chinese have undergone such hardships that we have come to the end of our tether. Today we are to obtain our revolutionary independence, yet we are still suffering under a despotic system, hence we should not be on any account be willing to resign ourselves to it. These are the reasons which make inevitable a change in the old regime. To settle the name of the country as the Republic of China. The Republic of China is a free and independent country. A free and independent state has full rights and equality with other great states in the matter of war and peace, treaties and trade, and all other matters pertaining to an independent state.
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Twenty-one Demands
The law of the constitution shall be modelled on American constitutional law, having regard to Chinese conditions. The law of self-government shall be modelled on the American law of self-government. Likewise in all matters of a national character, negotiations, the establishment of official departments and the determination of official duties in the state. American practice will remain a criterion.
to open by herself as soon as possible certain important cities and towns in the Province of Shantung as Commercial Ports. What places shall be opened are to be jointly decided upon in a separate agreement. II The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, since the Chinese Government has always acknowledged the special position enjoyed by Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, agree to the following articles: ART. 1.The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that the term of lease of Port Arthur and Dalny and the term of lease of the South Manchurian Railway and the Antung-Mukden Railway shall be extended to the period of 99 years. ART. 2.Japanese subjects in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia shall have the right to lease or own land required either for erecting suitable buildings for trade and manufacture or for farming. ART. 3.Japanese subjects shall be free to reside and travel in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia and to engage in business and in manufacture of any kind whatsoever. ART. 4.The Chinese Government agrees to grant to Japanese subjects the right of opening the mines in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. As regards what mines are to be opened, they shall be decided upon jointly. ART. 5.The Chinese Government agrees that in respect of the (two) cases mentioned herein below the Japanese Governments consent shall be first obtained before action is taken: 1. Whenever permission is granted to the subject of a third Power to build a railway or to make a loan with a third Power for the purpose of building a railway in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. 2. Whenever a loan is to be made with a third Power pledging the local taxes of South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia as security. ART. 6.The Chinese Government agrees that if the Chinese Government employs political, financial or military advisers or instructors in South Manchuria or Eastern Inner Mongolia, the Japanese Government shall first be consulted. ART. 7.The Chinese Government agrees that the control and management of the Kirin-Changchun Railway shall be handed over to the Japanese Government for a term of 99 years dating from the signing of this agreement.
TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS
SOURCE
King, Wunsz, comp. V. K. Wellington Koos Foreign Policy: Some Selected Documents, 8790. Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1931. In this communication issued to China by the Japanese government in January 1915, Japan demanded extensive concessions such as wide-ranging economic rights in northeast China and Mongolia, the joint administration of the greatest iron, steel and coal enterprises in central China, new commercial rights in Fujian Province, and the right to station Japanese police and political advisers in North China. Yuan Shikai, Chinas president, felt that China was too weak to resist the demands. The furious anti-Japanese movement triggered by Yuans acquiescence contributed ultimately to his downfall.
INTRODUCTION
I The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government being desirous of maintaining the general peace in Eastern Asia and further strengthening the friendly relations and good neighbourhood existing between the two nations agree to the following articles: ART. 1.The Chinese Government engages to give full assent to all matters upon which the Japanese Government may hereafter agree with the German Government relating to the disposition, of all rights, interests and concessions which Germany, by virtue of treaties or otherwise, possesses in relation to the Province of Shantung. ART. 2.The Chinese Government engages that within the Province of Shantung and along its coast, no territory or island will be ceded or leased to a third Power under any pretext. ART. 3.The Chinese Government consents to Japans building a railway from Chefoo or Lungkow to join the Kiaochow-Chinanfu Railway. ART. 4.The Chinese Government engages, in interest of trade and for the residence of foreigners,
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The Three Peoples Principles
III The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government, seeing that Japanese financiers and the Hanyehping Co. have close relations with each other at present and desiring that the common interests of the two nations shall be advanced, agree to the following articles: ART. 1.The two Contracting Parties mutually agree that when the opportune moment arrives the Hanyehping Company shall be made a joint concern of the two nations and they further agree that without the previous consent of Japan China shall not by her own act dispose of the rights and property of whatsoever nature of the said Company nor cause the said Company to dispose freely of the same. ART. 2.The Chinese Government agrees that all mines in the neighbourhood of those owned by the Hanyehping Company shall not be permitted, without the consent of the said Company, to be worked by other persons outside of the said Company; and further agrees that if it is desired to carry out any undertaking which, it is apprehended, may directly or indirectly affect the interests of the said Company, the consent of the said Company shall first be obtained. IV The Japanese Government and the Chinese Government with the object of effectively preserving the territorial integrity of China agree to the following special article: The Chinese Government engages not to cede or lease to a third Power any harbour or bay or island along the coast of China. V ART. 1.The Chinese Central Government shall employ influential Japanese as advisers in political, financial and military affairs. ART. 2.Japanese hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be granted the right of owning land. ART. 3.Inasmuch as the Japanese Government and the Chinese Government have had many cases of dispute between Japanese and Chinese police which caused no little misunderstanding, it is for this reason necessary that the police departments of important places (in China) shall be jointly administered by Japanese and Chinese or that the police departments of these places shall employ numerous Japanese, so that they may at the same time help to plan for the improvement of the Chinese Police Service. ART. 4.China shall purchase from Japan a fixed amount of munitions of war (say 50% or more of what is needed by the Chinese Government) or that there shall be established in China a Sino-Japanese jointly worked
arsenal. Japanese technical experts are to be employed and Japanese material to be purchased. ART. 5.China agrees to grant to Japan the right of constructing a railway connecting Wuchang with Kiukiang and Nanchang, another line between Nanchang and Hangchow, and another between Nanchang and Chaochow. ART. 6.If China needs foreign capital to work mines, build railways and construct harbor-works (including dockyards) in the Province of Fukien, Japan shall be first consulted. ART. 7.China agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China.
THE THREE PEOPLES PRINCIPLES

SOURCE
Sun Yat-sen. The Three Peoples Principles. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 321323. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Sun Yat-sens Three Peoples Principles Nationalism, Peoples Democracy and Peoples Livelihoodhave long been claimed as guiding principles both by the Guomindang and by the Communist Party and had an important influence on political thought in twentieth-century China. Conceived around 1906 as part of the revolutionary ideology of the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance), the ideas were developed by Sun in a series of lectures in 1924. The notes taken from these lectures became the basis for subsequent understanding (and interpretations) of the Principles.
INTRODUCTION
[China as a Heap of Loose Sand.] For the most part the four hundred million people of China can be spoken of as completely Han Chinese. With common customs and habits, we are completely of one race. But in the world today what position do we occupy? Compared to the other peoples of the world we have the greatest population and our civilization is four thousand years old; we should therefore be advancing in the front rank with the nations of Europe and America. But the Chinese people have only family and clan solidarity; they do not have national spirit. Therefore, even though we have four hundred million people gathered together in one China, in reality they are just a heap of loose sand. Today we are the poorest and weakest nation in the world and occupy the lowest position in international affairs. Other men are the carving knife and serving dish; we are the fish and the meat. Our position at this time is most perilous. If we
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The Three Peoples Principles
do not earnestly espouse nationalism and weld together our four hundred million people into a strong nation, there is danger of Chinas being lost and our people being destroyed. If we wish to avert this catastrophe, we must espouse nationalism and bring this national spirit to the salvation of the country. . . . [China as a Hypo-colony. ] Since the Chinese Revolution, the foreign powers have found that it was much less easy to use political force in carving up China. A people who had experienced Manchu oppression and learned to overthrow it would now, if the powers used political force to oppress it, be certain to resist, and thus make things difficult for them. For this reason they are letting up in their efforts to control China by political force and instead are using economic pressure to keep us down. . . . As regards political oppression, people are readily aware of their suffering, but when it comes to economic oppression, most often they are hardly conscious of it. China had already experienced several decades of economic oppression by the foreign powers, and so far the nation had for the most part shown no sense of irritation. As a consequence China is being transformed everywhere into a colony of the foreign powers. Our people keep thinking that China is only a semi-colonya term by which they seek to comfort themselves. Yet in reality the economic oppression we have endured is not just that of a semi-colony but greater even than that of a full colony. . . . Of what nation then is China a colony? It is the colony of every nation with which it has concluded treaties; each of them is Chinas master. Therefore China is not just the colony of one country; it is the colony of many countries. We are not just the slaves of one country, but the slaves of many countries. In the event of natural disasters like flood and drought, a nation that is sole master appropriates funds for relief and distributes them, thinking this its own duty; and the people who are its slaves regard this relief work as something to which their masters are obligated. But when North China suffered drought several years ago, the foreign powers did not regard it as their responsibility to appropriate funds and distribute relief; only those foreigners resident in China raised funds for the drought victims, whereupon Chinese observers remarked on the great generosity of the foreigners who bore no responsibility to help. . . . From this we can see that China is not so well off as Annam [under the French] and Korea [under the Japanese]. Being the slaves of one country represents a far higher status than being the slaves of many, and is far more advantageous. Therefore, to call China a semicolony is quite incorrect. If I may coin a phrase, we should be called a hypo-colony. This is a term that comes from chemistry, as in hypo-phosphite. Among chemicals there are some belonging to the class of
phosphorous compounds but of lower grade, which are called phosphites. Still another grade lower, and they are called hypo-phosphites. . . . The Chinese people, believing they were a semi-colony, thought it shame enough; they did not realize that they were lower even than Annam or Korea. Therefore we cannot call ourselves a semicolony but only a hypo-colony. . . . [Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism.] A new idea is emerging in England and Russia, proposed by the intellectuals, which opposes nationalism on the ground that it is narrow and illiberal. This is simply a doctrine of cosmopolitanism. England now and formerly Germany and Russia, together with the Chinese youth of today who preach the new civilization, support this doctrine and oppose nationalism. Often I hear young people say, The Three Principles of the People do not fit in with the present worlds new tendencies; the latest and best doctrine in the world is cosmopolitanism. But is cosmopolitanism really good or not? . . . Theoretically, we cannot say it is no good. Yet it is because formerly the Chinese intellectual class had cosmopolitan ideas that, when the Manchus crossed Chinas frontier, the whole country was lost to them. . . . [Nationalism and Traditional Morality.] If today we want to restore the standing of our people, we must first restore our national spirit. . . . If in the past our people have survived despite the fall of the state [to foreign conquerors], and not only survived themselves but been able to assimilate these foreign conquerors, it is because of the high level of our traditional morality. Therefore, if we go to the root of the matter, besides arousing a sense of national solidarity uniting all our people, we must recover and restore our characteristic, traditional morality. Only thus can we hope to attain again the distinctive position of our people. This characteristic morality the Chinese people today have still not forgotten. First comes loyalty and filial piety, then humanity and love, faithfulness and duty, harmony and peace. Of these traditional virtues, the Chinese people still speak, but now, under foreign oppression, we have been invaded by a new culture, the force of which is felt all across the nation. Men wholly intoxicated by this new culture have thus begun to attack the traditional morality, saying that with the adoption of the new culture, we no longer have need of the old morality. . . . They say that when we formerly spoke of loyalty, it was loyalty to princes, but now in our democracy there are no princes, so loyalty is unnecessary and can be dispensed with. This kind of reasoning is certainly mistaken. In our country princes can be dispensed with, but not loyalty. . . . If indeed we can no longer speak of loyalty to princes, can we not, however, speak of loyalty to our people?
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The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth
THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHINAS YOUTH

SOURCE
Chiang Kai-shek. The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth. The Collected Wartime Messages of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek, 19371945: Volume One, 19371940, compiled by Chinese Ministry of Information, 6370. New York: Kraus Reprint Co., 1969. The Guomindang or Three Peoples Principles Youth Corps was created in 1938 in the spirit of nationalist fervor generated by Japanese aggression. Chiang Kai-shek hoped that the Youth Corps would reinvigorate the Guomindang, which he felt was increasingly corrupt and ineffective. At the suggestion of Chiangs son, Jiang Jingguo, a Youth Corps leader, members were given equal status with Guomindang members. Chiangs ideology as reflected in this speech, mixed Sun Yat-seninspired nationalism in the political sphere with the Confucian revivalism of the New Life movement.
INTRODUCTION
An address to the youth of the whole nation on the occasion of the organization of the San Min Chu I Youth Corps, June 16, 1938. The constitution of the San Min Chu I (Three Principles of the People) Youth Corps has already been drawn up, and the process of organization has now begun. As leader of the Party and State to whom, at this time of grave difficulty and peril, solemn responsibilities have been entrusted, I consider the launching of this new movement to be one of the most significant events in our long struggle for national survival. At the beginning, therefore, of its organization I wish to state clearly the meaning and the mission of the Youth Corps and what I expect from the beloved youth of our nation. Youth are the vanguard of the Revolution; they are the new life of the nation. In every great social advance and in every important revolution youth have provided the driving power and have set the forces of change in motion. For example, in our own recent history, the chief participants in such movements as the Revolution of 1911 (which brought about the downfall of the Manchu dynasty) and the overthrow of the warlords in 1926 1927 were the nations youth. The glorious history of their struggle and self-sacrifice will be a fragrant memory so long as there is a Republic of China. Today, when a ruthless enemy is invading and ravaging our country, when we have already resisted for a whole year and a new and momentous epoch is dawning in our history, we must look even more to the youth of the nation to unite and press forward as one body if we are to complete the stupendous task of Resistance and Reconstruction. I am firmly convinced that China, with her long history, her vast territory, and her great population, will
most certainly win the victory and complete the task of reconstruction if she can concentrate her resources and continue the struggle without flinching. Resistance and Reconstruction is a necessary stage in the Revolution, and the Revolution will most certainly in the end be brought to a successful consummation. But how soon the consummation will take place depends entirely on the scale of our efforts, and on the spirit of those who carry on the fight. As for me, I have given myself completely to the Party and the State, and long ago put all thoughts of personal success or failure out of my mind. I have always regarded the National Revolution as our permanent task, a task of stupendous importance and difficulty. Our youth, full of revolutionary spirit, who are now carrying on the tasks of the Revolution are precious as jewels to me. They are my very life. The countless number of revolutionary youths in our nation must join together to form one mighty body, and as one falls another must step up fearlessly and unwaveringly to take his place. Then we shall be able to carry our principles into effect; then we shall be able to protect the State, to revive the nation, and to reach the ultimate goal of our Revolution. Because of my intense hopes for the youth of China, I feel very keenly my responsibility for their future success or failure. The fate of China lies in their hands. The responsibility for organizing and training them to become worthy citizens of China, able to undertake the tasks of Resistance and Reconstruction, is mine; I cannot evade it. The Youth Corps has now been organized to fulfill this responsibility and to meet the urgent needs of our nation and society at the present time. First, I want to state briefly the main reasons for the organization of the Youth Corps: 1. To complete the task of Resistance and Reconstruction. If we want to win the war and complete our reconstruction, we must develop the vast resources of the nation as a foundation on which to build. By developing the vast resources of the nation I mean awakening and uniting the youth of the whole nation. In the past the number of Chinas youth who fought and struggled sacrificially for the Revolution was by no means small. But now, because of disorganized education, the lack of habits of discipline, and the absence of training in group living, many youths, although patriotic in spirit, have not known how to express their patriotism in action. So a radical change is necessary. By strict teaching and discipline we must correct the bad habits of the past. We must give the young men and women of the nation training through the Youth Corps that will make them into modern citizens. We must eliminate the old ways of thinking and behavior, and in their place
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cultivate the new independent spirit of a modern state, and a strong, self-reliant type of life. Within the Youth Corps there will naturally be different officers, some of higher rank than others, but it is essential that discipline be the same for everyone. Only thus will it be possible to bring about a real change in the daily living habits of our youth, and to direct their thoughts and actions toward a single goal. With a new national and racial consciousness they will be able to give vital expression to their patriotism and loyalty. Their work and influence will be powerfully effective, and they will lay strong foundations for our reviving national life. 2. To secure a concentration of fresh strength for the National Revolution. The strength of the Revolution has always lain in its emphasis upon unity. The forces latent in our youth, who have always been a dynamic source of revolutionary action, must now be united into one solid mass. The Youth Corps must give the nations youth a single purpose and a thorough physical and mental training; it must develop their character through instruction in the Three Principles of the People, and guide their thoughts and actions, so that they may become the new blood continuing the Revolution. Now when the very existence of our nation is hanging by a thread, if we allow our youth to remain scattered and disorganized, each going his own way, they will have many conflicting purposes, their strength will be reduced and, when the crisis comes, they will all perish together. Chinas youth, therefore, in the difficult circumstances of this war and reconstruction period, must on no account follow the example of certain other nations and permit the existence and propagation of all sorts of different political beliefs and practices. We shall teach our youth fundamental political ideasone philosophy of the State, one set of principles, and one direction of our efforts. There is but one road for the young men and women of China who would spend and be spent for their country, and that is the road of devoted loyalty and complete unity. This applies not merely to youths themselves but also to all educated leaders of youth. No matter what their party or group affiliation, they must, if they have at heart the welfare of the nation, lovingly lead our young men and women to unite under the banner of the Youth Movement. Let them do all they can to train our youth, and through them bring the Revolution to completion. Our fresh revolutionary strength will then be powerfully and continuously focused upon a single objective, and the great force thus createdby the fusing of many purposes into onewill not only drive out the Japanese invader and save our country, but will
prove to all future generations the spiritual unity of our nation. 3. To give concrete expression to the Three Principles of the People. The Three Principles, first enunciated by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, are the basis of our Revolution and National Reconstruction. They form the common faith of the whole nation during this War of Resistance. The reason why they are highly regarded is because they are practicable and meet Chinas real needs. But those who believe in the Three Principles must not be satisfied with mere belief; they must also feel it their responsibility to put the Principles into practice. Dr. Sun Yat-sens philosophy was: Knowing is difficult, but doing is easy. Therefore, he first taught the people new principles, and then spurred them on to action. This was just what was needed to correct the bad tendency of our people to fear difficulties and seek ease. This Youth Corps must, by its own practice of the Three Principles, inspire all the nations youth. Through its organization and training it must arouse courage and determination to overcome all obstacles and to carry out the Three Principles unswervingly to the end. No matter how difficult or dangerous the circumstances under which they live, no matter how dark their future may be, they must not for one moment despair or give up what has been committed to their charge. The young men and women of the Corps who believe in and practice the Three Principles must become new life-cells of the nation; they must be pioneers in the building of the new China; and worthy examples to all the people. This must go on until we see among the youth of the nation, organized and trained in the ideology and system of the Three Principles, an outburst of tremendously vital energy. If our revolutionary youth all believed in and practiced the Three Principles, we could be absolutely confident of their realization. The purpose behind the creation of the Youth Corps has been stated. China today must complete her task of Resistance and Reconstruction; even more must she develop revolutionary strength to carry on the tasks that lie ahead. The great mission which the Youth Corps has undertaken on behalf of the State is twofold: the mobilization of the nations youth for Resistance and Reconstruction, and the union of all the best revolutionary elements to increase the power of our Revolution. If we can fulfill these two missions, then the Three Principles can certainly be realized, the insults of the foreign invader can be blotted out, and a new, free, and independent China can be brought into being. On the one hand, we should meet the urgent needs of wartime mobilization; on the other hand, we should train a staff of workers that will be able in the near future to direct our national and social reconstruction. If we are to carry out this great and hard task, we must expect all the
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youth who join the Corps to be orderly, dignified, sincere, and single-minded, and to take upon themselves the following special responsibilities: Wartime Mobilization In accordance with the plans for total mobilization, our youth must take an active part according to their individual abilities in national defense, production, communications, propaganda, or educational work. They must be public spirited and obedient to law; they must carry out their duties with the utmost loyalty; they must be willing to undergo toil and hardship without seeking ease or rest. They must look upon struggle as their heaven sent lot and accept sacrifice a matter of course. If our youth all have this spirit, then our War of Resistance will unquestionably end in victory. Military Training While the war is on, all our youth should receive strict military training. Every member of the Youth Corps will then have the necessary skills to help in the defense of his country. This military training should include training in morale, devotion to country and loyalty to Party, physical training so as to make them strong and healthy, training for life that will enable them to undergo toil and hardship, and training in action that will teach them to do things quickly and accurately. When our youth have had this kind of education, they will get rid of the decadent idea and custom that a scholar must be weak in body; they will go on to influence society; and they will be able, because of the spirit inspired by this military discipline, to carry all our reconstruction forward to completion. Political Training All our youth should receive political training, so that they may have some basic knowledge of how to set up the government of a state based on the Three Principles of the People. They should know how the four powers of government (executive, legislative, judicial, and the power of impeachment) are to be exercised, how local autonomy works, and other important points. They should know the first steps in training for self-government, and understand the fundamental methods of controlling, organizing, and leading the masses. If our youths are to have in the realm of thought real faith in the Three Principles, and in the realm of action are to make wise use of the rights of citizens in a modern democratic state, such knowledge is essential. Upon it we can build the new China of, by, and for the people. Cultural Reconstruction The strength of a nation is dependent on the cultural standard of the mass of the people. Now the degree of
knowledge possessed by the bulk of our people is far inferior to that of the people of the Great Powers. Our educated youth must, therefore, take the initiative, and participate in the task of eliminating illiteracy, and of making popular education a reality. They should also help in wartime propaganda. We must, in as short a time as possible, improve the political knowledge of the ordinary people, and raise their cultural standard, so that our nation may be able to advance along the road to liberty and equality in the modern world. Hard Work and Service Our youth must grasp the significance of Dr. Suns final message that the purpose of life lies in service. Each week everyone should participate in at least ten hours of some form of productive social service. On the one hand, they will help to increase production and improve the nations financial position, and on the other, they will, through such service, win their way into the hearts of the people and appreciate fully their sufferings. By mixing with the people, and by their actual work and accomplishments, they will win the confidence of all their fellow-countrymen. Production Our young people must pay special attention to scientific training, and make their knowledge and actions scientific. In this way a new type of national charactersystematic and methodical, accurate and practicalwill be developed. It is even more necessary for youth to make every effort to secure technical training, and so acquire productive skills and the habit of hard work. Then a large number will be available for service in agriculture, commerce, communications, mining, electrical work, and all kinds of light and heavy industries. This will hasten the completion of our great program of national reconstruction. These are the responsibilities which the Youth Corps must energetically take up now and in the future. They may also be regarded as a covenant to which all the youth of our Revolution should subscribe. But if we want to accomplish this task, our youth must get rid of their old habits, and stir themselves to new action; they must show fresh vitality, and radically reform their mode of life. They must not merely limit their enjoyments and adopt a Spartan regime but they must also cultivate habits of orderliness, cleanliness, simplicity, frankness, quickness, and accuracy. They must eliminate such bad habits as disorderly behavior, uncleanliness, diffuse activity, extravagance, dilatoriness, and superficiality, and through their new life of hard work and real economy help to reform the customs of society. Then all the people of China, inspired by the discipline, obedience, and corporate spirit of our youth, will march together to become a modern nation.
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How to Be a Good Communist
To sum up, the Youth Corps aims to bring together the best youths of the whole nation, whether soldiers, laborers, farmers, merchants, or students, and to give them systematic training. It aims also to unite these youths in one organization, and to subject them to the rules of the New Life Movement, so that as they come to understand the four great virtuespropriety, justice, integrity, and conscientiousnesswhich are the fundamentals of a modern state, they may combine their strength and wisdom, and with one heart and one mind shoulder responsibility, observe the rules of discipline, and lay the foundation of a new modern state based on the San Min Chu I. The Youth Corps was established not to solve the livelihood problems of individuals, but to solve our national problems through the offering by youth of their life, strength and freedom to the service of the State. It was set up, not to enable our youth to live lives of ease and pleasure, but in order that they might share their joys and sorrows, their difficulties and dangers, and accomplish together our task of Resistance and Reconstruction, thus making the Three Principles a living reality. Chinas humiliation and danger have now reached the extreme limit. Our vast territory with its rivers and its mountains, its valleys and its steppes, has everywhere been overrun by our enemy. Our nation, with its long history stretching back through five thousand years, today faces a crisis that will decide its survival or its destruction. The sacrifice of countless revolutionary heroes and of the soldiers who are dying today for their countrytheir red blood and bleached bonescries out to the youth of the nation to continue the struggle and complete their task. We must courageously face our past failure to lead and train our youth, and earnestly strive now to create a practical revolutionary organization for them all. To meet the immediate pressing needs of our State and people, we must make this an organization that will include the flower of our youth, the keenest and best young revolutionists in the nation. I am confident that our great host of young men and women, filled with the spirit of the Revolution and recognizing clearly their responsibility for the future of the nation, will rouse themselves to vigorous action. Let our youth unite in the Youth Corps, obey its discipline and commands, receive its training and guidance. Thus they will enhance the value of the Youth Corps to the State and enable it to complete its great and sacred mission. I, who have been entrusted with heavy responsibilities by the Party and the State, say again to my young friends throughout the nation that they must unite. They must be willing to live and suffer and, if need be, die together. This is the only way to attain our goal of a new and glorious China. Descendants of Hwang Ti, Youth of China, arise!
HOW TO BE A GOOD COMMUNIST

SOURCE
Liu Shaoqi. How to Be a Good Communist. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 427 432. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Liu Shaoqi, a veteran Communist who joined the party in 1921, wrote How to Be a Good Communist as a series of lectures delivered in Yanan in July 1939. The essay was widely read among Communist cadres in the 1940s and 1950s. A revised text was reprinted as material for political study in 1962 but was heavily criticized when Liu came under attack during the Cultural Revolution. He died in prison in 1969. How to Be a Good Communist emphasizes the idea of self-cultivation (a concept drawn partly from Confucian tradition) but also focuses on the use of criticism and self-criticism and on submission to party discipline.
INTRODUCTION
Comrades! In order to become the most faithful and best pupils of Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin, we need to carry on cultivation in all aspects in the masses of the people. We need to carry on cultivation in the theories of Marxism-Leninism and in applying such theories in practice; cultivation in revolutionary strategy and tactics; cultivation in studying and dealing with various problems according to the standpoint and methods of MarxismLeninism; cultivation in ideology and moral character; cultivation in party unity, inner-party struggle, and discipline; cultivation in hard work and in the style of work; cultivation in being skillful in dealing with different kinds of people and in associating with the masses of the people; and cultivation in various kinds of scientific knowledge, and so on. We are all Communist Party members, and so we have a general cultivation in common. But there exists a wide discrepancy today among our party members. Wide discrepancy exists among us in the level of political consciousness, in work, in position, in cultural level, in experience of struggle, and in social origin. Therefore, in addition to cultivation in general, we also need special cultivation for different groups and for individual comrades. Accordingly, there should be different kinds of methods and forms of cultivation. For example, many of our comrades keep a diary in order to have a daily check on their work and thoughts, or they write down on small posters their personal defects and what they hope to achieve and put them up where they work or live, together with the photographs of persons they look up to, and ask comrades for criticism and supervision. In ancient China, there were many methods of cultivation. There was Zengzi, who said,
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I reflect on myself three times a day. The Book of Odes has it that one should cultivate oneself as a lapidary cuts and files, carves and polishes. Another method was to examine oneself by self-reflection and to write down some mottoes on the right-hand side of ones desk or on ones girdle as daily reminders of rules of personal conduct. The Chinese scholars of the Confucian school had a number of methods for the cultivation of their body and mind. Every religion has various methods and forms of cultivation of its own. The investigation of things, the extension of knowledge, sincerity of thought, the rectification of the heart, the cultivation of the person, the regulation of the family, the ordering well of the state and the making tranquil of the whole kingdom as set forth in the Great Learning also means the same. All this shows that in achieving ones progress one must make serious and energetic efforts to carry on self-cultivation and study. However, many of these methods and forms cannot be adopted by us because most of them are idealistic, formalistic, abstract, and divorced from social practice. These scholars and religious believers exaggerate the function of subjective initiative, thinking that so long as they keep their general good intentions and are devoted to silent prayer they will be able to change the existing state of affairs, change society, and change themselves under conditions separated from social and revolutionary practice. This is, of course, absurd. We cannot cultivate ourselves in this way. We are materialists, and our cultivation cannot be separated from practice. What is important to us is that we must not under any circumstances isolate ourselves from the revolutionary struggles of different kinds of people and in different forms at a given moment and that we must, moreover, sum up historical revolutionary experience and learn humbly from this and put it into practice. That is to say, we must undertake self-cultivation and steel ourselves in the course of our own practice, basing ourselves on the experiences of past revolutionary practice, on the present concrete situation, and on new experiences. Our selfcultivation and steeling are for no other purpose than that of revolutionary practice. That is to say, we must modestly try to understand the standpoint, the method, and the spirit of Marxism-Leninism, and understand how Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin dealt with people. And having understood these, we should immediately apply them to our own practice, i.e., in our own lives, words, deeds, and work. Moreover, we should stick to them and unreservedly correct and purge everything in our ideology that runs counter to them, thereby strengthening our own proletarian and Communist ideology and qualities. . . . At the same time, we must find out in what respects specific conclusions of Marxism-Leninism need to be supplemented, enriched, and developed on the basis of well-digested
new experiences. That is to say, we must combine the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the revolution. . . . First of all, we must oppose and resolutely eliminate one of the biggest evils bequeathed to us by the education and learning in the old societythe separation of theory from practice. . . . Despite the fact that many people read over and over again books by ancient sages, they did things the sages would have been loath to do. Despite the fact that in everything they wrote or said they preached righteousness and morality, they acted like out-and-out robbers and harlots in everything they did. Some high-ranking officials issued orders for the reading of the Four Books and the Five Classics, yet in their everyday administrative work they ruthlessly extorted exorbitant requisitions, ran amuck with corruption and killing, and did everything against righteousness and morality. Some people read the Three Peoples Principles over and over again and could recite the Will of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, yet they oppressed the people, opposed the nations who treated us on an equal footing, and went so far as to compromise with or surrender to the national enemy. Once a scholar of the old school told me himself that the only maxim of Confucius that he could observe was To him food can never be too dainty; minced meat can never be too fine, adding that all the rest of the teachings of Confucius he could not observe and had never proposed to observe. Then why did they still want to carry on educational work and study the teachings of the sages? Apart from utilizing them for window-dressing purposes, their objects were (1) to make use of these teachings to oppress the exploited and make use of righteousness and morality for the purpose of hoodwinking and suppressing the culturally backward people; (2) to attempt thereby to secure better government jobs, make money and achieve fame, and reflect credit on their parents. Apart from these objects, their actions were not restricted by the sages teachings. This was the attitude of the men of letters and scholars of the old society to the sages they worshiped. Of course we Communist Party members cannot adopt such an attitude in studying Marxism-Leninism and the excellent and useful teachings bequeathed to us by our ancient sages. We must live up to what we say. We are honest and pure and we cannot deceive ourselves, the people, or our forefathers. This is an outstanding characteristic as well as a great merit of us Communist Party members. . . . What is the most fundamental and common duty of us Communist Party members? As everybody knows, it is to establish communism, to transform the present world into a Communist world. Is a Communist world good or not? We all know that it is very good. In such a world there will be no exploiters, oppressors, landlords, capitalists, imperialists, or fascists. There will be no oppressed and exploited people, no darkness, ignorance, backwardness, and so on. In
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such a society, all human beings will become unselfish and intelligent Communists with a high level of culture and technique. The spirit of mutual assistance and mutual love will prevail among mankind. There will be no such irrational things as mutual deception, mutual antagonism, mutual slaughter and war, and so on. Such a society will, of course, be the best, the most beautiful, and the most advanced society in the history of mankind. . . . Here the question arises: Can Communist society be brought about? Our answer is yes. About this, the whole theory of Marxism-Leninism offers a scientific explanation that leaves no room for doubt. . . . The victory of socialism in the USSR has also given us factual proof. Our duty is, therefore, to bring about at an early date this Communist society, the realization of which is inevitable in the history of mankind. . . . At all times and on all questions, a Communist Party member should take into account the interests of the party as a whole and place the partys interests above his personal problems and interests. It is the highest principle of our party members that the Partys interests are supreme. . . . If a party member has only the interests and aims of the Party and communism in his ideology, if he has no personal aims and considerations independent of the Partys interests, and if he is really unbiased and unselfish, then he will be capable of the following: 1. He will be capable of possessing very good Communist ethics. Because he has a firm outlook, he can both love and hate people. He can show loyalty to and ardent love for all his comrades, revolutionaries, and working people, help them unconditionally, treat them with equality, and never harm any one of them for the sake of his own interest. He can deal with them in a faithful and forgiving spirit and put himself in the position of others. He can consider others problems from their points of view and be considerate to them. He will never do to others anything he would not like others to do to him. He can deal with the most vicious enemies of mankind in a most resolute manner and conduct a persistent struggle against the enemy for the purpose of defending the interests of the party, the class, and the emancipation of mankind. As the Chinese saying goes, He will worry long before the rest of the world begins to worry, and he will rejoice only after the rest of the world has rejoiced. Both in the Party and among the people he will be the first to suffer hardship and the last to enjoy himself. He never minds whether his conditions are better or worse than others, but he does mind as to whether he has done more revolutionary work than others or whether he has fought harder. In times of adversity, he will stand out courageously and unflinchingly,
and in the face of difficulties he will demonstrate the greatest sense of responsibility. Therefore, he is capable of possessing the greatest firmness and moral courage to resist corruption by riches or honors, to resist tendencies to vacillate in spite of poverty and lowly status, and to refuse to yield in spite of threats or force. 2. He will also be capable of possessing the greatest courage. Since he is free from any selfishness whatever and has never done anything against his conscience, he can expose his mistakes and shortcomings and boldly correct them in the same way as the sun and the moon emerge bright and full following a brief eclipse. He is courageous because his is a just cause. He is never afraid of truth. He courageously upholds truth, expounds truth to others, and fights for truth. . . . 3. He will be best capable of acquiring the theory and method of Marxism-Leninism, viewing problems, and perceiving the real nature of the situation keenly and aptly. Because he has a firm and clear-cut class standpoint, he is free from personal worries and personal desires that may blur or distort his observation of things and understanding of truth. 4. He will also be capable of being the most sincere, most candid, and happiest of men. Since he has no selfish desires and since he has nothing to conceal from the Party, there is nothing that he is afraid of telling others, as the Chinese saying goes. Apart from the interests of the Party and of the revolution, he has no personal losses or gains or other things to worry about. . . . His work will be found in no way incompatible with the Partys interests no matter how many years later it is reviewed. He does not fear criticism from others, and he can courageously and sincerely criticize others. That is why he can be sincere, candid, and happy. 5. He will be capable of possessing the highest selfrespect and self-esteem. For the interests of the Party and of the revolution, he can also be the most lenient, most tolerant, and most ready to compromise, and he will even endure, if necessary, various forms of humiliation and injustice without feeling hurt or bearing grudges. . . . But if for the sake of certain important aims of the Party and of the revolution he is required to endure insults, shoulder heavy burdens, and do work that he is reluctant to do, he will take up the most difficult and important work without the slightest hesitation and will not pass the buck. A Communist Party member should possess all the greatest and noblest virtues of mankind. . . . Such ethics
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On Art and Literature
are not built upon the backward basis of safeguarding the interests of individuals or a small number of exploiters. They are built, on the contrary, upon the progressive basis of the interest of the proletariat, of the ultimate emancipation of mankind as a whole, of saving the world from destruction and of building a happy and beautiful Communist world.
II The question of whom to serve having been solved, the question of how to serve comes up. To put it in the words of our comrades: Should we devote ourselves to elevation or to popularization? . . . Though mans social life constitutes the only source for art and literature, and is incomparably more vivid and richer than art and literature as such, the people are not satisfied with the former alone and demand the latter. Why? Because although both are beautiful, life as reflected in artistic works can and ought to be on a higher level and of a greater power and better focused, more typical, nearer the ideal, and therefore more universal than actual everyday life. Revolutionary art and literature should create all kinds of characters on the basis of actual life and help the masses to push history forward. For example, on the one hand there are people suffering from hunger, cold, and oppression, and on the other hand there are men exploiting and oppressing mena contrast that exists everywhere and seems quite commonplace to people; artists and writers, however, can create art and literature out of such daily occurrences by organizing them, bringing them to a focal point, and making the contradictions and struggles in them typicalcreate art and literature that can awaken and arouse the masses and impel them to unite and struggle to change their environment. If there were no such art and literature, this task could not be fulfilled or at least not effectively and speedily fulfilled. What are popularization and elevation in art and literature? What is the relation between the two? Works of popularization are simpler and plainer and therefore more readily accepted by the broad masses of the people of today. Works of a higher level are more polished and therefore more difficult to produce and less likely to win the ready acceptance of the broad masses of people of today. The problem facing the workers, peasants, and soldiers today is this: engaged in a ruthless and sanguinary struggle against the enemy, they remain illiterate and uncultured as a result of the prolonged rule of the feudal and bourgeois classes, and consequently they badly need a widespread campaign of enlightenment, and they eagerly wish to have culture, knowledge, art, and literature that meet their immediate need and are readily acceptable to them so as to heighten their passion for struggle and their confidence in victory, to strengthen their solidarity, and thus to enable them to fight the enemy with one heart and one mind. But popularization and elevation cannot be sharply separated. . . . The people need popularization, but along with it they need elevation too, elevation month by month and year by year. Popularization is popularization for the people, and elevation is elevation of the people. Such elevation does not take place in midair, nor behind closed
ON ART AND LITERATURE

SOURCE
Mao Zedong. On Art and Literature. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 441444. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Maos 1942 speech, later published in his Selected Works as Talks at the Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, was for many years used as the ideological guide to what was correct in the arts and as a basis for criticizing writers and artists. Although conceding that art should be more than mere propaganda, Mao insisted that it must have as its purpose to serve the revolution and to awaken and arouse the masses.
INTRODUCTION
Comrades! We have met three times during this month. In the pursuit of truth, heated debates have taken place and scores of Party and non-Party comrades have spoken, laying bare the issues and making them concrete. I think this is very profitable to the whole artistic and literary movement. In discussing any problem we should start from actual facts and not from definitions. We shall be following the wrong method if we first look up definitions of art and literature in the textbooks and then use them as criteria in determining the direction of the present artistic and literary movement or in judging the views and controversies that arise today. What, then, is the crux of our problems? I think our problems are basically those of working for the masses and of how to work for them. If these two problems are not solved, or [are] solved inadequately, our artists and writers will be ill-adapted to their circumstances and unfit for their tasks and will come up against a series of problems from within and without. My conclusion will center round these two problems, while touching upon some other problems related to them. I The first problem is: For whom are our art and literature intended? This problem has, as a matter of fact, been solved long ago by Marxists, and our art and literature should serve the millions upon millions of working people. . . .
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doors, but on the basis of popularization. It is at once determined by popularization and gives direction to it. . . . Besides the elevation that directly meets the need of the masses, there is the elevation that meets their need indirectly, namely, the elevation needed by the cadres. Being advanced members of the masses, the cadres are generally better educated than the masses, and art and literature of a higher level are entirely necessary to them; and it would be a mistake to ignore this. Anything done for the cadres is also entirely done for the masses, because it is only through the cadres that we can give education and guidance to the masses. . . . III One of the principal methods of struggle in the artistic and literary sphere is art and literary criticism. . . . There are two criteria in art and literary criticism: political and artistic. According to the political criterion, all works are good that facilitate unity and resistance to Japan, that encourage the masses to be of one heart and one mind, and that oppose retrogression and promote progress; on the other hand, all works are bad that undermine unity and resistance to Japan, that sow dissension and discord among the masses, and that oppose progress and drag the people back. And how can we tell the good from the bad here by the motive (subjective intention) or by the effect (social practice)? Idealists stress motive and ignore effect, while mechanical materialists stress effect and ignore motive; in contradistinction from either, we dialectical materialists insist on the unity of motive and effect of winning their approval, and we must unite the two. . . . In examining the subjective intention of an artist, i.e., whether his motive is correct and good, we do not look at his declaration but at the effect his activities (mainly his works) produce on society and the masses. Social practice and its effect are the criteria for examining the subjective intention or the motive. . . . According to the artistic criterion, all works are good or comparatively good that are relatively high in artistic quality and bad or comparatively bad that are relatively low in artistic quality. Of course, this distinction also depends on social effect. As there is hardly an artist who does not consider his own work excellent, our criticism ought to permit the free competition of all varieties of artistic works, but it is entirely necessary for us to pass correct judgments on them according to the criteria of the science of art, so that we can gradually raise the art of a lower level to a higher level, and to change the art that does not meet the requirements of the struggle of the broad masses into art that does meet them. There is thus the political criterion as well as the artistic criterion. . . . But criterion second. The bourgeoisie always reject proletarian artistic and literary works, no matter how great their artistic achievement. As for the proletariat, they must treat the art and literature of the past
according to their attitude toward the people and whether they are progressive in the light of history. Some things that are basically reactionary from the political point of view may yet be artistically good. But the more artistic such a work may be, the greater harm will it do to the people, and the more reason for us to reject it. The contradiction between reactionary political content and artistic form is a common characteristic of the art and literature of all exploiting classes in their decline. What we demand is unity of politics and art, of content and form and of revolutionary political content and the highest possible degree of perfection in artistic form. Works of art, however politically progressive, are powerless if they lack artistic quality. Therefore we are equally opposed to works with wrong political approaches and to the tendency toward socalled poster and slogan style that is correct only in political approach but lacks artistic power. We must carry on a twofront struggle in art and literature.
CHINAS DESTINY
SOURCE
Chiang Kai-shek. Chinas Destiny. Trans. Wang Chung-hui. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 344347. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. This nationalistic anti-imperialist treatise by Chiang Kai-shek blamed all Chinas ills on the unequal treaties. Issued during the war (March 1943) when morale was low, its authoritarian tone and advocacy of the revival of ancient Confucian virtues did not meet with much welcome. It was, however, made required reading in schools and Guomindang circles.
INTRODUCTION
SOCIAL EFFECTS [OF THE UNEQUAL TREATIES]
During the last hundred years, under the oppression of unequal treaties, the life of the Chinese people became more and more degenerate. Everyone took self-interest as the standard of right and wrong, and personal desires as the criterion of good and evil; a thing was considered right if it conformed to ones self-interest or good if it conformed to ones personal desires. Rascals became influential in the villages, rogues were active in the cities, sacrificing public safety and the welfare of others to satisfy their own interest and desires. In the meantime, extravagant and irresponsible ideologies and political doctrines were freely advanced, either to rationalize self-interest and personal desires or to exploit them for ulterior motives. The rationalizers idolized them as an expression of the self, and the exploiters utilized
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Chinas Destiny
them as a means of fomenting disturbances in the community, in order to fish in troubled waters. The practice of following in the footsteps of the sages or emulating the heroes and being friends with the ancients not only tended to disappear but was even considered mean and despicable. . . .
MORAL EFFECTS
For five thousand years China had always stressed the importance of honest work and frugality. Her people were noted for their simplicity in food and clothing; women occupied themselves with their looms and men with their plows. These good habits, however, were swept away by the prevalence in the [foreign] concessions of the vices of opium smoking, gambling, prostitution, and robbery. Chinas ancient ethical teachings and philosophies contained detailed and carefully worked out principles and rules for the regulation and maintenance of the social life of man. The structure of our society underwent many changes, but our social life never deviated from the principles governing the relationship between parent and child, husband and wife, brother and brother, friend and friend, superior and inferior, man and woman, old and young, as well as principles enjoining mutual help among neighbors and care of the sick and weak. During the past hundred years, wherever the influence of the foreign concessions was felt, these principles were not only neglected but also despised. Between parent and child, husband and wife, brothers and friends, superiors and inferiors, old and young, and among neighbors the old sentiments of respect and affection and the spirit of mutual help and cooperation were disappearing. Only material interests were taken into consideration, and everywhere there was a general lack of moral standards by which to judge oneself. Whenever duty called, people tried to shirk it; whenever there was material profit to be gained, they struggled for it. . . . A country that had hitherto attached the greatest importance to decorum and rightness was now in danger of losing its sense of integrity and honor. What harm these unequal treaties had caused! The deterioration of national morality also tended to affect the physique of our people. The physical strength of the numberless unemployed in the cities as easily impaired. The health of those merchants who abandoned themselves to a life of extravagance and dissoluteness could not but break down. The most serious thing, however, was the effect upon the health of the youth in the schools. Physical training was not popularized in most of the schools; moral education was also neglected by school masters and teachers. In the meantime, the extravagant and dissolute life
outside the school attracted the students caused them to indulge in evil habits, and resulted in the deterioration of their moral character. Infectious and venereal diseases, too, which were rampant in the cities, further undermined their physical constitution. How could these young men, who were unsound in body and mind, help to advance learning reform social customs, render service to the state, and promote enterprise after their graduation? The inevitable result of such a state of affairs was the steady disintegration of our country and the further demoralization of the Chinese nation. . . .
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
After the Student Movement of May 4, 1919, two currents of thought, ultra individualistic liberalism and class-struggle communism, found their way into Chinese academic circles and later became widespread in the country. On the whole, Chinese academic circles desired to effect a change in our culture, forgetting that it had certain elements that are immutable. With respect to different Western theories they imitated only their superficial aspects and never sought to understand their true significance in order to improve Chinas national life. The result was that a large number of our scholars and students adopted the superficialities and nonessentials of Western culture and lost the respect for and confidence in our own culture. . . .
THE DECISIVE FACTOR IN CHINAS DESTINY
The work of reforming social life and carrying out the program of national reconstruction is one of paramount importance in the process of national survivala task that requires persistent effort. Individuals, striving singly, will not achieve great results nor lasting accomplishments. Consequently, all adult citizens and promising youths, whether in a town, a district, a province, or in the country at large, should have a common organization, with a systematic plan for binding the members together and headquarters to promote joint record reconstruction activities and also personal accomplishments. . . . In the past our adult citizens have been unable to unite on a large scale or for a long period. They have been derisively compared to a heap of loose sand or spoken of as having only five minutes enthusiasm. Now, incapacity to unite is a result of selfishness, and the best antidote for selfishness is public spirit. That unity does not last is due to hypocrisy and the best antidote for hypocrisy is sincerity. With a public spirit, one can take all men as ones kin and all things as ones company. With sincerity, one can persevere and success in the end. . . . The principal fault of our youth today and the cause of their failure and ineffectual living lie essentially in the unsound education they have received.
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Cairo Declaration, 1943
Since they do not follow the guidance of their teachers or realize the importance of organization as a factor in the success or failure of their life, and since they do not understand what freedom and discipline mean, they are irresponsible in their conduct and unrealistic in their thinking. As soon as they enter society, they feel the lack of ability and confidence to take up any practical work, let done the task of social and national reconstruction. . . . To avoid the mistake of living a misguided and regrettable life, they should never again allow themselves to be led astray by blind and impulsive following of others in the past. We must realize that the Three Principles represent not only the crystallization of Chinas time-honored civilization and of her peoples highest virtues but also the inevitable trend of world affairs in this modern age. The San Min Zhu Yi Youth Corps is the central organization of all Chinese youths who are faithful adherents of the Three Principles. All young men and women must therefore place themselves under the guidance of the Corps in order to keep their aims true and to avoid doing harm to themselves and to the nation. It is only by working within the framework of the Corps program that they can make decisions about their life work in the right direction. . . . It will be their mission to save the country from decline and disorganization, to wipe out national humiliation, to restore national strength, and to show loyalty to the state and filial devotion to the nation. They should emulate the sages and heroes of history and be the lifeblood of the people and the backbone of the nation. To sum up, the Nationalist Party and the San Min Zhu Yi Youth Corps are organic parts of the nation. . . . Considering the state as an organism as far as its life is concerned, we may say that the Three Principles constitute the soul of our nation, because without these principles our national reconstruction should be deprived of its guiding spirit. . . . Without the Nationalist Party, China should be deprived of its pivot. If all the revolutionary elements and promising youths in the country really want to throw in their lot with the fate of the country, if they regard national undertakings as their own undertakings and the national life as their own lifethen they should all enlist in the party or the Youth Corps. By so doing, they can discharge the highest duties of citizenship and attain the highest ideal in life. Then and only then can our great mission of national reconstruction be completed.
Chiang Kai-shek for the Republic of China, stated the Allies intentions to continue deploying military force until Japan surrendered unconditionally and gave up all the territory that it had occupied by force. The declaration reflected Chinas acceptance as one of the Big Four Allied powers.
PLEASE SAFEGUARD AGAINST PREMATURE RELEASE OR PUBLICATION. The following communique is for automatic release at 7:30 P.M., E.W.T., on Wednesday, December 1, 1945. Extraordinary precautions must be taken to hold this communication absolutely confidential and secret until the hour set for automatic release. No intimation can be given its contents nor shall its contents be the subject of speculation or discussion on the part of anybody receiving it, prior to the hour of release. Radio commentators and news broadcasters are particularly cautioned not to make the communication the subject of speculation before the hour of release of publication. STEPHEN EARLY Secretary to the President President Roosevelt, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek and Prime Minister Churchill, together with their respective military and diplomatic advisers, have completed a conference in North Africa. The following general statement was issued:
The several military missions have agreed upon future military operations against Japan. The Three Great Allies expressed their resolve to bring unrelenting pressure against their brutal enemies by sea, land and air. This pressure is already rising. The Three Great Allies are fighting this war to restrain and punish the aggression of Japan. They covet no gain for themselves and have no thought of territorial expansion. It is their purpose that Japan shall be stripped of all the islands in the Pacific which she has seized or occupied since the beginning of the First World War in 1914, and that all the territories Japan has stolen from the Chinese, such as Manchuria, Formosa, and the Pescadores, shall be restored to the Republic of China. Japan will also be expelled from all other territories which she has taken by violence and greed. The aforesaid Three Great Powers, mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea, are determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent. With these objects in view the Three Allies, in harmony with those of the United Nations at war with Japan, will continue to persevere in the serious and prolonged operation necessary to procure the unconditional surrender of Japan.
CAIRO DECLARATION, 1943

INTRODUCTION
The Cairo Declaration, signed on November 27, 1943, by President Franklin Roosevelt for the United States, Prime Minister Winston Churchill for the United Kingdom, and Generalissimo
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The Common Program of The Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference
THE COMMON PROGRAM OF THE CHINESE PEOPLES POLITICAL CONSULTATIVE CONFERENCE

SOURCE
The Important Documents of the First Plenary Session of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1949. The Common Program was adopted in September 1949 by the Chinese Peoples Consultative Congress (CPCC), a United Front body that represented a broad range of interests. The program was in effect a constitution of the new Peoples Republic of China guaranteeing a range of political and civil rights and outlining a plan for economic reform.
peoples state. It must systematically transform the feudal and semi-feudal land ownership system into a system of peasant land ownership; it must protect the public property of the state and of the cooperatives and must protect the economic interests and private property of workers, peasants, the petty [sic] bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie. It must develop the peoples economy of New Democracy and steadily transform the country from an agricultural into an industrial one. Article 4. The people of the Peoples Republic of China shall have the right to elect and to be elected according to law. Article 5. The people of the Peoples Republic of China shall have freedom of thought, speech, publication, assembly, association, correspondence, person, domicile, change of domicile, religious belief and the freedom of holding processions and demonstrations. Article 6. The Peoples Republic of China shall abolish the feudal system which holds women in bondage. Women shall enjoy equal rights with men in political, economic, cultural, educational and social life. Freedom of marriage for men and women shall be put into effect. Article 7. The Peoples Republic of China shall suppress all counterrevolutionary activities, severely punish all Kuomintang counter-revolutionary war criminals and other leading incorrigible counter-revolutionary, elements who collaborate with imperialism, commit treason against the fatherland and oppose the cause of peoples democracy. Feudal landlords, bureaucratic capitalists and reactionary elements in general, after they have been disarmed and have had their special powers abolished, shall, in addition, be deprived of their political rights in accordance with law for a necessary period. But, at the same time, they shall be given some means of livelihood and shall be compelled to reform themselves through labour so as to become new men. If they continue their counter-revolutionary activities, they will be severely punished. Article 8. It is the duty of every national of the Peoples Republic of China to defend the fatherland, to abide by the law, to observe labour discipline, to protect public property, to perform public and military service, and to pay taxes.
INTRODUCTION
PREAMBLE
The Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, representing the will of the people of the whole country, proclaims the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China and is organizing the peoples own central government. The Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference unanimously agrees that New Democracy, or the Peoples Democracy, shall be the political foundation for the national construction of the Peoples Republic of China. It has also adopted the following Common Program which should be jointly observed by all units participating in the Conference, by the peoples government of all levels, and by the people of the whole country. Article 1. The Peoples Republic of China is a New Democratic or a Peoples Democratic state. It carries out the peoples democratic dictatorship led by the working class, based on the alliance of workers and peasants, and uniting all democratic classes and all nationalities in China. It opposes imperialism, feudalism and bureaucratic capitalism and strives for independence, democracy, peace, unity, prosperity and strength of China. Article 2. The Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China must undertake to wage the peoples war of liberation to the very end, to liberate all the territory of China, and to achieve the unification of China. Article 3. The Peoples Republic of China must abolish all the prerogatives of imperialist countries in China. It must confiscate bureaucratic capital and put it into the possession of the
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Article 9. All nationalities in the Peoples Republic of China shall have equal rights and duties. Article 10. The armed forces of the Peoples Republic of China, namely, the Peoples Liberation Army, the peoples public security forces and the peoples police belong to the people. It is the task of these armed forces to defend the independence, territorial integrity and sovereignty of China, and to defend the revolutionary gains and all legitimate rights and interests of the Chinese people. The Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China shall endeavour to consolidate and strengthen the peoples armed forces, so as to enable them to accomplish their tasks effectively. Article 11. The Peoples Republic of China shall unite with all peaceloving and freedom-loving countries and peoples throughout the world, first of all, with the USSR, all Peoples Democracies and all oppressed nations. It shall take its stand in the camp of international peace and democracy, to oppose imperialist aggression to defend lasting world peace. . . . Article 27. Agrarian reform is the necessary condition for the development of the nations productive power and for its industrialization. In all areas where agrarian reform has been carried out, the ownership of the land acquired by the peasants shall be protected. In areas where agrarian reform has not been carried out, the peasant masses must be set in motion to establish peasant organisations and to put into effect the policy of land to the tiller through such measures as the elimination of local bandits and despots, the reduction of rent and interest and the distribution of land. Article 28. State-owned economy is of a Socialist nature. All enterprises relating to the economic life of the country and exercising a dominant influence over the peoples livelihood shall be under the unified operation of the state. All state-owned resources and enterprises are the public property of all the people and are the main material basis on which the Peoples Republic will develop production and bring about a prosperous economy. They are the leading force of the entire social economy. Article 29. Co-operative economy is of a semi-Socialist nature and is an important component of the peoples economy as a whole. The Peoples Government shall foster its development and accord it preferential treatment.
Article 30. The Peoples Government shall encourage the active operation of all private economic enterprises beneficial to the national welfare and to the peoples livelihood and shall assist in their development. Article 31. The economy, jointly operated by state and private capital, is of a state-capitalist nature. Whenever necessary and possible, private capital shall be encouraged to develop in the direction of state-capitalism, in such ways as processing for state-owned enterprises and exploiting stateowned resources in the form of concessions. Article 32. The system of workers participation in the administration of production shall, for the present period, be established in state-owned enterprises. This means that factory administrative committees shall be set up under the leadership of the factory managers. In privately-owned enterprises, in order to carry out the principle of benefitting both labour and capital, collective contracts shall be signed by the trade union, representing the workers and employees, and the employer. For the present period, an eight to ten-hour day should in general be enforced in publicly and privately operated enterprises, but under special circumstances this matter may be dealt with at discretion. The peoples governments shall fix minimum wages according to the conditions prevailing in various localities and trades. Labour insurance shall be gradually established. The special interests of juvenile and women workers shall be safeguarded. Inspection of industries and mines shall be carried out in order to improve their safety devices and sanitary facilities. . . . Article 37. Commerce: All legitimate public and private trade shall be protected. Control shall be exercised over foreign trade and the policy of protecting trade shall be adopted. Freedom of domestic trade shall be established under a unified economic state plan, but commercial speculation disturbing the market shall be strictly prohibited. Stateowned trading organizations shall assume the responsibility of adjusting supply and demand, stabilizing commodity prices and assisting the peoples co-operatives. The peoples government shall adopt the measures necessary to encourage the people in saving, to facilitate remittances from overseas Chinese, and to channel into industry and other productive enterprises, all socially idle capital and commercial capital which is not beneficial to the national welfare and/or to the peoples livelihood.
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Article 38. Co-operatives: The broad masses of working people shall be encouraged and assisted to develop co-operatives according to the principle of willingness. Supply and marketing co-operatives, as well as consumers, credit, producers, and transport co-operatives shall be organized in towns and villages. Consumers co-operatives shall first be organised in factories, institutions and schools. . . . Article 41. The culture and education of the Peoples Republic of China shall be New Democratic-national, scientific and popular. The main tasks of the Peoples Government in cultural and educational work shall be the raising of the cultural level of the people, the training of personnel for national construction work, the eradicating of feudal, compradore [note: A compradorethe word is Portuguese, was a Chinese agent of a foreign business in China] and fascist ideology and the developing of the ideology of service to the people. . . . Article 49. Freedom of reporting truthful news shall be safeguarded. The utilization of the press for slander, for undermining the interests of the state and the people and for provoking world war shall be prohibited. The peoples radio and publication work shall be developed. Attention shall be paid to publishing popular books and journals beneficial to the people. Article 50. All nationalities within the boundaries of the Peoples Republic of China are equal. They shall establish unity and mutual aid among themselves, and shall oppose imperialism and their own public enemies, so that the Peoples Republic of China will become a big fraternal and cooperative family composed of all its nationalities. Greater Nationalism and chauvinism shall be opposed. Acts involving discrimination, oppression and splitting of the unity of the various nationalities shall be prohibited. Article 51. Regional autonomy shall be exercised in areas where national minorities are concentrated and various kinds of autonomy organizations of the different nationalities shall be set up according to the size of the respective populations and regions. In places where different nationalities live together and in the autonomous areas of the national minorities, the different nationalities shall each have an appropriate number of representatives in the local organs of political power. . . . Article 53. All national minorities shall have freedom to develop their dialects and languages, to preserve or reform their
traditions, customs and religious beliefs. The Peoples Government shall assist the masses of the people of all national minorities to develop their political, economic, cultural and educational construction work. Article 54. The principle of the foreign policy of the Peoples Republic of China is protection of the independence, freedom, integrity of territory and sovereignty of the country, upholding of lasting international peace and friendly co-operation between the peoples of all countries, and opposition to the imperialist policy of aggression and war. Article 55. The Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China shall examine the treaties and agreements concluded between the Kuomintang and foreign governments, and shall recognize, abrogate, revise, or re-negotiate them according to their respective contents. Article 56. The Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China may, on the basis of equality, mutual benefit and mutual respect for territory and sovereignty, negotiate with foreign governments which have severed relations with the Kuomintang reactionary clique and which adopt a friendly attitude towards the Peoples Republic of China, and may establish diplomatic relations with them. Article 57. The Peoples Republic of China may restore and develop commercial relations with foreign governments and peoples on a basis of equality and mutual benefit. Article 58. The Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China shall do its utmost to protect the proper rights and interests of Chinese residing abroad. Article 59. The Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China protects law-abiding foreign nationals in China. Article 60. The Peoples Republic of China shall accord the right of asylum to foreign nationals who seek refuge in China because they have been oppressed by their own governments for supporting the peoples interests and taking part in the struggle for peace and democracy.
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The Chinese People Have Stood Up
THE CHINESE PEOPLE HAVE STOOD UP

SOURCE
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). The Chinese People Have Stood Up. The Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Volume V. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1977.
INTRODUCTION
Mao Zedong delivered this opening address at the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference in Peking (Beijing) in September 1949, just before he proclaimed the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China from the rostrum in Tiananmen Square on October 1.
Fellow Delegates, The Political Consultative Conference so eagerly awaited by the whole nation is herewith inaugurated. Our conference is composed of more than six hundred delegates, representing all the democratic parties and peoples organizations of China, the Peoples Liberation Army, the various regions and nationalities of the country and the overseas Chinese. This shows that ours is a conference embodying the great unity of the people of the whole country. It is because we have defeated the reactionary Kuomintang government backed by U.S. imperialism that this great unity of the whole people has been achieved. In a little more than three years the heroic Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, an army such as the world has seldom seen, crushed all the offensives launched by the several million troops of the U.S.-supported reactionary Kuomintang government and turned to the counteroffensive and the offensive. At present the field armies of the Peoples Liberation Army, several million strong, have pushed the war to areas near Taiwan, Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Kweichow, Szechuan and Sinkiang, and the great majority of the Chinese people have won liberation. In a little more than three years the people of the whole country have closed their ranks, rallied to support the Peoples Liberation Army, fought the enemy and won basic victory. And it is on this foundation that the present Peoples Political Consultative Conference is convened. Our conference is called the Political Consultative Conference because some three years ago we held a Political Consultative Conference with Chiang Kaisheks Kuomintang. The results of that conference were sabotaged by Chiang Kai-sheks Kuomintang and its accomplices; nevertheless the conference left an indelible impression on the people. It showed that nothing in the interest of the people could be accomplished together with Chiang Kai-sheks Kuomintang, the running dog of imperialism, and its accomplices. Even when resolutions were reluctantly adopted, it was of no avail, for as soon as the time was ripe, they tore them up and started a ruthless war
against the people. The only gain from that conference was the profound lesson it taught the people that there is absolutely no room for compromise with Chiang Kai-sheks Kuomintang, the running dog of imperialism, and its accomplicesoverthrow these enemies or be oppressed and slaughtered by them, either one or the other, there is no other choice. In a little more than three years the Chinese people, led by the Chinese Communist Party, have quickly awakened and organized themselves into a nation-wide united front against imperialism, feudalism, bureaucratcapitalism and their general representative, the reactionary Kuomintang government, supported the Peoples War of Liberation, basically defeated the reactionary Kuomintang government, overthrown the rule of imperialism in China and restored the Political Consultative Conference. The present Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference is convened on an entirely new foundation; it is representative of the people of the whole country and enjoys their trust and support. Therefore, the conference proclaims that it will exercise the functions and powers of a National Peoples Congress. In accordance with its agenda, the conference will enact the Organic Law of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, the Organic Law of the Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China and the Common Programme of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference; it will elect the National Committee of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference and the Central Peoples Government Council of the Peoples Republic of China; it will adopt the national flag and national emblem of the Peoples Republic of China; and it will decide on the seat of the capital of the Peoples Republic of China and adopt the chronological system in use in most countries of the world. Fellow Delegates, we are all convinced that our work will go down in the history of mankind, demonstrating that the Chinese people, comprising one quarter of humanity, have now stood up. The Chinese have always been a great, courageous and industrious nation; it is only in modern times that they have fallen behind. And that was due entirely to oppression and exploitation by foreign imperialism and domestic reactionary governments. For over a century our forefathers never stopped waging unyielding struggles against domestic and foreign oppressors, including the Revolution of 1911 led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, our great forerunner in the Chinese revolution. Our forefathers enjoined us to carry out their unfulfilled will. And we have acted accordingly. We have closed our ranks and defeated both domestic and foreign oppressors through the Peoples War of Liberation and the great peoples revolution, and now we are proclaiming the founding of the Peoples Republic of China. From now on our nation will belong to the community of the peaceloving and freedom-loving nations of the world and work
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San Francisco Peace Treaty, 1951
courageously and industriously to foster its own civilization and well-being and at the same time to promote world peace and freedom. Ours will no longer be a nation subject to insult and humiliation. We have stood up. Our revolution has won the sympathy and acclaim of the people of all countries. We have friends all over the world. Our revolutionary work is not completed, the Peoples War of Liberation and the peoples revolutionary movement are still forging ahead and we must keep up our efforts. The imperialists and the domestic reactionaries will certainly not take their defeat lying down; they will fight to the last ditch. After there is peace and order throughout the country, they are sure to engage in sabotage and create disturbances by one means or another and every day and every minute they will try to stage a comeback. This is inevitable and beyond all doubt, and under no circumstances must we relax our vigilance. Our state system, the peoples democratic dictatorship, is a powerful weapon for safeguarding the fruits of victory of the peoples revolution and for thwarting the plots of domestic and foreign enemies for restoration, and this weapon we must firmly grasp. Internationally, we must unite with all peace-loving and freedom-loving countries and peoples, and first of all with the Soviet Union and the New Democracies, so that we shall not stand alone in our struggle to safeguard these fruits of victory and to thwart the plots of domestic and foreign enemies for restoration. As long as we persist in the peoples democratic dictatorship and unite with our foreign friends, we shall always be victorious. The peoples democratic dictatorship and solidarity with our foreign friends will enable us to accomplish our work of construction rapidly. We are already confronted with the task of nation-wide economic construction. We have very favourable conditions: a population of 475 million people and a territory of 9,600,000 square kilometres. There are indeed difficulties ahead, and a great many too. But we firmly believe that by heroic struggle the people of the country will surmount them all. The Chinese people have rich experience in overcoming difficulties. If our forefathers, and we also, could weather long years of extreme difficulty and defeat powerful domestic and foreign reactionaries, why cant we now, after victory, build a prosperous and flourishing country? As long as we keep to our style of plain living and hard struggle, as long as we stand united and as long as we persist in the peoples democratic dictatorship and unite with our foreign friends, we shall be able to win speedy victory on the economic front. An upsurge in economic construction is bound to be followed by an upsurge of construction in the cultural sphere. The era in which the Chinese people were regarded
as uncivilized is now ended. We shall emerge in the world as a nation with an advanced culture. Our national defence will be consolidated and no imperialists will ever again be allowed to invade our land. Our peoples armed forces must be maintained and developed with the heroic and steeled Peoples Liberation Army as the foundation. We will have not only a powerful army but also a powerful air force and a powerful navy. Let the domestic and foreign reactionaries tremble before us! Let them say we are no good at this and no good at that. By our own indomitable efforts we the Chinese people will unswervingly reach our goal. The heroes of the people who laid down their lives in the Peoples War of Liberation and the peoples revolution shall live for ever in our memory! Hail the victory of the Peoples War of Liberation and the peoples revolution! Hail the founding of the Peoples Republic of China! Hail the triumph of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference!
SAN FRANCISCO PEACE TREATY, 1951

INTRODUCTION
The treaty excerpted below was signed by the Allied powers and Japan in order to settle questions still outstanding from World War II. Japan recognized the sovereignty of Asian nations that it had previously occupied and renounced various territorial claims and rights it had previously demanded in China. Because there was no international agreement as to which government should represent China, neither the Republic of China nor the Peoples Republic of China was invited to the San Francisco Peace Conference, and neither was a party to the San Francisco treaty.
ARTICLE 10
Japan renounces all special rights and interests in China, including all benefits and privileges resulting from the provisions of the final Protocol signed at Peking on 7 September 1901, and all annexes, notes and documents supplementary thereto, and agrees to the abrogation in respect to Japan of the said protocol, annexes, notes and documents. . . .
ARTICLE 14
(a) It is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war. Nevertheless it is also recognized that
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the resources of Japan are not presently sufficient, if it is to maintain a viable economy, to make complete reparation for all such damage and suffering and at the same time meet its other obligations. Therefore, 1. Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with a view to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question. Such arrangements shall avoid the imposition of additional liabilities on other Allied Powers, and, where the manufacturing of raw materials is called for, they shall be supplied by the Allied Powers in question, so as not to throw any foreign exchange burden upon Japan. 2. I. Subject to the provisions of subparagraph II below, each of the Allied Powers shall have the right to seize, retain, liquidate or otherwise dispose of all property, rights and interests of a. Japan and Japanese nationals, b. persons acting for or on behalf of Japan or Japanese nationals, and c. entities owned or controlled by Japan or Japanese nationals, which on the first coming into force of the present Treaty were subject to its jurisdiction. The property, rights and interests specified in this subparagraph shall include those now blocked, vested or in the possession or under the control of enemy property authorities of Allied Powers, which belong to, or were held or managed on behalf of, any of the persons or entities mentioned in (a), (b) or (c) above at the time such assets came under the controls of such authorities. II. The following shall be excepted from the right specified in subparagraph (I) above: i. property of Japanese natural persons who during the war resided with the permission of the Government concerned in the territory of one of the Allied Powers, other than territory occupied by Japan, except property subjected to restrictions during the war and not released from such restrictions as of the date of the first coming into force of the present Treaty; ii. all real property, furniture and fixtures owned by the Government of Japan and used for diplomatic or consular purposes, and all personal furniture and furnishings and other private property not of an investment nature which was normally necessary for the carrying out of diplomatic and consular
functions, owned by Japanese diplomatic and consular personnel; iii. property belonging to religious bodies or private charitable institutions and used exclusively for religious or charitable purposes; iv. property, rights and interests which have come within its jurisdiction in consequence of the resumption of trade and financial relations subsequent to 2 September 1945, between the country concerned and Japan, except such as have resulted from transactions contrary to the laws of the Allied Power concerned; v. obligations of Japan or Japanese nationals, any right, title or interest in tangible property located in Japan, interests in enterprises organized under the laws of Japan, or any paper evidence thereof; provided that this exception shall only apply to obligations of Japan and its nationals expressed in Japanese currency. III. Property referred to in exceptions (i) through (v) above shall be returned subject to reasonable expenses for its preservation and administration. If any such property has been liquidated the proceeds shall be returned instead. IV. The right to seize, retain, liquidate or otherwise dispose of property as provided in subparagraph (I) above shall be exercised in accordance with the laws of the Allied Power concerned, and the owner shall have only such rights as may be given him by those laws. V. The Allied Powers agree to deal with Japanese trademarks and literary and artistic property rights on a basis as favorable to Japan as circumstances ruling in each country will permit. (b) Except as otherwise provided in the present Treaty, the Allied Powers waive all reparations claims of the Allied Powers, other claims of the Allied Powers and their nationals arising out of any actions taken by Japan and its nationals in the course of the prosecution of the war, and claims of the Allied Powers for direct military costs of occupation.
TREATY OF TAIPEI
INTRODUCTION
The 1951 Treaty of San Francisco between the Allied powers and Japan settled many territorial and political problems left from World War II. Under the Treaty, Japan agreed to give up various rights and interests in China. However, as there was no agreement as to which government should represent China, neither the Republic of China nor the Peoples Republic of China was invited to sign. The Treaty of Taipei was concluded separately between the Republic of China and Japan in 1952 covering many of the same issues.
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TREATY OF PEACE
The Republic of China and Japan, Considering their mutual desire for good neighbourliness in view of their historical and cultural ties and geographical proximity; Realising the importance of their close cooperation to the promotion of their common welfare and to the maintenance of international peace and security; Recognising the need for a settlement of problems that have arisen as a result of the existence of a state of war between them; Have resolved to conclude a Treaty of Peace and have accordingly appointed as their Plenipotentiaries, His Excellency the President of the Republic of China: Mr. Yeh Kung-Chao; The Government of Japan: Mr. Isao Kawada Who, having communicated to each other their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed upon the following Articles: Article 1 The state of war between the Republic of China and Japan is terminated as from the date on which the present Treaty enters into force. Article 2 It is recognised that under Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace which Japan signed at the city of San Francisco on 8 September 1951 (hereinafter referred to as the San Francisco Treaty), Japan has renounced all right, title, and claim to Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) as well as the Spratley Islands and the Paracel Islands. Article 3 The disposition of property of Japan and its nationals in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores), and their claims, including debts, against the authorities of the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) and the residents thereof, and the disposition in Japan of property of such authorities and residents and their claims, including debts, against Japan and its nationals, shall be the subject of special arrangements between the Government of the Republic of China and the Government of Japan. The terms nationals and residents include juridical persons. Article 4 It is recognised that all treaties, conventions, and agreements concluded before 9 December 1941 between Japan and China have become null and void as a consequence of the war.
Article 5 It is recognised that under the provisions of Article 10 of the San Francisco Treaty, Japan has renounced all special rights and its interests in China, including all benefits and privileges resulting from the provisions of the final Protocol signed at Peking on 7 September 1901, and all annexes, notes, and documents supplementary thereto, and has agreed to the abrogation in respect to Japan of the said protocol, annexes, notes, and documents. Article 6 a. The Republic of China and Japan will be guided by the principles of Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations in their mutual relations. b. The Republic of China and Japan will cooperate in accordance with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and, in particular, will promote their common welfare through friendly cooperation in the economic field. Article 7 The Republic of China and Japan will endeavour to conclude, as soon as possible, a treaty or agreement to place their trading, maritime, and other commercial relations, on a stable and friendly basis. Article 8 The Republic of China and Japan will endeavour to conclude, as soon as possible, an agreement relating to civil air transport. Article 9 The Republic of China and Japan will endeavour to conclude, as soon as possible, an agreement providing for the regulation or limitation of fishing and the conservation and development of fisheries on the high seas. Article 10 For the purposes of the present Treaty, nationals of the Republic of China shall be deemed to include all the inhabitants and former inhabitants of Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) and their descendents who are of the Chinese nationality in accordance with the laws and regulations which have been or may hereafter be enforced by the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores); and juridical persons of the Republic of China shall be deemed to include all those registered under the laws and regulations which have been or may hereafter be enforced by the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores).
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On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People
Article 11 Unless otherwise provided for in the present Treaty and the documents supplementary thereto, any problem arising between the Republic of China and Japan as a result of the existence of a state of war shall be settled in accordance with the relevant provisions of the San Francisco Treaty. Article 12 Any dispute that may arise out of the interpretation or application of the present Treaty shall be settled by negotiation or other pacific means. Article 13 The present Treaty shall be ratified and the instruments of ratification shall be exchanged at Taipei as soon as possible. The present Treaty shall enter into force as from the date on which such instruments of ratification are exchanged. Article 14 The present Treaty shall be in the Chinese, Japanese, and English languages. In case of any divergence of interpretation, the English text shall prevail. In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present Treaty and have affixed thereto their seals. Done in duplicate at Taipei, this Twenty Eighth day of the Fourth month of the Forty First year of the Republic of China, corresponding to the Twenty Eighth day of the Fourth month of the Twenty Seventh year of SHOWA of Japan and to the Twenty Eighth day of April in the year One Thousand Nine Hundred and Fifty Two. Yeh Kung-Chao, [L.S.] Minister of Foreign Affairs and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of China Isao Kawada, [L.S.] Minister of Foreign Affairs and Plenipotentiary of Japan
movement in which the non-party public was encouraged to criticize the Communist Party. We do not have the original version of the speech. Even in this doctored text published after the movement was brought to an abrupt end and critics of the Communist Party were being punished, Mao appears to wrestle with the problem of distinguishing friendly and hostile criticisms. TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTRADICTIONS
ON THE CORRECT HANDLING OF CONTRADICTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE

SOURCE
Mao Zedong. On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 459464. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
INTRODUCTION
The speech by Mao Zedong that is excerpted below launched the Hundred Flowers (1957), a new
Never has our country been as united as it is today. The victories of the bourgeois-democratic revolution and the socialist revolution, coupled with our achievements in socialist construction, have rapidly changed the face of old China. Now we see before us an even brighter future. . . . Unification of the country, unity of the people, and unity among our various nationalitiesthese are the basic guarantees for the sure triumph of our cause. However, this does not mean that there are no longer any contradictions in our society. . . . We are confronted by two types of social contradictionscontradictions between ourselves and the enemy and contradictions among the people. These two types of contradictions are totally different in nature. . . . The contradictions between ourselves and our enemies are antagonistic ones. Within the ranks of the people, contradictions among the working people are nonantagonistic, while those between the exploiters and the exploited classes have, apart from their antagonistic aspect, a nonantagonistic aspect. Contradictions among the people have always existed, but their content differs in each period of the revolution and during the building of socialism. In the conditions existing in China today, what we call contradictions among the people include the following: Contradictions within the working class, contradictions within the peasantry, contradictions within the intelligentsia, contradictions between the working class and the peasantry, contradictions between the working class and peasantry on the one hand and the intelligentsia on the other, contradictions between and the national bourgeoisie on the other, contradictions within the national bourgeoisie, and so forth. Our Peoples Government is a government that truly represents the interests of the people and serves the people, yet certain contradictions do exist between the government and the masses. These include contradictions between the interests of the state, collective interests, and individual interests; between democracy and centralism; between those in positions of leadership and the led; and contradictions arising from the bureaucratic practices of certain state functionaries in their relations with the masses. All these are contradictions among the people; generally speaking, underlying the contradictions among the people is the basic identity of the interests of the people.
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On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People
In our country, the contradiction between the working class and the national bourgeoisie is a contradiction among the people. . . . The contradiction between exploiter and exploited that exists between the national bourgeoisie and the working class is an antagonistic one. But, in the concrete conditions existing in China, such an antagonistic contradiction, if properly handled, can be transformed into a nonantagonistic one and resolved in a peaceful way. But if it is not properly handledif, say, we do not follow a policy of unity, criticizing and educating the national bourgeoisie, or if the national bourgeoisie does not accept this policythen the contradictions between the working class and the national bourgeoisie can turn into an antagonistic contradiction between ourselves and the enemy. . . . There were other people in our country who took a wavering attitude toward the Hungarian events because they were ignorant about the actual world situation. They felt that there was too little freedom under our peoples democracy and that there was more freedom under Western parliamentary democracy. They ask for the adoption of the two-party system of the West, where one party is in office and the other out of office. But this so-called two-party system is nothing but a means of maintaining the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie; under no circumstances can it safeguard the freedom of the working people. Those who demand freedom and democracy in the abstract regard democracy as an end and not a means. Democracy sometimes seems to be an end, but it is in fact only a means. Marxism teaches us that democracy is part of the superstructure and belongs to the category of politics. That is to say, in the last analysis it serves the economic base. The same is true of freedom. Both democracy and freedom are relative, not absolute, and they come into being and develop under specific historical circumstances. Within the ranks of the people, democracy stands in relation to centralism, and freedom to discipline. They are two conflicting aspects of a single entity, contradictory as well as united, and we should not one-sidedly emphasize one to the denial of the other. Within the ranks of the people, we cannot do without democracy, nor can we do without centralism. Our democratic centralism means the unity of democracy and centralism and the unity of freedom and discipline but at the same time they have to keep themselves within the bounds of socialist discipline. All this is well understood by the people. . . . Marxist philosophy holds that the law of the unity of opposites is a fundamental law of the universe. This law operates everywherein the natural world, in human society, and in human thinking. Opposites in contradiction unite as well as struggle with each other, and thus
impel all things to move and change. Contradictions exist everywhere, but as things differ in nature so do contradictions in any given phenomenon or thing; the unity of opposites is conditional, temporary and transitory, and hence relative, whereas struggle between opposites is absolute. Lenin gave a very clear exposition of this law. In our country, a growing number of people have come to understand it. For many people, however, acceptance of this law is one thing and its application, examining and dealing with problems, is quite another. . . . Many people refuse to admit that contradictions still exist in a socialist society, with the result that when confronted with social contradictions they become timid and helpless. They do not understand that socialist society grows more united and consolidated precisely through the ceaseless process of correctly dealing with and resolving contradictions. . . .
ON LETTING A HUNDRED FLOWERS BLOSSOM AND LETTING A HUNDRED SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT CONTEND
The policy of letting a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science; it is designed to enable a socialist culture to thrive in our land. Different forms and styles in art can develop freely, and different schools in science can contend freely. We think that it is harmful to the growth of art and science if administrative measures are used to impose one particular style of art or school of thought and to ban another. . . . In the past, new and correct things often failed at the outset to win recognition from the majority of people and had to develop by twists and turns in struggle. Correct and good things have often at first been looked upon not as fragrant flowers but as poisonous weeds; Copernicuss theory of the solar system and Darwins theory of evolution were once dismissed as erroneous and had to win out over bitter opposition. Chinese history offers many similar examples. . . . Marxism has also developed through struggle. . . . It is true that in China socialist transformation, insofar as a change in the system of ownership is concerned, has in the main been completed, and the turbulent, large-scale, mass class struggles characteristic of the revolutionary periods have in the main concluded. But remnants of the overthrown landlord and comprador classes still exist, the bourgeoisie still exists, and the petty [sic] bourgeoisie has only just begun to remold itself. Class struggle is not yet over. . . . In this respect, the question are still a minority of the entire population as well as of the intellectuals. Marxism therefore must still develop through struggle. . . . As humankind in general rejects an untruth and accepts a truth, a new truth will begin struggling with new erroneous ideas. Such struggles will
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A New Population Theory
never end. This is the law of the development of truth, and it is certainly also the law of development in Marxism. . . . People may ask: Since Marxism is accepted by the majority of the people in our country as the guiding ideology, can it be criticized? Certainly it can. As a scientific truth, Marxism fears no criticism. If it did and could be defeated in argument, it would be worthless. In fact, are not the idealists criticizing Marxism every day and in all sorts of ways?. . . Fighting against wrong ideas is like being vaccinateda man develops greater immunity from disease after the vaccine takes effect. Plants raised in hothouses are not likely to be robust. Carrying out the policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend will not weaken but strengthen the leading position of Marxism in the ideological field. What should our policy be toward non-Marxist ideas? As far as unmistakable counterrevolutionaries and wreckers of the socialist cause are concerned, the matter is easy; we simply deprive them of their freedom of speech. But it is quite a different matter when we are faced with incorrect ideas among the people. Will it do to ban such ideas and give them no opportunity to express themselves? Certainly not. . . . That is why it is only by employing methods of discussion, criticism, and reasoning that we can really foster correct ideas, overcome wrong ideas, and really settle issues. . . . So what, from the point of view of the broad masses of the people, should be a criterion today for distinguishing between fragrant flowers and poisonous weeds?. . . Basing ourselves on the principles of our constitution, the will of the overwhelming majority of our people, and the political programs jointly proclaimed on various occasions by our political parties and groups, we believe that, broadly speaking, words and actions can be judged right if they: 1. Help to unite the people of our various nationalities and do not divide them 2. Are beneficial, not harmful, to socialist transformation and socialist construction 3. Help to consolidate, not undermine or weaken, the peoples democratic dictatorship 4. Help to consolidate, not undermine or weaken, democratic centralism 5. Tend to strengthen, not to cast off or weaken, the leadership of the Communist Party 6. Are beneficial, not harmful, to international socialist solidarity and the and the solidarity of the peaceloving people of the world.
Of these six criteria, the most important are the socialist path and the leadership of the Party. . . . When the majority of the people have clear-cut criteria to go by, criticism and self-criticism can be conducted along proper lines, and these criteria can be applied to peoples words and actions to determine whether they are fragrant flowers or poisonous weeds. These are political criteria. Naturally, in judging the truthfulness of scientific theories or assessing the aesthetic value of works of art, other pertinent criteria are needed, but these six political criteria are also applicable to all activities in the arts or sciences. In a socialist country like ours, can there possibly be any useful scientific or artistic activity that runs counter to these political criteria?
A NEW POPULATION THEORY

SOURCE
Ma Yinchu. Xinrenkoulun. Renmin ribao [Peoples daily], July 5, 1957, 175196.
INTRODUCTION
Concern at the huge population reported by Chinas 1953 census sparked the beginning of family planning education in Chinas big cities and a debate on the implications of rapid population growth. In June 1957, Ma Yinchu, a well-known economist, presented his New Population Theoryadvocating state-sponsored population controlat the First National Peoples Congress. In 1958 the climate changed. The Great Leap Forward was based on a positive evaluation of Chinas huge population and Ma came under attack for propagating Malthusianism. Disgraced and dismissed from his post as president of Peking University in 1960, he was not rehabilitated until 1979, long after the Chinese government had accepted the necessity of birth planning. He died at the age of 100 in 1982. To our knowledge, we offer below the first full English translation of the document (translated by Alan Thwaits). Note that the term contradiction, in Chinese maodun, is a core term in Chinese Marxist discourse, which refers to a dialectical, dynamic relationship between opposing interests or opposing conditions (compare Mao Zedongs famous work On Contradiction).
As a result of the Partys and Chairman Maos wise and correct leadership, it is now possible to control the population. Article 29, item 3, of the revised draft of An Outline of the Development of Agriculture in China from 1956 to 1967 (1956 dao 1967 nian quanguo nongye fazhan gangyao) stipulates, Except in regions dominated by minorities, in all densely populated areas, the government will promote reduction in childbirth and advocate family planning so that families can avoid excessive burdens, their children can receive better education, and they
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can have ample employment opportunities. I firmly believe that this measure will quickly turn the 500 million farmers around from their desire for more sons and grandsons. In rural China class contradictions [, maodun] perennially existed between landowners and farmers. These contradictions have been resolved as a result of liberation and land reform. After land reform, new contradictions appeared: whether individual farmers would align themselves with capitalism or with socialism. By 1956, after years of struggle and hard work, agriculture around the country had essentially been collectivized; farmers were basically won over and affirmatively aligned themselves with the path of socialism, and these contradictions were resolved. Are there other contradictions? Yes. In addition to the major contradictions among the people mentioned by Chairman Mao, I believe that there are also important contradictions between excess population and limited capital. Past contradictions were those between social classes; present contradictions are mainly contradictions in production.
1. CHINAS POPULATION IS GROWING TOO FAST
if we use the growth rate of 2.0 percent to explain the situation over the following four years (from 1953 to 1957), inaccuracies creep in. For the following seven reasons, I believe that the growth rate exceeds 2.0 percent: 1. The number of married individuals has increased. Prior to liberation, young people, when they graduated, became unemployed. Now after graduating, young people are allocated jobs. The economic situation has improved to the point where young people now have the means to establish families. Also, full employment lessens reliance on relatives and friends and lightens their financial burdens, and this too increases the number of married individuals. Moreover, the government provides for each married couple, seeking in principle to allocate them both jobs in the same cityincreasing the opportunities to bear children. 2. The government also provides benefits to pregnant women, new mothers, and infants. Women have fifty-six days of maternity leave before and after giving birth. This benefit did not exist prior to liberation. With the development of hygiene, rural midwives have now been replaced with proper delivery facilities, and consequently the infant mortality rate has declined. Daycare facilities have been set up everywhere and can take over from families some of the responsibilities of raising children, and children enjoy publicly funded education. 3. The death rate among the elderly has declined. In the past it was rare for a person to live to age seventy, whereas now living beyond seventy is common. The government provides for orphans, widows, and the elderly. After retirement, there are old-age pensions. Widowers, widows, and orphans are all cared for. 4. In the past the nation was plagued with civil wars almost annually. People suffered from military destruction, floods, and droughts. Many were displaced, and large numbers died. Now the nation enjoys stability unknown in the past: Civil war has disappeared, banditry has vanished, and homicide has diminished. As a result, fewer people die of unnatural causes. 5. With the changes in the social order, most nuns and monks have returned to secular life and have married, and in the future the number of monks and nuns will not increase. We have thoroughly solved the problem of prostitution, which is intractable in capitalist countries; as everyone knows, prostitutes, having too many men in their lives, cannot give birth.
The 1953 census was Chinas first population census. The census showed that on July 30, 1953, China had a population of 601,938,035, a static record of a moment in time. If we had population statistics for every year after 1953, then we would have a dynamic record of population growth as well. Unfortunately, such figures do not exist today. Going forward, we must create a system of vital statistics, recording the number of births, deaths, marriages, divorces, as well as in-migration and outmigration in each area. Only with such data will we have precise population figures. Current estimates indicate that the population grows by between 12 and 13 million per year, a rate of 2.0 percent. If we extrapolate, we may find that small inaccuracies produce large errors in comparison with the real population size thirty years from now. How has the growth rate of 2.0 percent been derived? In 1953 the government carried out a census in 29 large and medium-size cites, the whole of Ningxia Province, and 10 counties in each of the other provinces, as well as specific areas in 35 other counties, 2 towns, 58 townships, and 9 villages, which together had a population of 30.18 million, a birth rate of 3.7 percent, and a death rate of 1.7 percent. From these figures we can calculate a growth rate of 2.0 percent. Moreover, the growth rate was higher in the cities than in the countryside. The growth rate was 3.9 percent in a section of Shanghai, while it was an average of 2.0 percent per year over all urban and rural areas. But I doubt that the growth rate has remained at 2.0 percent over these past four years. The census figures were accurate in 1953, but
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6. Even after agricultural collectivization improved peoples lives, the elderly still held onto their old ways of thinking. They desire abundant happiness and long life. Widely circulated are such old adages as prosperity with five living generations and a household full of sons and grandsons and of the three most unfilial manifestations, the failure to continue the family line is the gravest. As long as family finances permit it, parents set about arranging a marriage for a son, establishing a household for him, and setting him up in business. 7. The government not only gives prizes to families with twins, triplets, and so on, but also provides them with economic assistance. These factors all increase the birth rate or decrease the death rate. Therefore, I believe that the population growth rate over these past four years is most likely to have exceeded 2.0 percent.
2. CHINAS ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL IS TOO SLOW
national income in 1956 was nearly RMB 90 billion, of which consumption accounted for 79 percent and accumulation 21 percent. Because the population is large, consumption is high, and accumulation is low. And because accumulation has to be allocated to many sectors of production, it seems even smaller. What I wish to investigate here is how to control the population so as to reduce the portion of consumption and simultaneously increase accumulation.
3. I ADVOCATED CONTROLLING THE POPULATION TWO YEARS AGO
The greatest contradiction in our nation is that the population is growing too fast and the accumulation of capital seems too slow. Premier Zhou Enlai, in Report on Suggestions for the Second Five-Year Plan for Development of the National Economy (Guanyu fazhan guomin jingji de dier ge wunian jihua de jianyi de baogao), said, The scale of national development depends mainly on how much capital can be accumulated and how the funds are distributed. If we accumulate much capital and distribute it appropriately, we can then achieve relatively rapid extended social reproduction, and each sector of the national economy can then develop proportionately. National income is the material wealth newly created by the laboring people of the country in the course of production. In a socialist country, the entire national income belongs to the laboring people. The laboring people use a portion of the national income to support and improve their livelihoods and use the other for extended social reproduction, that is, use it for accumulation. In distributing and redistributing the national income, it is necessary to maintain a proper balance between consumption and accumulations. If the proportion allocated to consumption is too small, this can impede the improvement of the peoples livelihoods. If the proportion allocated to accumulation is too small, this can slow the extended social reproduction. Both of these conditions are detrimental to the people. To improve the peoples livelihoods, it is necessary to expand both production and the means of production. To expand production and the means of production, it is necessary to increase accumulation. To increase accumulation, it is necessary to raise the national income. Chinas
I have made three inspection tours of Zhejiang. In former times [prior to liberation] Zhejiang was divided into eleven prefectures (fu), and I visited ten. This area has a strikingly high number of children, and this caught my attention. Whenever I visited a village, I would ask local administrative officials and old farmers how many births the village had, how many deaths, and what the net increase was after subtracting deaths from births. Though the increase in population of each area was different, my impression was that it was at least 2.2 percent, and when I visited Shanghai, I sensed that it was even higher. In 1955, after I finished the tour and returned to Beijing, I assembled the materials I gained on the inspection tour to prepare a speech on the population problem, the content being controlling the population and scientific research. I wanted to present this speech at the 1955 National Peoples Congress. Before presenting this speech, I discussed the issues with the Zhejiang delegation to the congress. Other than a few delegates, many delegates either expressed no opinion at all or disagreed with me. Some of them even thought that I was espousing Malthuss theories. Others thought that though I was saying something different from Malthus, I was still operating within a Malthusian framework. Though I could not accept their opinions, I thought that they all harbored good intentions. Hence, I put away my speech and decided to wait until the time was ripe to present it to the congress. In February of this year Chairman Mao, in a meeting of the Supreme State Conference, clearly brought up the population issue. I thought that his doing so was most timely and necessary. I thus got out the speech and presented it in summary form before the expanded Supreme State Conference. Here I present this essay in revised form and ask readers to make criticism.
4. THE ERRORS AND FAILURE OF MALTHUSS POPULATION THEORY
Malthuss population theory, as everyone knows, is reactionary. Malthus said that population increases exponentially, that is, according to the series 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . . , but that the food supply increases linearly, or like the series 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . After several generations, the population has
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greatly increased, while there is not enough grain. This leads to disease, epidemics, and even wars. People die off in large numbers, and the population declines sharply. Only thus can the population achieve equilibrium with the grain supply. Hence, the world is often caught up in a vicious cycle, and the outlook for humankind is bleak. Malthuss Essay on the Principle of Population was published in 1798, just after the start of the Industrial Revolution. The socioeconomic system underwent fundamental transformations: Workers became unemployed in large numbers; poverty was widespread; on occasion there were riots. The people were greatly dissatisfied with the capitalist government. Malthus wrote his essay to defend capitalism and capitalist government theoretically and to cover up the mistaken policies of the British government. His population theory amounts to saying to workers that widespread poverty among workers was not the governments fault; rather, it was primarily because the population increases too rapidly and the grain supply increases too slowly. This is the starting point of his essay, and in this he was fundamentally mistaken. At the time, the French general Napoleon stirred up a great war in Europe, and many people died. As a result, the grain situation took a turn for the better, and many people thought that Malthuss essay was accurate. But if one applied Malthuss theory to the situation in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars, it did not fit reality. Because of progress, at that time, in German scientific research, which led grain supplies to increase exponentially, even faster than the growth in the population, Malthuss theory that the food supply increases linearly thus collapses. Malthus failed to anticipate that scientific research would develop by leaps and bounds and cause the grain supply to increase exponentially, even faster than the population. One needs to understand that natural factors like land and labor, though they are the most basic components of agricultural production, have a limited effect on the development of production, but that scientific development knows no bounds. The more science advances, the higher the level of culture enjoyed by the people. Increases in knowledge cause labor productivity to rise and fertility to lower. For example, the upper classes and white-collar workers [literally, brain workers or mental workers, as distinguished from physical laborers] had a variety of recreation available to themsuch as playing ball games, rowing, horseback riding, and huntingand this lowered their sexual appetites. In France, the reproduction rate of the upper classes was stable, and they regarded raising children as a burden. Again, as John Rae (17961872) pointed out, the soil in the Hawaiian Islands is very fertile, and food grows in abundance, but the population did not increase accordingly. The primary reason for this is that Hawaiians did not like lots of children and grandchildren. This case too strongly refutes Malthuss essay on population; his theory that the population increases exponentially also fails.
5. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MY POPULATION THEORY AND MALTHUSS THEORY
Malthuss starting point was to cover up the mistaken policies of the British capitalist government. My starting point is to raise the productivity of farmers, to raise the level of the cultural and material life of farmers. Let me use conditions in China to explain the differences of my starting point. Chinas first mechanized grain-storage facility built with Soviet aid recently began storing grain. The facility has a 60meter-high operations tower. The grain arrives by train and is mechanically unloaded, conveyed, dusted, sifted, weighed, and measured for temperature using the machines of the operations tower. The automatic power shovel uses only a few minutes to unload a whole container of grain. Each granary has a resistance thermometer, enabling the inspector to ascertain the temperature of each granary from the instrument panel in the underground operations room. If he discovers that the temperature is high, with the flick of a switch he can air out 70,000 metric tons of grain in six days. If done manually, this amount of grain would take 300 individuals 1.5 years to dry in the sun. This grain-storage facility was built for Shijiazhuang Food Processing Industries to store ingredients and has greatly helped in maintaining product quality (Dagongbao [Limpartial], May 10, 1957). I once discussed the grain-storage problem with a member of the governments Grain Department and found out that the grain under government control (including the agricultural tax [paid in kind] and requisitions) amounts to about 50 billion kilograms. We must also add in the amount left over from last year, which was 10 billion kilograms, for a total of about 60 billion kilograms, or 60 million metric tons. If all of this grain were to be stored in mechanized grain-storage facilities, we would need to build 857 facilities, at a cost of about RMB 3 million per facility, or RMB 2.55 billion in total. But each granary is actually used at only 60 to 70 percent of capacity, owing to differences in crop yields from year to year. During a bumper-crop year, the harvest may fill up the granaries, but during poor-harvest years, only 60 to 70 percent of the granaries are used. Consequently, for a total storage capacity of 100 million metric tons, we need to build 1,428 grain-storage facilities and invest a total of RMB 4.28 billion. Where, I ask, is the money going to come from? Even if we could raise that kind of money, from where would we get the steel, concrete, and wood to build that many grain-storage facilities? If we suppose that each old-style storage facility needs a staff of 300 laborers (a manager at an old-style storage facility manages only 250,000 kilograms of grain), crop storage would require a labor force of 428,400 individuals. Moreover, they would take 1.5 years to finish drying the grain out in the sun. But now a new-style storage facility requires only 15 technicians to completely air out 70
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metric tons of grain in 6 days. Hence, a modern facility requires a workforce only one-twentieth of that of an oldstyle facility. The other nineteen-twentieths are redundant. Because the productivity of these 15 technicians is high, their average monthly salary is RMB 80. Because their salaries are high, their purchasing power is high. In this way we can improve the material and cultural life of workers and achieve the goal of socialism. But how can we improve the material and cultural life of workers in the redundant nineteen-twentieths portion? Under the pressure of the present population of 640 million people, we find it hard to improve the material and cultural life of these workers. If an additional 13 million individuals are born every year, this problem will become greater with the passage of time, and we do not know how grave it will become. According to a factory and mine survey by Mr. Lou Baohua, of the No. 2 Shanghai National Cotton Mill (Renmin ribao [Peoples daily], October 9, 1957), between 1953 and 1957 the female workers of the No. 2 Shanghai State Cotton Mill gave birth to 3,049 babies, nearly equal to the present number of women workers in the mill. The birthrate of 1956 was nearly threefold that of 1946, before liberation. On the one hand, the birthrate of female workers rose, and on the other hand, the infant death rate declined. Prior to liberation, many children died of measles, diphtheria, smallpox, dysentery, and whooping cough, but today few children die of these diseases. This excessively high birthrate among women workers has led to the following unfortunate circumstances in this factory: 1. It has given rise to insufficient housing and difficulties in daily life, or has at least made it difficult to improve the quality of life. To mention just the workers crowded housing conditions, on average five people live in one room. At present, 40 to 50 percent of the applications for housing give large families as the reason for the application. 2. From January to June 1957, 414 workers of the factory required supplemental assistance because of large families, accounting for about one-third of those requiring supplemental assistance. 3. In 1956 women workers missed 6,842 days of work owing to gynecological problems, the main medical reason for worker absences. 4. Because they have excessive births, are overburdened with housework, lead poor-quality lives and have poor nutrition, their health is affected. 5. Some women workers, because they have many children, are unable to get a proper education.
6. Some young women workers, after they give birth and become busy with housework, lose their enthusiasm for politics. I firmly believe that as our enterprises become more developed, mechanization and automation will inevitably expand. Jobs requiring 1,000 workers in the past will require only 50 workers (assuming the ratio of onetwentieth across the board). What will the other 950 workers do? From this problem I conclude that with a large population we cannot proceed too quickly with mechanization and automation. At present we cannot create many large industries but rather have to develop small and medium-size industries. One reason is that small and medium-size enterprises can employ many workers. But to build a socialist country, China should create large enterprises. Lenin once said that without large enterprises, there can be no socialism (Liening wenji [The collected works of Lenin], vol. 7, p. 151). But our excessively large population prevents us from industrializing at a fast pace and from moving forward in large strides. Some people call me a Malthusian; I call them dogmatists and anti-Leninists. Of the 13 million people added to the workforce this year, only 1 million can be placed in industry (according to Vice Premier Li Fuchuns explanation in the second five-year plan). The other 12 million will have to work in the countryside. However, the average farmer today annually creates wealth of no more than about RMB 80 for the nation, while the average factory worker, with modern technical equipment, annually produces wealth of more than RMB 4,000 for the nation. The productivity of these two sectors of the population compare at a ratio of 1 to 50. The reason for this great disparity in productivity lies primarily in the fact that industrial workers can use modern technical equipment (some of which is of the newest type), whereas farmers can use only animal power, to which one must add that recently draft animals in some provinces have died in large numbers with the result that human labor is used to pull the plow when tilling the fields, further diminishing agricultural productivity. To increase agricultural productivity, two factors are necessary: water and fertilizer, and without water, spreading fertilizer is useless. Without irrigation equipment, if there is a drought or a flood, no amount of fertilizer will increase productivity. Farmers in the North lack the custom of storing up fertilizer, and this is due to the lack of sufficient water resources in this region. Chinas technological programs are underdeveloped, and so it has yet to control flooding and droughts. Its industry is also underdeveloped, and so it still lacks the capacity to supply large quantities of chemical fertilizer. These are the main reasons for the labor-productivity gap between
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industry and agriculture. Saying these things, I no doubt lead some workers mistakenly to believe that they create more wealth for the country, that their contribution is greater, and consequently that they deserve higher salaries. Yet they do not realize that many input materials for industrial production come from the agricultural sector, that the accumulation of value is created in other sectors, and only because the last manufacturing phase is in their sector do the end results become manifest there. If we follow this line of thought and group together the 1 million workers and 12 million farmers mentioned above, then the average labor productivity per person is pitifully low. The problem is how to raise the labor productivity of these 12 million farmers. Doing so requires electrifying agriculture, mechanizing agriculture, and greatly increasing the production of chemical fertilizers. But where is the capital for all this? Where is the fund accumulation? Even with capital accumulation, where are the materials, such as steel and concrete? As in the past, floods continue to plague China, and now are more violent than ever, as the 1954 flood shows. In light of this, I think that to eliminate farmers loss of property and life to floods, it would be best to build a reservoir in the Three Gorges area capable of averting a once-in-a-millennium flood so that farmers would be high and dry. Clearly, the investment is considerable, the project vast, and a considerable area on the upper reaches of the Yangzi River would be flooded, but from the perspective of the long-term benefits to the country and farmers, such a project is worth undertaking. According to estimates by Mr. Lu Qinkan, chief engineer at the Waterpower Bureau of the Ministry of Electric Power, the cost of the Three Gorges project would be more than RMB 10 billion. It is also desirable to build industrial enterprises capable of using such electrical capacity. With this added on, the total cost would range from RMB 50 billion to RMB 100 billion. Where would such a large sum of money come from? Even if we had the money, where would such a large amount of steel and concrete come from? Moreover, because the project is so vast, it would take more than twenty years to complete. Even after the project is completed, it is not known how much benefit farmers would reap. Not only would the construction of waterworks and power plants completely transform farm villages; machines, fertilizer, transportation, fuel, and building materials would be brought into the area to service agriculture, with the result that farming villages would be transformed into important markets for heavy industry. But for now we have to wait for a while as far as the great Three Gorges project is concerned. After the socialist transformation of agriculture, that is, after the relations of production have changed and while the forces of production are vigorously moving forward, we must rapidly and positively prepare for the small-scale mechanization of agriculture. At present, a critical problem in the countryside is the seasonality of slack and peak periods. For example, in
the South, where they plant two crops of rice, farmers are exceedingly busy during the fifteen days when they harvest the first crop and plant the second. Hence, the key to increasing agriculture production is to provide machines to help farmers during this exceedingly busy period. The machines that farmers need most are rice harvesters, rice transplanters, and water pumps. As I mentioned above, our weakness is that consumption is high and fund accumulation is low. In 1956 Chinas national income was RMB 90 billion, of which consumption accounted for 79 percent and fund accumulation accounted for 21 percent, or more than RMB 18 billion. This capital has to be divided among many enterprises in heavy industry, light industry, agriculture (including forestry, livestock farming, and fisheries), transportation, construction, and business (including foreign trade), and thus the amount of capital allocated to each enterprise is miniscule, so of course none can make rapid strides forward. When capital accumulates this slowly and the population increases this rapidly, is it not nearly impossible to resolve the contradiction of having little capital and a large population? We are disinclined to borrow money from the United States. We cannot imperialistically exploit a colonial people to extract capital from them. Nor can we follow the example of Japan and use the indemnity of the First SinoJapanese War to finance industrialization. We have to renew ourselves using our own resources and accumulate capital by ourselves. But the ratio of our accumulation to our consumption is 21 percent to 79 percent. Can we decrease consumption and increase capital accumulation? A glance at our national circumstances shows that we are in a precarious situation. Our national income is divided into capital accumulation and consumption. If accumulation increases, then consumption declines and the people endure a meager quality of life. If, in contrast, consumption increases, then accumulation declines and we have to defer completing our industrialization. Hence we have to seek a balance between the two. To determine how we should balance the two, we need to look at our actual situation. In the Soviet Union, consumption accounts for 75 percent of national income and capital accumulation for 25 percent, or one-quarter. In China, because the standard of living is low and the population is large, the weight of consumption is somewhat higher: we have a ratio of 79 percent to 21 percent. We cannot follow the Soviet Union and increase accumulation to 25 percent and reduce consumption to 75 percent. That would amount to coddling industrialization and ignoring the people, and could lead to political instability. At present we place the population growth of 12 million individuals in the countryside. Though this is the only course open to us, it is difficult to avoid side effects. For example, farmers of today want to keep more of the grain that they produce,
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and they look to urban residents for their standard of the necessities of life. They want to cook with oil, and as a result, oil is scarcer than grain. They want to wear new clothes, and consequently there is insufficient cloth available. This situation is already serious, yet every year we have to provide for a population increase of 13 million individuals, of whom 1 million are placed in the industrial sector and the remaining 12 million are placed in the countryside. Over the short term, we cannot increase the productivity of those in the countryside, but they have the same expectations as those in the cities. Over the long term, how can we manage? Thus, if we do not plan on how to deal with the population problem early on, farmers will convert all their gratitude into disappointment and dissatisfaction, and this will create difficulties for the government. For this reason, to raise the productivity of farmers, I advocate increasing the accumulation of funds and controlling the population. Otherwise, our nation will labor in vain. By saying that the farmers will convert all their gratitude into disappointment and dissatisfaction, I refer to the following: With land reform, 300 million farmers with no land or little land acquired 47 million hectares of land and no longer had to deliver 30 billion kilograms of grain annually as rent in kind to landowners and escaped all sorts of exploitation falling outside their obligations. In the seven years after land reform, from 1950 to 1956, the nation spent RMB 3.07 billion on basic waterworks, RMB 1.31 billion on disaster relief, and RMB 1.28 billion on distributing improved varieties of grain, introducing new farm implements, raising the level of agricultural-production technology, and carrying out pest control. These three items total more than RMB 5.66 billion. In addition, farmers during these seven years received low-interest loans of RMB 800 million from the government and no longer had to pay usurious interest rates. Even the poorest farmers no longer sell their children, starve or suffer the cold, are homeless, or beg in the streets. Farmers can live quite well in the agricultural cooperatives. Moreover, the government instituted a system of five guarantees in the countryside, thus giving the elderly something to rely on. What I want to say is that unless the government institutes some means of controlling the population, this gratitude could turn into disappointment and dissatisfaction.
6. WE NEED NOT ONLY TO ACCUMULATE FUNDS BUT ALSO TO SPEED UP ACCUMULATION
the liquid funds amounted to 3,000 rubles, for a total of 13,000 rubles. For the fifth year of the third five-year plan, the amount allocated per worker was six times that of the fifth year of the first five-year plan, and for the fifth year of the fifth five-year plan, the amount was twelve times. The reason that Soviet production capacity continued to grow was that technological equipment grew several fold every year. Chinas future situation should be the same. Hence, to increase industrial labor productivity, we have to greatly increase fund accumulation, increase our technology allocations per worker, and also control the population, because if the population is allowed to grow freely, it is difficult to increase capital accumulation rapidly. The quickest way to increase accumulation is to raise labor productivity. With an increase in labor productivity, workers incomes will naturally be higher, but if agricultural labor productivity cannot proportionally keep up with industrial labor productivity, the gap between farmers and workers incomes will be greater and greater, and this will affect the unity of farmers and workers. Hence, controlling the population is an urgent matter. The longer we put it off, the thornier and more difficult the problem becomes. Above I said that for the fifth year of the first Soviet five-year plan, the fixed-capital installation per worker was 10,000 rubles and the liquid funds 3,000 rubles. In China from 1953 to 1955, the fixed assets allocated for production equipment per worker in state enterprises, local state enterprises, and public-private partnership enterprises was RMB 5,273 in 1953, RMB 6,072 in 1954, and RMB 6,835 in 1955. One ruble is worth about RMB 0.5. Hence, China and the Soviet Union, in their first five-year plans, allocated roughly the same amount for industrial technology.
7. WE MUST CONTROL THE POPULATION TO HAVE SUFFICIENT INDUSTRIAL RAW MATERIALS
The more five-year plans that a socialist country carries out, the higher its productivity and the more advanced its technological requirements. For the fifth year of the Soviet Unions first five-year plan, the fixed capital allocated for technology per worker was 10,000 rubles, and
We would do best to invest accumulated capital in light industry, because light industry requires small investments, its construction projects are easier, and the return on investment is greater and quicker. In this way we can more effectively accumulate capital to develop heavy industry more extensively and more quickly. Presently, it costs RMB 35 million to build a cotton textile mill with 100,000 spindles and 3,500 looms. After the start of production, only one year is needed to recoup the complete investment (including the industrial profit, commercial profit, and taxes). The recoupment period is even shorter for printing and dyeing mills and wool textile mills. The expansion of light industry not only does not affect the construction of heavy industry; it aids in the development of heavy industry.
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But expanding light industry must be done under conditions of sufficient capital and raw materials. For this reason, I need to discuss the relation between light industry and agriculture. Most of the raw materials for light industry come from agriculture. If we want to build a cotton textile mill, we need cotton from agriculture; if we want to develop a silk textile mill, we need silkworm cocoons from agriculture; if we want to develop an oil mill, we need soybeans, peanuts, sesame seeds, rapeseeds, and so on; if we want to develop a sugar refinery, we need sugarcane and sugar beets; if we want to develop a wool textile mill, we need raw wool. At present, supplies of oil, sugar, and cloth are far from meeting peoples ever growing demand for these products; they are scarcer than grain. If we want to increase the supply of these products, we need to expand the area for cultivating such cash crops as cotton, mulberry leaves, soybeans, peanuts, sesame seeds, sugarcane, and sugar beets. This will unavoidably reduce the area for cultivating grain and thus will affect the size of the grain crop. Hence, these various cash crops compete with grain for the available land. We need to find a suitable balance among these competing products. If the population grows without limit, this suitable balance will increasingly be destroyed: The increase in population will necessitate an increase in the production of grain. This will decrease the amount of land available to cash crops, affecting light industry directly and heavy industry indirectly. Thus, increases in the population act to reduce the accumulation of capital and delay industrialization. Hence, we must control the population. At present sugar is extraordinarily scarce, just like edible oil. If we expand the area for cultivating sugar beets, beets will compete for land with grain and other crops. Xin Zhongguo Sugar Refinery and Fanjia Sugar Refinery, in Jilin Province, rely primarily on the interior counties of Yushu, Huaide, Jiutai, and Dehui for their supply of sugar beets. But these counties are also the provinces greatest producers of grain and soybeans. If we greatly expand the production of sugar beets in these areas, we will reduce the area for cultivating grain and soybeans. Also, because the land [area] is limited, it is not possible to carry out crop rotation, which affects the quantity and quality of a sugar beet crop. For example, in 1953 a hectare produced 12,000 kilograms of sugar beets, with an average sugar content of 14.3 percent. In 1955 a hectare produced only 9,000 kilograms of sugar beets, with an average sugar content of just 11.4 percent. Such trends will cause the sugar-refining industry to shrink rather than expand. From the discussion above, one can draw the following conclusion. Heavy industry and light industry are not yet as closely connected as light industry and agriculture. China is an agricultural country. If agriculture cannot develop rapidly, then it is difficult to expect that heavy
industry will make great strides forward. Easing scarcity this year relies on hopes for a big harvest in the fall. In Chinas development, heavy-industry projects are given first priority. Much of the turnkey equipment and important goods and materials must be imported from abroad, but how many heavy-industry goods and materials we can import from abroad depends on how many agricultural and light-industry goods and materials we can export, and light-industry goods and materials are made from agricultural goods and materials. Because Chinas chemical industry, especially its organic-chemical industry, is not yet developed, about 90 percent of the raw materials for light industry come from agriculture. Hence, expansions and contractions of agriculture, that is, good and bad harvests, have a decisive impact on heavy industry and industrialization. If the population is left to expand naturally and is not controlled, it will affect industrialization. According to a speech given by Foreign Trade Minister Ye Jizhuang at the fourth session of the National Peoples Congress, in 1957 planned trade amounted to RMB 9.955 billion, a decline of 8.4 percent from the year before. Of this amount, imports accounted for RMB 4.7 billion, a decline of 10.2 percent from the year before, and exports accounted for RMB 5.2 billion, a decline of 6.6 percent from the year before. These declines were due to lower agricultural output as a result of disasters in some areas, which made exporting to meet demand difficult. But the main reason is that over the past several years, agricultural products and processed agricultural products made up about 75 percent of Chinas exports, while minerals and industrial products such as machines made up about 25 percent. At present, because the pace of increasing agricultural output has been affected by limited arable land and natural disasters, and because Chinese demand for lightindustrial products has gradually increased, several types of commercial products have been exported less in order to meet the ever increasing demand in the domestic market. Yet with increases in exports of mineral products, industrial products, handicrafts, and small local products, China this year has maintained a respectable level of exports and can meet its needs and import equipment important for its development. In any case, because international trade has declined, progress in industrialization has been affected.
8. WE MUST CONTROL THE POPULATION TO PROMOTE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
The fundamental social transformations, and outstanding achievements in science and technology, of the twentieth century are not just a confluence of circumstances, but rather have an internal, necessary connection in that both are based on developments in material production. The discovery of aviation, radiotelegraphy, remote control, and especially nuclear power would not be possible without
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formidable present-day industry. These other technologies aside, we cannot even manufacture stainless steel, neither can the Soviet Union produce much stainless steel, and purchasing it from other countries is difficult. The newly built chemical-fertilizer plant in Sichuan still cannot acquire needed stainless steel. To build a chemical-fertilizer plantfrom design, construction, and installation to the start of operationsgenerally takes about five to six years. In most cases, a large-scale chemical-fertilizer plant should be built in a country with an industrial base, or even an advanced industrial base, because advanced technology and materials are required. Such increases in the productive forces form the material basis for far-reaching scientific development, which in turn promotes further development of the productive forces. If theory and practice become well integrated, such development can raise the level of our research. Practice leads to advances in theory, which in turn guides practice. For those working in science, this cycle is a benchmark and the only procedure for pursuing scientific truth. The draft report of the Chinese Academy of Sciences revealed to the nation areas where it had a strong foundation and areas where its foundation was insufficient. For instance, publications that received awards belong mainly to fields that have a good foundation in China, yet in some new fields, especially fields urgently needed for economic and defense construction, few publications received awards. This state of affairs reflects past historical reality, calling out for notice in scientific circles, namely, that efforts must be correctly directed to urgent areas where we are weak. Yet if economic and defense construction continue to advance, this will naturally promote research within these fields, lead to increased establishment of new institutions, and expand our research capacity. Let me discuss the matter in terms of engineering science. The work of engineering science is to seek theoretical solutions to practical problems and then to test them in practice. At present, in many parts of the country state farms and agricultural cooperatives have raised technical problems related to agricultural production and seek solutions from agricultural-science research institutes. We have to provide those solutions, and researchers, in providing solutions to the continuously appearing technical problems in agriculture, discover new data. Within this data lies the richest source of new theories. It is impossible even to imagine discussing the research of engineering science divorced from practice. If Chinese science is to catch up to the level of the rest of the world, it must do so in tandem with the development of production. We cannot divide scientific research into theoretical and practical research, because this so-called theory is theory in the service of developing solutions to practical problems. The two go hand in hand. In the past the Soviet Academy of Sciences made such a division, but later realized that this division was not appropriate, and did away with it. In addition,
only when there is the pressure of demands related to production can scientific research be hastened along. If our productive sector cannot catch up to the level of the worlds advanced countries within twelve years and we insist on driving our research sector forward, this would be like rolling a boulder up a mountain. Premier Zhou Enlai, in a section on promoting science in Report on the Work of the Government (Zhengfu gongzuo baogao, 1957), said, A distinguishing feature of science in the new China is the close connection between science and production. Production is the driving force behind science. During the Republican period, because industrial and agricultural production was on the decline, even though scientists carried out research, they could not affect production. In the eight years since liberation, with the development of production, the productive sector has made many demands on the scientific-research sector, our scientists have had ample opportunity to display their talents, and they have already achieved much. From this perspective, we must first equip industry with the technology it needs and raise labor productivity as quickly as possible. Only then can we firm up the material base of scientific research. Although the conditions for doing science have greatly improved, because of the limited level of industry and national budgetary constraints, we still cannot fully meet all the demands for research. If we wish to promote scientific research, we must rapidly accumulate capital and also strive to control the population to keep population growth from restraining the advance of scientific research. In the future most of Chinas scientific research capacity will be placed in academies of science, 227 institutions of higher education, and many industrial sectors located throughout the country. The fact that they bring together large groups of research talent, cover so many research areas, and are dispersed to all areas of China is of advantage to the development of the scientific enterprise. To support the establishment of scientific culture in newly established industrial districts and some minority regions, we must build new institutions of higher education and new academies of science in these areas and will need some scientists to leave their original research environments and go there to work. In new research environments, these scientists may find that their research is affected, but over the long term, such placement will greatly benefit the development of science in China. Because developments in every field of science do not arise in isolation, the more advanced a field of science is, the more it requires coordination with related fields of science. (A characteristic of modern science is that various fields are closely connected and mutually influencing. Important problems in national construction are often solved only through research that spans many fields. For this reason we are carrying out research in many important areas.) An example of such coordination is building and launching a satellite, a
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complicated project requiring cross-disciplinary coordination in the areas of rocketry, metallurgy, mechanics, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, meteorology, geophysics, geodesic surveying, and wireless electronics. Another example is the international geophysical year. Why would scientists of the nations of the world carry out an international geophysical year from July 1 of this year (1957)? One reason is that after World War II, science and engineering made rapid technological progress. Progress in radio physics and rocket technology gave scientists good tools for measuring high-altitude values, and scientists could use these results to measure the earth. From these facts, one can see that without coordination of scientific research in the fields of radio physics and rocket technology, it would be impossible to make observations of the earth. Hence, we should want all sectors related to production to advance in equilibrium. But this state of affairs requires a greater accumulation of capital and stricter control of the population.
9. WE MUST CONTROL THE POPULATION TO HAVE SUFFICIENT GRAIN
but this requires developing and applying the appropriate science and technology and especially requires the accumulation of much capital. Hence, for sufficient grain as well, we must control the population. In On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People (Guanyu zhengque chuli renmin neibu maodun de wenti), Chairman Mao said, To help agriculture develop and the cooperatives to consolidate, we are planning to stabilize the total annual amount of the grain tax plus the grain purchased by the state at somewhat more than 40 billion kilograms within a few years. In this way, the small number of grain-deficient households still found in the countryside will no longer be short, all peasant households, except some raising industrial crops, will have grain reserves or at least become self-sufficient, there will no longer be poor peasants in the countryside, and the standard of living of the farmers will reach or surpass the middle peasants level. These words of the chairmans came from his heart and brings good tidings to the people. If we can control the population, this high aspiration can be realized.
10. A FEW SUGGESTIONS
For reasons of space, I will limit my discussion here of the relationship between population and food. I plan to devote another essay exclusively to this topic. Here I will just note that China has little land and a large population. The nation has a population of 640 million people and less than 2,000 square meters of land per individual. Some people point out that China has 100 million hectares of wasteland, but some of this consists of craggy mountains, some of arid land, and some of grasslands on which minorities practice nomadic pastoralism and which cannot be developed into farmland. Even today we have no accurate statistics on how much wasteland can be brought under cultivation. In addition, Chinas industry is backward, and its financial resources are limited; we still cannot quickly open up vast tracts of wasteland to cultivation. From 1953 to 1956 China annually brought 930,000 hectares of wasteland under cultivation, but because the population grew, the average amount of arable land per person fell from 1,867 square meters in 1953 to 1,800 square meters in 1955. Furthermore, natural disasters affect agricultural output and cause farmers income to vary greatly. For example, in Jiangsu Province in 1955, the average farm household had an income of RMB 306 (this survey data is not representative of all of Jiangsu Province), and if we assume that a household has four individuals, this average income works out to RMB 76.50 per person. In 1956 the province suffered disaster, and the average income per farm individual fell to RMB 49.90. Because farmers incomes are so variable, to stabilize their incomes, we need to prevent natural disasters from happening by undertaking large water-conservancy projects, like that at Sanmenxia,
First, the first national census, taken in 1953, enabled us to get a clear picture of the population and understand its distribution on gender, age, ethnic group, and urban or rural place of residence. This is good, but to effect wise and healthy population policies and to help scientists carry out research, we need to carry out dynamic population surveys, including the statistical distribution of births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and changes of residence. Hence, I suggest that in 1958, or at the latest in 1963 during the general election, we carry out another census to enable us to know the actual growth of the population during these past five or ten years, that we compile dynamic population statistics, that we decide on population policies on this foundation, and that we include population growth in the second or third five-year plan to make these later plans gradually more accurate. Second, above I discussed how the population of the Hawaiian Islands does not increase with an increase in the food supply. The main reason is that Hawaiians are not fond of having many children and grandchildren. But circumstances are the opposite in China. Here the notion of carrying on the family line is rooted too deeply. If a persons quality of life is good, he thinks of marrying, worries about not having descendents, fears traveling far from home, and loves his native place. In addition, peoples actions are still dominated by many feudal ways of thinking, captured in such adages as Give birth to a precious son early on, A house full of sons and grandsons, Five generations under one roof, Oh, the prosperity of five generations still alive, More sons means more happiness and longer life. Hence, women regard
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On Khrushchovs [Khrushchevs] Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World
giving birth to a son as their natural duty and not raising children as a shame, and parents insist that should their daughter-in-law fail to have children, their son should have no qualms about taking a second wife or a concubine. But if we want to limit childbearing and control the population, as a first step we must widely disseminate among farmers the importance of limiting childbearing and ensure that they have the means to practice contraception. We must also widely inform people about the disadvantages of early marriage and the benefits of late marriage, the appropriate age for marriage being about 25 for men and 23 for women. But for the time being, we should not contemplate changing the Marriage Law. The reason is this: Though we should raise the age of marriage, we have not sufficiently instilled the notion of limiting childbearing. Hence, rural men and women, young and old alike, have not yet universally grasped the reasons and need for restricting childbearing. Thus, changing the law may have unintended consequences. For instance, young rural men and women, thinking that changes to the Marriage Law will raise the age of marriage and cause them to delay marriage, may marry early. It is not too late to change the Marriage Law after the education campaign. After we change the Marriage Law, if we find that it does not sufficiently control the population, we can, of course, supplement the law with stricter, more effective administrative measures. According to present calculations, the state spends about RMB 10,000 for each childs education and employment equipment. Ordinary people often do not sufficiently understand that household expenses for a child are less than the states expenses. Hence, the state ought to have the right to interfere in childbearing and to control the population. In any case, controlling the population has as its purpose to increase the productivity of the people, especially farmers, in order to raise the level of their material and cultural quality of life so that they can live happier, more enriched lives. Third, the best and most effective way to control the population is family planning. What is important is that we promote contraception and avoid induced abortion. For one, abortion is the taking of life. At the stage of abortion, the child has already formed in the mothers body. It has a right to life. Except in cases where the mothers health is at risk, one should not resort to abortion. For another, abortion can damage the mothers health and cause her to suffer illnesses. Some of my relatives, who originally were in good health, after having their uteruses scraped, suffered one illness after another. A third reason is that abortion can reduce the need to practice contraception. Young women may not concern themselves with contraception and instead rely on abortion. According to several well-known Beijing doctors, some women, just after having an abortion, get pregnant again, run to the hospital, and make a fuss. The main reason for this behavior is that couples rely on abortion
and do not conscientiously practice contraception. Some men especially do not take responsibility for contraception, seek only a moments pleasure, and do not concern themselves with the long-term suffering of women. This situation is really unfair. A fourth reason is that abortion may increase the burden on physicians. The Soviet Union has a population of only 200 million, but it has more than 350,000 physicians, and its hospitals have 1.354 million beds. China has more than three times the population of the Soviet Union, but it has only 60,000 surgeons who can perform abortion. The situation in Chinas hospitals is already tight. If we foist upon physicians the additional burden of performing abortions, this will no doubt impede their treating of other illnesses. Hence, I earnestly request the Ministry of Health to consider these matters in formulating policy. Translated by Alan Thwaits
ON KHRUSHCHOVS [KHRUSHCHEVS] PHONY COMMUNISM AND ITS HISTORICAL LESSONS FOR THE WORLD
SOURCE
Mao Zedong. On Khrushchovs Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World: Comment on the Open Letter of the Central Committee of the CPSU (IX). Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1964. The Sino-Soviet disagreements that split the international communist movement first became public in the early 1960s. The polemic between the Soviet and Chinese parties was expressed in the Letter of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [CPSU] to the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (March 1963) and in a reply and nine responses issued by the Chinese Central Committee between June 1963 and July 1964. These documents set out Maos views on Soviet revisionismits origins, development, and impactand were read in obligatory political study meetings all over China. The text below is taken from the ninth comment.
INTRODUCTION
The theories of the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat are the quintessence of Marxism-Leninism. The questions of whether revolution should be upheld or opposed and whether the dictatorship of the proletariat should be upheld or opposed have always been the focus of struggle between MarxismLeninism and all brands of revisionism and are now the
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The Twenty-three Articles
focus of struggle between Marxist-Leninists the world over and the revisionist Khrushchov clique. At the 22nd Congress of the CPSU, the revisionist Khrushchov clique developed their revisionism into a complete system not only by rounding off their antirevolutionary theories of peaceful coexistence and peaceful transition but also by declaring that the dictatorship of the proletariat is no longer necessary in the Soviet Union and advancing the absurd theories of the state of the whole people and the party of the entire people. The Programme put forward by the revisionist Khrushchov clique at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU is a programme of phoney communism, a revisionist programme against proletarian revolution and for the abolition of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the proletarian party. The revisionist Khrushchov clique abolish the dictatorship of the proletariat behind the camouflage of the state of the whole people, change the proletarian character of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union behind the camouflage of the party of the entire people and pave the way for the restoration of capitalism behind that of full-scale communist construction. In its Proposal concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement dated June 14, 1963, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China pointed out that it is most absurd in theory and extremely harmful in practice to substitute the state of the whole people for the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the party of the entire people for the vanguard party of the proletariat. This substitution is a great historical retrogression which makes any transition to communism impossible and helps only to restore capitalism. The Open Letter of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the press of the Soviet Union resort to sophistry in self-justification and charge that our criticisms of the state of the whole people and the party of the entire people are allegations far removed from Marxism, betray isolation from the life of the Soviet people and are a demand that they return to the past. Well, let us ascertain who is actually far removed from Marxism-Leninism, what Soviet life is actually like and who actually wants the Soviet Union to return to the past. . . . Khrushchov has abolished the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union and established a dictatorship of the revisionist clique headed by himself, that is, a dictatorship of the privileged stratum of the Soviet bourgeoisie. Actually his state of the whole people is not a state of the dictatorship of the proletariat but a state in which his small revisionist clique wield their dictatorship
over the masses of the workers, the peasants and the revolutionary intellectuals. Under the rule of the Khrushchov clique, there is no democracy for the Soviet working people, there is democracy only for the handful of people belonging to the revisionist Khrushchov clique, for the privileged stratum and for the bourgeois elements, old and new. Khrushchovs democracy for the whole people is nothing but out-and-out bourgeois democracy, i.e., a despotic dictatorship of the Khrushchov clique over the Soviet people. In the Soviet Union today, anyone who persists in the proletarian stand, upholds Marxism-Leninism and has the courage to speak out, to resist or to fight is watched, followed, summoned, and even arrested, imprisoned or diagnosed as mentally ill and sent to mental hospitals. Recently the Soviet press has declared that it is necessary to fight against those who show even the slightest dissatisfaction, and called for relentless battle against the rotten jokers who are so bold as to make sarcastic remarks about Khrushchovs agricultural policy. . . . It is not particularly astonishing that the revisionist Khrushchov clique should have on more than one occasion bloodily suppressed striking workers and the masses who put up resistance. The formula of abolishing the dictatorship of the proletariat while keeping a state of the whole people reveals the secret of the revisionist Khrushchov clique; that is, they are firmly opposed to the dictatorship of the proletariat but will not give up state power till their doom. The revisionist Khrushchov clique know the paramount importance of controlling state power. They need it for clearing the way for the restoration of capitalism in the Soviet Union. These are Khrushchovs real aims in raising the banners of the state of the whole people and democracy for the whole people.
THE TWENTY-THREE ARTICLES

SOURCE
Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The Twenty-three Articles. In Baum, Richard, and Frederick C. Teiwes. Ssu-Ching: The Socialist Education Movement of 19621966, appendix F, 118 126. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. The socialist education movement of 1963 1965, which was initially focused on the rural areas, brought to the fore various differences within the Communist Party leadership on agricultural collectivization. The Twenty-three Articles, a summary of discussions on the movement at a national work conference convened in January 1965, reflect Maos increasing unease that capitalist roaders had
INTRODUCTION
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infiltrated the Communist Party even at the highest levels. The document contains implied criticisms of Liu Shaoqi and is important to an understanding of the origins of the Cultural Revolution.
Chinese Communist Party Central Committee Document No. (65) 026 Printed by the Fukien Provincial Party Committee General Office, January 18, 1965. Fu No. 001 (Confidential)
SOME PROBLEMS CURRENTLY ARISING IN THE COURSE OF THE RURAL SOCIALIST EDUCATION MOVEMENT
NOTICE: To regional bureaus of the Central Committee; province, municipality, and autonomous region Party committees; Party member groups of the various central ministries and commissions; and the General Political Department of the Military Affairs Committee. The Politburo of the Central Committee convened a National Work Conference, discussed some problems currently arising in the course of the rural Socialist Education Movement, and wrote a summary of the discussions. We now send you this document. If this document should contradict previous Central Committee documents concerning the Socialist Education Movement then this document shall uniformly be taken as the standard. This document should be issued to Party committees at and above the hsien and regiment levels, and to the Party committees of work brigades and teams. The Central Committee, January 14, 1965 A Summary of the Discussions of the National Work Conference Convened by the Politburo of the Central Committee, January 14, 1965 I. The Situation Since the tenth plenum of the eighth Central Committee in September 1962, through the development of socialist education in urban areas as well as the countryside, the execution of a series of Central Committee policies by the whole Party, the active efforts of the masses, the broad number of Party members, and cadres, a very good situation has come into being on the political, economic, ideological and cultural, and military fronts in our country. In the past few months, in the entire country more than one million cadres went deeply into the basic level units in the cities and countryside, and the socialist revolutionary movement manifested a new high tide.
All the great accomplishments which our country obtained so quickly during the past few years prove the Partys general line of building socialism is correct, and at the same time prove further that the Chinese Communist Party led by Comrade Mao Tse-tung is a glorious, great and correct party. Our Party will not betray the trust and hopes of the people of the whole nation and of the people of the world. In our cities and villages alike, there exists serious, acute class struggle. After the socialist reform of the ownership system was basically completed, the class enemies who oppose socialism attempted to use the form of peaceful evolution to restore capitalism. This situation of class struggle is necessarily reflected within the Party. The leadership of certain communes, brigades, enterprises and units has either been corrupted or usurped. In our work, in the process of moving forward, there exist a great many problems. Practice proves that as long as the whole Party penetratingly and correctly continues to execute the Central Committees various decisions concerning the Socialist Education Movement, continues to grasp the principles of class struggle, continues to rely on the working class, the poor and lower-middle peasants, the revolutionary cadres, the revolutionary intellectuals and other revolutionary elements, and continues to pay close attention to uniting more than 95 percent of our people and 95 percent of our cadres, then the many problems which exist in the cities and in the villages will not only be easy to discover, but will also be easy to resolve. We must resolutely continue the Socialist Education Movement of the past two years and more, and carry it through to the end; we absolutely must not falter. The present problem is to sum up the past experience of this movement, assess our achievements, and overcome the shortcomings in our work in order to facilitate an even greater victory. II. The Nature of the Movement Several ways of presentation: 1. The contradiction between the Four Cleans and the Four Uncleans; 2. The overlapping of contradictions within the Party and contradictions outside of the Party, or the overlapping of contradictions between the enemy and us and contradictions within the people; 3. The contradiction between socialism and capitalism. The former two ways do not clarify the fundamental characteristics of the Socialist Education Movement. These two approaches do not refer to what society the contradiction of the Four Cleans and Four Uncleans arises in. Nor do they indicate what the nature is of the overlapping
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of contradictions within the Party and contradictions outside of the Party. They also do not indicate in what historical period the overlapping of contradictions between the enemy and us and contradictions within the people arises nor the class content of this overlapping. If we take a literal point of view, the so-called Four Cleans and Four Uncleans could be applied to any society in past history and the so-called overlapping of contradictions within the Party and contradictions outside the Party could be applied to any party. The so-called overlapping of contradictions between the enemy and us and contradictions within the people could be applied to any historical period. These approaches do not explain the nature of todays contradictions; therefore they are not Marxist-Leninist methods of looking at things. The last way of presenting the nature of the movement comprehends the essence of the question, and is Marxist-Leninist. It is decidedly in accord with the scientific theories of Comrade Mao Tse-tung, and with the policies adopted by the Central Committee at various times since the second plenum of the Seventh Central Committee in 1949, concerning the continued existence, during the entire transitional period, of class contradictions, class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, and struggle between the two roads of socialism and capitalism. If we forget the basic theory and basic practice of our Party during the past decade and a half, we will go astray. The key point of this movement is to rectify those people in positions of authority within the Party who take the capitalist road, and to progressively consolidate and develop the socialist battlefront in the urban and rural areas. Of those people in positions of authority who take the capitalist road, some are out in the open and some are concealed. Of the people who support them, some are at lower levels and some are at higher levels. Among those lower down, some have already been classified as landlords, rich peasants, counter-revolutionaries and bad elements, while others have been overlooked. Among those at higher levels, there are some people in the communes, districts, hsien, special districts, and even in the work of provincial and Central Committee departments, who oppose socialism. Among them some were originally alien class elements; some are degenerate elements who have shed their original skin and changed their nature; and some have received bribes, banded together for seditious purposes, violated the law, and violated discipline. Certain people do not distinguish the boundary between the enemy and ourselves; they have lost their class standpoint; and they harbor, within their own families and among their own friends and fellow workers, those people who engage in capitalist activities.
The great majority of our cadres want to take the socialist road, but there are some among them who have but a hazy knowledge of the socialist revolution, who employ personnel improperly, who are haphazard about checking up on work, and who commit the mistake of bureaucratism. III. A Unified Way of Presentation The Socialist Education Movement in the cities and countryside will from now on be uniformly simplified as the Four Cleans Movementclean politics, clean economics, clean organization, and clean ideology. In the past, the Socialist Education Movement in the cities was called the Five Anti movement. From now on we will call it the Four Cleans Movement and will abolish the Five Anti. IV. Setting Good Standards for the Movement At the June 1964 meeting of the Standing Committee of the Politburo of the Central Committee attended by the first secretaries of the regional bureaus of the Central Committee, Comrade Mao Tse-tung said:
What are good standards for evaluation of the Socialist Education Movement?
1. We must see whether the poor and lower-middle peasants have been truly aroused. 2. Has the problem of the Four Uncleans among the cadres been resolved? 3. Have the cadres participated in physical labor? 4. Has a good leadership nucleus been established? 5. When landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries and bad elements who engage in destructive activities are discovered, is this contradiction merely turned over to the higher levels, or are the masses mobilized to strictly supervise, criticize, and even appropriately struggle against these elements, and moreover retain them for reform on the spot? 6. We must see whether production is increasing or decreasing. At that time, the Standing Committee of the Politburo held that these standards for assessing whether the Socialist Education Movement was being carried out properly were fully appropriate. V. Work Methods 1. Within the movement as a whole, provincial, special district, and hsien level party committees and work teams, relying on the great majority of the masses
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and cadres (including cadres who have cast aside their misgivings and doubts), must gradually carry out the 3 unifications with respect to the masses, cadres, and work teams. 2. Once the movement has begun, we must immediately explain its meaning to the cadres and masses, and we must inform them of our policies. We must clearly declare that, no matter what commune or brigade, and no matter whether during or after the movement, the use of pretexts for opposing the masses of commune members will not be permitted. 3. The work teams must, during the movement and during the process of struggle, arouse the poor and lower-middle peasants, organize class ranks, discover activist elements and train them to form a leadership nucleus, and work together with them. We must not be quiet; we must not be mysterious; and we must not confine our activities to a small minority of the people. 4. In the course of the movement, from start to finish we must grasp production. At the same time, we must pay attention to grasping each years distribution (the question of livelihood). If we do not grasp the questions of production and distribution, we will become divorced from the masses and will bring grievous harm to our cause. 5. We must proceed on the basis of local conditions. Reality demands this. Whatever problems the masses require to be solved must be solved. Whatever imbalances occur in our work must be rectified. 6. In the movement, we must boldly unleash the masses; we must not be like women with bound feetwe must not bind our hands and feet. At the same time, we must make a deep and fine penetration, and must not make a big fuss over nothing. We must set the facts in order, explain principles, eliminate simple, crude work methods, severely prohibit beating people and other forms of physical punishment, and prevent forced confessions. 7. To sum up: in the course of the movement as a whole, we must make use of contradictions to win over the majority, oppose the minority, and attack and defeat all who persist in taking the capitalist roadalways a very small minority. Some people have committed mistakes which can still be rectified. With regard to those people who are the target of the Four Cleans movement, we must be good at discriminating among them and treating them differentially, taking the worst people and isolating them or narrowly confining them.
VI. Concentrate Our Forces, Fight a War of Annihilation In leading the movement, we must have an overall, balanced point of view and an overall, balanced deployment. We must, through preliminary investigation and study, carry out a preliminary ordering of our ranks. We must suitably concentrate our forces to fight a war of annihilation. Starting in those key areas where the greatest number of problems exist, and where the influence [of those problems] is great, we must first make a breakthrough at a [single] point and then have an all-around thrust. Point work does not refer merely to our working within production brigades, for we must also appropriately unite upper and lower level bodies as well as different bodies at the same level. The movement should develop group by group and phase by phase like the motion of a wavefirst resolving problems at one place and then moving on to resolve problems elsewhere. The various provinces and cities should have the right to allocate their forces, and when necessary they may concentrate their cadres for training purposes during the course of the movement. We should not rely on human sea tactics. We must not concentrate excessively large work teams within a single hsien, commune, or brigade. In this way, more points can be dealt with at the same time. This will also help us to follow the mass line. The main thing is to go all out to prepare a nucleus of cadres who are able to grasp the Partys policy and who are able to understand and follow the mass line. VII. Squatting at Points If one has not investigated, then one has no right of expression. This teaching of Comrade Mao Tse-tung must be observed in our work. The effective investigation and research methods used by our Party in the past, such as that of holding investigation meetings, should continue to be utilized. Squatting at a point and dissecting a sparrow [i.e., making a thorough and careful analysistransl.] is a very important method of leadership. Leading cadres must in a selective and planned manner continue to squat at points, going down to the basic levels and penetrating into the masses and, in the course of the movement and struggle, gaining relatively systematic experience. There can be different methods of squatting at points. There should be a group of people who, for a relatively long period of time, go down into a brigade to guide the movement to its completion from beginning to end. The leading personnel of Party organizations at the Central Committee regional bureau, provincial, special
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district, and hsien levels must implement the leadership methods which combine the general and individual aspects. Besides selecting a locality for squatting, they can convene meetings in places where they are squatting themselves or in other places, and carry out investigation, research and guidance of work in other points, and of production and other kinds of work in whole regions, provinces, special districts and hsien on the plane. They can also go on inspection tours of other places, or organize small-scale roving inspection groups in order to facilitate their grasping of an active attitude, the mutual communication of information, and the exchange of experience. VIII. Grasping Work on the Plane We must look after both points and the plane. At present the plane, outside of the key points which are carrying out the Four Cleans movement, constitutes the great majority of the country. The main task in these areas is production and construction. This task must conscientiously be well done. The Central Committee bureaus, provincial committees, and special district committees must grasp the work of entire regions, provinces, and special districts. With regard to work on the plane, these committees must also appropriately carry on the work of socialist education, of raising the political consciousness of the cadres, and of stimulating the latter to self-awaredly cleanse their hands and bodies. We should clearly declare to them that if their problems are not great, or if their problems are many but they confess and make restitution, and as long as they perform their work and make up for their errors with achievements, then we will not go into these things that are past. Some hsien on the plane, if they have the proper conditions and the approval of the provincial committee, can also carry out Four Cleans point testing work. The training of cadres in some localities can be used as reference for effective methods in developing from point to plane. IX. The Cadre Question 1) In dealing with the cadre question, we must use the method of one divides into two. We should adopt a serious, positive, and affectionate attitude toward them. 2) The situation will gradually become clarified. There are four possible types of cadres: good, relatively good, those with many problems, and those whose mistakes are of a serious nature. Under general conditions, cadres of the first two types are in the majority. 3) Comrade Mao Tse-tung long ago said: We must adopt the policy of warn a man first so he may afterwards exert himself to goodness and treating the illness
to save the man in dealing with people who make mistakes. He also said, We must make a distinction between those party members and cadres who have committed mistakes, but who can still be educated, and those who cannot be saved. No matter what their backgrounds, we must step up their education and must not discard them. At the present time, we must continue to heed these instructions of Comrade Mao Tse-tung. The policy we ought to adopt toward those cadres who have committed mistakes is to persuade them to accept education, cleanse their hands and bodies, go to battle unencumbered, and unite against the enemy. It is a policy which arises from a profound hope for unity; one which, through criticism or struggle, brings about the resolution of contradictions; and which then attains a new unity on a new foundation. 4) Toward those cadres who have committed minor Four Unclean mistakes or who, though they have had many problems, have freely confessed their past histories, we ought to do our utmost to quickly liberate them. Toward those cadres whose mistakes are of a nature which is presently unclear, and who may therefore have been unsuitably retained at their original work posts, we may change their work or give them concentrated training, and carry on investigation of their cases. 5) Economic indemnities must not be randomly or unsystematically imposed. At the same time, such indemnities must accord with the actual conditions and with reason. In cases where the problems are not serious, and where examination and criticism has been relatively good, if the masses so agree, such indemnities may be reduced, delayed, or even cancelled. 6) We must adopt necessary and suitable disciplinary measures toward those cadres who have committed mistakes. This is for the purpose of educating and transforming them. As long as they are willing to take the socialist road, the Party will unite with them, and the masses will unite with them. Of those incompetent cadres, some can be regulated and some can be transformed. Those Party members who do not fulfill the conditions of membership can be exhorted to leave the Party. These cases can all be dealt with in the latter stage of the movement. 7) Where the nature of the mistakes is seriouswhere leadership authority has been taken over by alien class elements or by degenerate elements who have shed their skin and changed their natureauthority must be seized, first by struggle and then by removing these elements from their positions. In general, the question of their membership in the Party should be resolved later. In cases which are especially serious, these elements can be fired from their posts on the spot, their Party membership cards taken away, and they may even, if need be, be
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forcibly detained. Counter-revolutionaries, landlords, rich peasants and bad elements who have wormed their way into the Party must all be expelled from the Party. In places where authority must be seized, or under conditions where the peoples militia organization is critically impure, we should adopt the method of turning over the weapons and ammunition of the peoples militia to reliable elements among the poor and lower-middle peasants. 8) When necessary, individual counter-revolutionaries or bad elements who have severely coerced the masses may be placed temporarily under guard or sent to do physical labor in the countryside until their cases are judged. In the most serious cases, such as murder, arson, or other serious crimes where the culprit is actually caught in the act, they may be arrested and their cases dealt with by legal channels. 9) Some bad cadres may have formed cliques. We must guard against classifying too many groups as cliques, or classifying the membership of the cliques too broadly. X. Establishing Poor and Lower-Middle Peasants Associations Poor and Lower-Middle Peasants Associations are revolutionary class organizations of a mass nature voluntarily organized by the poor and lower-middle peasants under the leadership of the Communist Party. These organizations supervise and assist cadres of various levels within the peoples communes in carrying out work. This type of organization will fully develop its functions in the consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the consolidation of the collective economy, and the development of collective production. The poor and lower-middle peasants, and their labor power in production, make up 60 to 70 percent of the total population and labor power in the countryside. They constitute the great majority. Poor peasants associations, once they have been organized, may attract prosperous middle peasants and other people who have ambitions of self-advancement. These latter elements will try to ally with those people whose attitude toward socialism is normally wavering. During the course of the Socialist Education Movement, in those places where basic-level organizations have atrophied or become paralyzed, and before a new leadership nucleus has been formed, we may implement [the policy of] all power to the poor and lower-middle peasants associations. XI. The Question of Time For a brigade, about half a year; for a hsien, a year or more. Estimating from the fall and winter of 1964, about three years will be needed to complete the movement
throughout one-third of our country. Within six or seven years, the movement will be completed throughout the whole country. So long as our policies and work methods are correct, the pace of the movement may be accelerated somewhat. XII. Declaration of Policies concerning Concealed Lands After free and open discussion by the masses, the state will refrain for a period of about five years from increasing burdens on, and will not make further procurements from, those lands which have been concealed. XIII. The Work of Finance and Trade Departments Must Be Adjusted to Fit the Four Cleans Movement Increasing burdens or the repayment of loans will not be permitted simply because a certain place has already carried out the Four Cleans movement. Finance and trade organs, with respect to investment and loans, ought suitably to support production and construction in those areas which are carrying out the Four Cleans movement. XIV. The Composition of Work Teams It is not necessary to be fully and completely clean. Those who have committed mistakes may also participate, on the one hand to facilitate their education and transformation, and on the other hand so that some of them can gain an all-around view of the movement and thus become useful workers. The work teams must continually summarize experiences and fix times for readjustment. XV. Providing a Way Out With regard to landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries, bad elements, and elements who have shed their skin and changed their nature, under the supervision of the masses they must undergo reform through labor in order to help them turn over a new leaf. Among those persons who have committed serious Four Unclean mistakes, some are no longer cadres or party members. These persons may still, however, be allowed to serve as commune members, to work diligently. Of the landlords, rich peasants, counter-revolutionaries and other bad elements who have labored honestly and have not done bad deeds for the past decade or more, there are some who have already been labelled. Can these labels be removed? Others have not yet been labelled; can they be excused from again being labelled? These questions should be judged and decided by the masses. XVI. The Four Cleans Movement Must Rest Firmly on Construction Speaking of a single hsien, both during and after the Four Cleans movement the work of training a party leadership nucleus must be gradually done. All instruments of the
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Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
proletarian dictatorship must gradually be grasped in the hands of reliable people. A socialist hsien must gradually be solidly built up in order to enable the work of production, construction, science, culture, education, health and sanitation, public safety and the peoples militia to make progress. Production and construction in each commune and brigade throughout the country will be like a great fortress through upholding the policy of relying on ones own efforts. XVII. The Size of Production Teams During the process of the Four Cleans movement, after thorough discussion by the poor and lower-middle peasants, and after having been decided by the masses, production teams may carry out adjustment or organizational reform. Is a figure of about thirty households per team reasonable? If people live in relatively tight concentrations, the figure of thirty households may be exceeded. If people are relatively widely dispersed, less than thirty may be appropriate. These matters should not be decided from above. XVIII. The Tenure of Office of Basic-Level Cadres In accordance with the 60 articles, we should set a time to carry out democratic elections. Terms of office for reelection, or reappointment should in general be limited to four years. Cadres who are corrupt, who have committed serious mistakes, or who are unable to perform their duties well, may be recalled at any time. XIX. The Question of Supervision Cadres must be supervised both from above and from below. The most important supervision is that which comes from the masses. During the Four Cleans movement, cadres and masses should explore effective supervisory and political work systems. The authority of supervisory organs must be greater than that of the administrative organs of the same level. XX. Four Great Democracies All communes and brigades must learn from the Peoples Liberation Army and carry out political democracy, democracy in production, democracy in financial affairs, and military democracy. XXI. Work Attitudes All talkgood, bad, correct, and incorrectmust be listened to. It is particularly dissent that we must patiently listen to. We must let people fully express themselves.
XXII. Methods of Thought We must strive to avoid one-sidedness and partialness. Everything must be analyzed, no matter what it is. To view everything as absolute, motionless, isolated and unchanging is metaphysical. To spend ones time cataloguing great piles of superficial phenomena, or compiling great quantities of rules and regulations is scholasticism, which renders people unable to receive the necessary leadership. We must be proponents of dialectical materialism; we must oppose metaphysics and scholasticism. XXIII. Scope The various points raised above should, in principle, be applied also to the Four Cleans movement in the cities.
DECISION OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY CONCERNING THE GREAT PROLETARIAN CULTURAL REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
The Sixteen Points was a Maoist document adopted on August 8, 1966 by a somewhat irregular meeting of the Central Committee packed with Maos supporters. It set out what the goals of the Cultural Revolution should be and identified the enemy as the representatives of the bourgeoisie who had wormed their way into the Party and were taking the capitalist road. The document suggested that there were capitalist roaders at the highest levels of the partyand was thus to become the basis for the later persecution of top leaders such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. The Sixteen Points urged the free mobilization of the masses to weed such people out and to destroy the four olds (old ideas, culture, customs and habits) which the exploiting classes used to corrupt the masses. Read in political study classes all over China, the document became a charter for the Cultural Revolution. It was recited by the Red Guards when they damaged temples, destroyed statues or raided private houses in their crusade against old things.
1. A NEW STAGE IN THE SOCIALIST REVOLUTION
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution now unfolding is a great revolution that touches people to their very souls and constitutes a new stage in the development of the socialist revolution in our country, a stage which is both broader and deeper.
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At the Tenth Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee of the Party, Comrade Mao Tse-tung said: to overthrow a political power, it is always necessary first of all to create public opinion, to do work in the ideological sphere. This is true for the revolutionary class as well as for the counter-revolutionary class. This thesis of Comrade Mao Tse-tungs has been proved entirely correct in practice. Although the bourgeoisie has been overthrown, it is still trying to use the old ideas, culture, customs and habits of the exploiting classes to corrupt the masses, capture their minds and endeavour to stage a comeback. The proletariat must do the exact opposite: it must meet head-on every challenge of the bourgeoisie in the ideological field and use the new ideas, culture, customs and habits of the proletariat to change the mental outlook of the whole of society. At present, our objective is to struggle against and overthrow those persons in authority who are taking the capitalist road, to criticize and repudiate the reactionary bourgeois academic authorities and the ideology of the bourgeoisie and all other exploiting classes and to transform education, literature and art and all other parts of the superstructure not in correspondence with the socialist economic base, so as to facilitate the consolidation and development of the socialist system.
2. THE MAIN CURRENT AND THE ZIGZAGS
Because the resistance is fairly strong, there will be reversals and even repeated reversals in this struggle. There is no harm in this. It tempers the proletariat and other working people, and especially the younger generation, teaches them lessons and gives them experience, and helps them to understand that the revolutionary road zigzags and does not run smoothly.
3. PUT DARING ABOVE EVERYTHING ELSE AND BOLDLY AROUSE THE MASSES
The outcome of this Great Cultural Revolution will be determined by whether or not the Party leadership dares boldly to arouse the masses. Currently, there are four different situations with regard to the leadership being given to the movement of Cultural Revolution by Party organizations at various levels: 1. There is the situation in which the persons in charge of Party organizations stand in the van of the movement and dare to arouse the masses boldly. They put daring above everything else, they are dauntless communist fighters and good pupils of Chairman Mao. They advocate the big-character posters and great debates. They encourage the masses to expose every kind of ghost and monster and also to criticize the shortcomings and errors in the work of the persons in charge. This correct kind of leadership is the result of putting proletarian politics in the forefront and Mao Tse-tungs thought in the lead. 2. In many units, the persons in charge have a very poor understanding of the task of leadership in this great struggle, their leadership is far from being conscientious and effective, and they accordingly find themselves incompetent and in a weak position. They put fear above everything else, stick to outmoded ways and regulations, and are unwilling to break away from conventional practices and move ahead. They have been taken unaware by the new order of things, the revolutionary order of the masses, with the result that their leadership lags behind the situation, lags behind the masses. 3. In some units, the persons in charge, who made mistakes of one kind or another in the past, are even more prone to put fear above everything else, being afraid that the masses will catch them out. Actually, if they make serious self-criticism and accept the criticism of the masses, the Party and the masses will make allowances for their mistakes. But if the persons in charge dont, they will continue to make mistakes and become obstacles to the mass movement.
The masses of the workers, peasants, soldiers, revolutionary intellectuals, and revolutionary cadres form the main force in this Great Cultural Revolution. Large numbers of revolutionary young people, previously unknown, have become courageous and daring pathbreakers. They are vigorous in action and intelligent. Through the media of big-character posters and great debates, they argue things out, expose and criticize thoroughly, and launch resolute attacks on the open and hidden representatives of the bourgeoisie. In such a great revolutionary movement, it is hardly avoidable that they should show shortcomings of one kind or another; however, their general revolutionary orientation has been correct from the beginning. This is the main current in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. It is the general direction along which this revolution continues to advance. Since the Cultural Revolution is a revolution, it inevitably meets with resistance. This resistance comes chiefly from those in authority who have wormed their way into the Party and are taking the capitalist road. It also comes from the force of habits from the old society. At present, this resistance is still fairly strong and stubborn. But after all, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is an irresistible general trend. There is abundant evidence that such resistance will be quickly broken down once the masses become fully aroused.
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4. Some units are controlled by those who have wormed their way into the Party and are taking the capitalist road. Such persons in authority are extremely afraid of being exposed by the masses and therefore seek every possible pretext to suppress the mass movement. They resort to such tactics as shifting the targets for attack and turning black into white in an attempt to lead the movement astray. When they find themselves very isolated and no longer able to carry on as before, they resort still more to intrigues, stabbing people in the back, spreading rumours, and blurring the distinction between revolution and counter-revolution as much as they can, all for the purpose of attacking the revolutionaries. What the Central Committee of the Party demands of the Party committees at all levels is that they persevere in giving correct leadership, put daring above everything else, boldly arouse the masses, change the state of weakness and incompetence where it exists, encourage those comrades who have made mistakes but are willing to correct them to cast off their mental burdens and join in the struggle, and dismiss from their leading posts all those in authority who are taking the capitalist road and so make possible the recapture of the leadership for the proletarian revolution.
4. LET THE MASSES EDUCATE THEMSELVES IN THE MOVEMENT
is likewise a question of the first importance for the Great Cultural Revolution. Party leadership should be good at discovering the left and developing and strengthening the ranks of the left; it should firmly rely on the revolutionary left. During the movement this is the only way to isolate the most reactionary rightists thoroughly, win over the middle and unite with the great majority so that by the end of the movement we shall achieve the unity of more than 95 per cent of the cadres and more than 95 per cent of the masses. Concentrate all forces to strike at the handful of ultrareactionary bourgeois rightists and counter-revolutionary revisionists, and expose and criticize to the full their crimes against the Party, against socialism and against Mao Tsetungs thought so as to isolate them to the maximum. The main target of the present movement is those within the Party who are in authority and are taking the capitalist road. Care should be taken to distinguish strictly between the anti-Party, anti-socialist rightists and those who support the Party and socialism but have said or done something wrong or have written some bad articles or other works. Care should be taken to distinguish strictly between the reactionary bourgeois scholar despots and authorities on the one hand and people who have the ordinary bourgeois academic ideas on the other.
6. CORRECT HANDLING OF CONTRADICTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE
In the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, the only method is for the masses to liberate themselves, and any method of doing things in their stead must not be used. Trust the masses, rely on them and respect their initiative. Cast out fear. Dont be afraid of disturbances. Chairman Mao has often told us that revolution cannot be so very refined, so gentle, so temperate, kind, courteous, restrained and magnanimous. Let the masses educate themselves in this great revolutionary movement and learn to distinguish between right and wrong and between correct and incorrect ways of doing things. Make the fullest use of big-character posters and great debates to argue matters out, so that the masses can clarify the correct views, criticize the wrong views and expose all the ghosts and monsters. In this way the masses will be able to raise their political consciousness in the course of the struggle, enhance their abilities and talents, distinguish right from wrong and draw a clear line between ourselves and the enemy.
5. FIRMLY APPLY THE CLASS LINE OF THE PARTY
Who are our enemies? Who are our friends? This is a question of the first importance for the revolution and it
A strict distinction must be made between the two different types of contradictions: those among the people and those between ourselves and the enemy. Contradictions among the people must not be made into contradictions between ourselves and the enemy; nor must contradictions between ourselves and the enemy be regarded as contradictions among the people. It is normal for the masses to hold different views. Contention between different views is unavoidable, necessary and beneficial. In the course of normal and full debate, the masses will affirm what is right, correct what is wrong and gradually reach unanimity. The method to be used in debates is to present the facts, reason things out, and persuade through reasoning. Any method of forcing a minority holding different views to submit is impermissible. The minority should be protected, because sometimes the truth is with the minority. Even if the minority is wrong, they should still be allowed to argue their case and reserve their views. When there is a debate, it should be conducted by reasoning, not by coercion or force.
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In the course of debate, every revolutionary should be good at thinking things out for himself and should develop the communist spirit of daring to think, daring to speak and daring to act. On the premise that they have the same general orientation, revolutionary comrades should, for the sake of strengthening unity, avoid endless debate over side issues.
7. BE ON GUARD AGAINST THOSE WHO BRAND THE REVOLUTIONARY MASSES AS COUNTER-REVOLUTIONARIES
4. the small number of anti-Party, anti-socialist rightists. In ordinary situations, the first two categories (good and comparatively good) are the great majority. The anti-Party, anti-socialist rightists must be fully exposed, refuted, overthrown and completely discredited and their influence eliminated. At the same time, they should be given a chance to turn over a new leaf.
9. CULTURAL REVOLUTION GROUPS, COMMITTEES AND CONGRESSES
In certain schools, units, and work teams of the Cultural Revolution, some of the persons in charge have organized counter-attacks against the masses who put up bigcharacter posters criticizing them. These people have even advanced such slogans as: opposition to the leaders of a unit or a work team means opposition to the Central Committee of the Party, means opposition to the Party and socialism, means counter-revolution. In this way it is inevitable that their blows will fall on some really revolutionary activists. This is an error on matters of orientation, an error of line, and is absolutely impermissible. A number of persons who suffer from serious ideological errors, and particularly some of the anti-Party and anti-socialist rightists, are taking advantage of certain shortcomings and mistakes in the mass movement to spread rumours and gossip, and engage in agitation, deliberately branding some of the masses as counterrevolutionaries. It is necessary to beware of such pickpockets and expose their tricks in good time. In the course of the movement, with the exception of cases of active counter-revolutionaries where there is clear evidence of crimes such as murder, arson, poisoning, sabotage or theft of state secrets, which should be handled in accordance with the law, no measures should be taken against students at universities, colleges, middle schools and primary schools because of problems that arise in the movement. To prevent the struggle from being diverted from its main target, it is not allowed, under whatever pretext, to incite the masses or the students to struggle against each other. Even proven rightists should be dealt with on the merits of each case at a later stage of the movement.
8. THE QUESTION OF CADRES
The cadres fall roughly into the following four categories: 1. good; 2. comparatively good; 3. those who have made serious mistakes but have not become anti-Party, anti-socialist rightists;
Many new things have begun to emerge in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolutionary groups, committees and other organizational forms created by the masses in many schools and units are something new and of great historic importance. These Cultural Revolutionary groups, committees and congresses are excellent new forms of organization whereby the masses educate themselves under the leadership of the Communist Party. They are an excellent bridge to keep our Party in close contact with the masses. They are organs of power of the proletarian Cultural Revolution. The struggle of the proletariat against the old ideas, culture, customs and habits left over by all the exploiting classes over thousands of years will necessarily take a very, very long time. Therefore, the Cultural Revolutionary groups, committees and congresses should not be temporary organizations but permanent, standing mass organizations. They are suitable not only for colleges, schools and government and other organizations, but generally also for factories, mines, other enterprises, urban districts and villages. It is necessary to institute a system of general elections, like that of the Paris Commune, for electing members to the Cultural Revolutionary groups and committees and delegates to the Cultural Revolutionary congresses. The lists of candidates should be put forward by the revolutionary masses after full discussion, and the elections should be held after the masses have discussed the lists over and over again. The masses are entitled at any time to criticize members of the Cultural Revolutionary groups and committees and delegates elected to the Cultural Revolutionary congresses. If these members or delegates prove incompetent, they can be replaced through election or recalled by the masses after discussion. The Cultural Revolutionary groups, committees and congresses in colleges and schools should consist mainly of representatives of the revolutionary students. At the same time, they should have a certain number of representatives of the revolutionary teaching and administrative staff and workers.
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10. EDUCATIONAL REFORM
In the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution a most important task is to transform the old educational system and the old principles and methods of teaching. In this Great Cultural Revolution, the phenomenon of our schools being dominated by bourgeois intellectuals must be completely changed. In every kind of school we must apply thoroughly the policy advanced by Comrade Mao Tse-tung of education serving proletarian politics and education being combined with productive labour, so as to enable those receiving an education to develop morally, intellectually and physically and to become labourers with socialist consciousness and culture. The period of schooling should be shortened. Courses should be fewer and better. The teaching material should be thoroughly transformed, in some cases beginning with simplifying complicated material. While their main task is to study, students should also learn other things. That is to say, in addition to their studies they should also learn industrial work, farming and military affairs, and take part in the struggles of the Cultural Revolution to criticize the bourgeoisie as these struggles occur.
11. THE QUESTION OF CRITICIZING BY NAME IN THE PRESS
those scientists and scientific and technical personnel who have made contributions. Efforts should be made to help them gradually transform their world outlook and their style of work.
13. THE QUESTION OF ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTEGRATION WITH THE SOCIALIST EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN CITY AND COUNTRYSIDE
In the course of the mass movement of the Cultural Revolution, the criticism of bourgeois and feudal ideology should be well combined with the dissemination of the proletarian world outlook and of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Tse-tungs thought. Criticism should be organized of typical bourgeois representatives who have wormed their way into the Party and typical reactionary bourgeois academic authorities, and this should include criticism of various kinds of reactionary views in philosophy, history, political economy and education, in works and theories of literature and art, in theories of natural science, and in other fields. Criticism of anyone by name in the press should be decided after discussion by the Party committee at the same level, and in some cases submitted to the Party committee at a higher level for approval.
12. POLICY TOWARDS SCIENTISTS, TECHNICIANS AND ORDINARY MEMBERS OF WORKING STAFFS
The cultural and educational units and leading organs of the Party and government in the large and medium cities are the points of concentration of the present proletarian Cultural Revolution. The Great Cultural Revolution has enriched the socialist education movement in both city and countryside and raised it to a higher level. Efforts should be made to conduct these two movements in close combination. Arrangements to this effect may be made by various regions and departments in the light of the specific conditions. The socialist education movement now going on in the countryside and in enterprises in the cities should not be upset where the original arrangements are appropriate and the movement is going well, but should continue in accordance with the original arrangements. However, the questions that are arising in the present Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution should be put to the masses for discussion at the proper time, so as to further foster vigorously proletarian ideology and eradicate bourgeois ideology. In some places, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is being used as the focus in order to add momentum to the socialist education movement and clean things up in the fields of politics, ideology, organization and economy. This may be done where the local Party committee thinks it appropriate.
14. TAKE FIRM HOLD OF THE REVOLUTION AND STIMULATE PRODUCTION
As regards scientists, technicians and ordinary members of working staffs, as long as they are patriotic, work energetically, are not against the Party and socialism, and maintain no illicit relations with any foreign country, we should in the present movement continue to apply the policy of unity, criticism, unity. Special care should be taken of
The aim of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is to revolutionize peoples ideology and as a consequence to achieve greater, faster, better and more economical results in all fields of work. If the masses are fully aroused and proper arrangements are made, it is possible to carry on both the Cultural Revolution and production without one hampering the other, while guaranteeing high quality in all our work. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is a powerful motive force for the development of the social productive forces in our country. Any idea of counterposing the Great Cultural Revolution to the development of production is incorrect.
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Preface to Quotations by Chairman Mao
15. THE ARMED FORCES
INTRODUCTION
In the armed forces, the cultural revolution and the socialist education movement should be carried out in accordance with the instructions of the Military Commission of the Central Committee of the Party and the General Political Department of the Peoples Liberation Army.
16. MAO TSE-TUNGS THOUGHT IS THE GUIDE FOR ACTION IN THE GREAT PROLETARIAN CULTURAL REVOLUTION
In the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, it is imperative to hold aloft the great red banner of Mao Tse-tungs thought and put proletarian politics in command. The movement for the creative study and application of Chairman Mao Tse-tungs works should be carried forward among the masses of the workers, peasants and soldiers, the cadres and the intellectuals, and Mao Tse-tungs thought should be taken as the guide to action in the Cultural Revolution. In this complex Great Cultural Revolution, Party committees at all levels must study and apply Chairman Maos works all the more conscientiously and in a creative way. In particular, they must study over and over again Chairman Maos writings on the Cultural Revolution and on the Partys methods of leadership, such as On New Democracy, Talks at the Yenan Forum on Literature and Art, On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People, Speech at the Chinese Communist Partys National Conference on Propaganda Work, Some Questions Concerning Methods of Leadership and Methods of Work of Party Committees. Party committees at all levels must abide by the directions given by Chairman Mao over the years, namely that they should thoroughly apply the mass line of from the masses, to the masses and that they should be pupils before they become teachers. They should try to avoid being one-sided or narrow. They should foster materialist dialectics and oppose metaphysics and scholasticism. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution is bound to achieve brilliant victory under the leadership of the Central Committee of the Party headed by Comrade Mao Tse-tung.
The Little Red Book or Quotations from Chairman Mao was first compiled for use in political education in the Peoples Liberation Army and then issued in a second edition for more general use in political education in 1966. During the Cultural Revolution almost every citizen carried a copy. Lin Biao (Lin Piao), Chinas minister of defense and from 1969 Maos designated successor, supplied obsequious introductions for the later editions (1966 and 1967). After Lins mysterious death and disgrace in 1971, people were instructed to rip the introduction out of their copies. Subsequent editions carried no introduction. The size and format of the book was designed for portability in the pocket of a Mao jacket.
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST CHINESE EDITION
PREFACE TO QUOTATIONS BY CHAIRMAN MAO

SOURCE
Foreword to the First Chinese Edition; Foreword to the Second Chinese Edition. Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung, ed. Stuart R. Schram, xxxixxxiv. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967.
Comrade Mao Tse-tung is the greatest Marxist-Leninist of our era. Mao Tse-tungs thought is the application of the universal truths of Marxism-Leninism in the era in which imperialism is heading for collapse and socialism is advancing to victory, in the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution, in the collective struggles of the party and the people; it is Marxism-Leninism creatively developed. Mao Tse-tungs thought is the guiding principle for the Chinese peoples revolution and socialist construction, it is a powerful ideological weapon for opposing imperialism and for opposing revisionism and dogmatism. Comrade Mao Tse-tung has not only established a fixed and immovable political orientation for our army, he has also established the only correct line for the edification of our army. The guiding thought of our party, our partys experience in struggle, and the theories of our party are concentrated in their most general form in Mao Tse-tungs thought. Therefore, the most fundamental task in our armys political and ideological work is at all times to hold high the great red banner of Mao Tse-tungs thought, to arm the minds of all our commanders with it and to persist in using it to command every field of activity. All the comrades in our army should really master Mao Tse-tungs thought; they should all study Chairman Maos writings, follow his teachings, act according to his instructions and be his good fighters. Comrade Lin Piao has instructed us that in order really to master Mao Tse-tungs thought, it is essential to study many of Chairman Maos basic concepts over and over again, and even to memorize important statements and study and apply them repeatedly. Comrade Lin Piao has moreover directed that the Liberation Army Daily should regularly carry quotations from Chairman Mao for cadres and soldiers to study. The experience of the various army corps in their creative study and application of Chairman Maos works in the last few years has proved also that to study selected quotations from Chairman Mao with specific
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Shanghai Communique0
problems in mind is a good way to learn Mao Tse-tungs thought, a method conducive to quick results. We have compiled Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung by gathering together the quotations already published in Liberation Army Daily and adding some others, in order to help lowerlevel cadres and soldiers learn Mao Tse-tungs thought more effectively; we have also endeavored, in accordance with the principle of selecting brief but essential passages, to ensure that the contents we have selected are adapted to the needs and standard of the lower-level cadres and soldiers. In organizing their study, the various army corps should select passages that are relevant to the situation, their tasks, the current thinking of their personnel, and the state of their work. This volume of quotations was published in May 1964. In reprinting it this time, we have made a few additions and deletions and partial changes in arrangement. In conformity with Comrade Lin Piaos instructions, we must issue Selected Readings from Chairman Mao and Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung to every soldier in the whole army, just as we issue weapons. It is our hope that all comrades will learn earnestly, bring about an even greater and broader high tide in the creative study and application of Chairman Maos works in the whole army, and struggle to speed up the revolutionarization, modernization and edification of our army. The General Political Department August 1, 1965
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND CHINESE EDITION
Comrade Mao Tse-tung is the greatest Marxist-Leninist of our era. He has inherited, defended and developed Marxism-Leninism with genius, creatively and comprehensively and has brought it to a higher and completely new stage. Mao Tse-tungs thought is Marxism-Leninism of the era in which imperialism is heading for total collapse and socialism is advancing to world-wide victory. It is a powerful ideological weapon for opposing imperialism and for opposing revisionism and dogmatism. Mao Tse-tungs thought is the guiding principle for all the work of the Party, the army and the country. Therefore, the most fundamental task in our Partys political and ideological work is at all times to hold high the great red banner of Mao Tse-tungs thought, to arm the minds of the people throughout the country with it and to persist in using it to command every field of activity. The broad masses of the workers, peasants and soldiers and the broad ranks of the revolutionary cadres and the intellectuals should really master Mao Tse-tungs thought; they should all study Chairman Maos writings, follow his teachings, act according to his instructions and be his good fighters.
In studying the works of Chairman Mao, one should have specific problems in mind, study and apply his works in a creative way, combine study with application, first study what must be urgently applied so as to get quick results, and strive hard to apply what one is studying. In order really to master Mao Tse-tungs thought, it is essential to study many of Chairman Maos basic concepts over and over again, and it is best to memorize important statements and study and apply them repeatedly. The newspapers should regularly carry quotations from Chairman Mao relevant to current issues for readers to study and apply. The experience of the broad masses in their creative study and application of Chairman Maos works in the last few years has proved that to study selected quotations from Chairman Mao with specific problems in mind is a good way to learn Mao Tsetungs thought, a method conducive to quick results. We have compiled Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung in order to help the broad masses learn Mao Tse-tungs thought more effectively. In organizing their study, units should select passages that are relevant to the situation, their tasks, the current thinking of their personnel, and the state of their work. In our great motherland, a new era is emerging in which the workers, peasants and soldiers are grasping Marxism-Leninism, Mao Tse-tungs thought. Once Mao Tsetungs thought is grasped by the broad masses, it becomes an inexhaustible source of strength and a spiritual atom bomb of infinite power. The large-scale publication of Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung is a vital measure for enabling the broad masses to grasp Mao Tse-tungs thought and for promoting the revolutionization of our peoples thinking. It is our hope that all comrades will learn earnestly and diligently, bring about a new nation-wide high tide in the creative study and application of Chairman Maos works and, under the great red banner of Mao Tsetungs thought, strive to build our country into a great socialist state with modern agriculture, modern industry, modern science and culture and modern national defence! Lin Piao December 16, 1966
SHANGHAI COMMUNIQUE 0 (FIRST JOINT COMMUNIQUE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA)
INTRODUCTION
After the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949, the United States continued to recognize the Guomindang government on Taiwan as the true government of China. When
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the United States began to consider improving relations with China the status of Taiwan and the insistence in both Beijing and Taipei that there was only one China were difficult issues. The United States withdrew its opposition to Chinas admission to the UN in 1971 and Taiwan lost its UN seat. In the following excerpt of the text known as the Shanghai Communique0 , issued in February 1972 at the time of President Nixons visit to China, the United States accepts in a careful formula that Chinese on both sides of the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is only one China and hopes for a peaceful settlement of the issue.
0
JOINT COMMUNIQUE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA
February 28, 1972 1. President Richard Nixon of the United States of America visited the Peoples Republic of China at the invitation of Premier Chou En-lai of the Peoples Republic of China from February 21 to February 28, 1972. Accompanying the President were Mrs. Nixon, U.S. Secretary of State William Rogers, Assistant to the President Dr. Henry Kissinger, and other American officials. . . . 5. The leaders of the Peoples Republic of China and the United States of America found it beneficial to have this opportunity, after so many years without contact, to present candidly to one another their views on a variety of issues. They reviewed the international situation in which important changes and great upheavals are taking place and expounded their respective positions and attitudes. 6. The Chinese side stated: Wherever there is oppression, there is resistance. Countries want independence, nations want liberation and the people want revolution-this has become the irresistible trend of history. All nations, big or small, should be equal: big nations should not bully the small and strong nations should not bully the weak. China will never be a superpower and it opposes hegemony and power politics of any kind. The Chinese side stated that it firmly supports the struggles of all the oppressed people and nations for freedom and liberation and that the people of all countries have the right to choose their social systems according their own wishes and the right to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of their own countries and oppose foreign aggression, interference, control and subversion. All foreign troops should be withdrawn to their own countries. The Chinese side expressed its firm support to the peoples of Viet Nam, Laos and Cambodia in their
efforts for the attainment of their goal and its firm support to the seven-point proposal of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Viet Nam and the elaboration of February this year on the two key problems in the proposal, and to the Joint Declaration of the Summit Conference of the Indochinese Peoples. It firmly supports the eight-point program for the peaceful unification of Korea put forward by the Government of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea on April 12, 1971, and the stand for the abolition of the U.N. Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea. It firmly opposes the revival and outward expansion of Japanese militarism and firmly supports the Japanese peoples desire to build an independent, democratic, peaceful and neutral Japan. It firmly maintains that India and Pakistan should, in accordance with the United Nations resolutions on the Indo-Pakistan question, immediately withdraw all their forces to their respective territories and to their own sides of the ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir and firmly supports the Pakistan Government and people in their struggle to preserve their independence and sovereignty and the people of Jammu and Kashmir in their struggle for the right of self-determination. 7. The U.S. side stated: Peace in Asia and peace in the world requires efforts both to reduce immediate tensions and to eliminate the basic causes of conflict. The United States will work for a just and secure peace: just, because it fulfills the aspirations of peoples and nations for freedom and progress; secure, because it removes the danger of foreign aggression. The United States supports individual freedom and social progress for all the peoples of the world, free of outside pressure or intervention. The United States believes that the effort to reduce tensions is served by improving communication between countries that have different ideologies so as to lessen the risks of confrontation through accident, miscalculation or misunderstanding. Countries should treat each other with mutual respect and be willing to compete peacefully, letting performance be the ultimate judge. No country should claim infallibility and each country should be prepared to reexamine its own attitudes for the common good. The United States stressed that the peoples of Indochina should be allowed to determine their destiny without outside intervention; its constant primary objective has been a negotiated solution; the eight-point proposal put forward by the Republic of Viet Nam and the United States on January 27, 1972 represents a basis for the attainment of that objective; in the absence of a negotiated settlement the United States envisages the ultimate withdrawal of all U.S. forces from the region consistent with the aim of self-determination for each country of Indochina. The United States will maintain its close ties with and support for the Republic of Korea;
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the United States will support efforts of the Republic of Korea to seek a relaxation of tension and increased communication in the Korean peninsula. The United States places the highest value on its friendly relations with Japan; it will continue to develop the existing close bonds. Consistent with the United Nations Security Council Resolution of December 21, 1971, the United States favors the continuation of the ceasefire between India and Pakistan and the withdrawal of all military forces to within their own territories and to their own sides of the ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir; the United States supports the right of the peoples of South Asia to shape their own future in peace, free of military threat, and without having the area become the subject of great power rivalry. 8. There are essential differences between China and the United States in their social systems and foreign policies. However, the two sides agreed that countries, regardless of their social systems, should conduct their relations on the principles of respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states, non-aggression against other states, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. International disputes should be settled on this basis, without resorting to the use or threat of force. The United States and the Peoples Republic of China are prepared to apply these principles to their mutual relations. 9. With these principles of international relations in mind the two sides stated that: progress toward the normalization of relations between China and the United States is in the interests of all countries both wish to reduce the danger of international military conflict neither should seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region and each is opposed to efforts by any other country or group of countries to establish such hegemony neither is prepared to negotiate on behalf of any third party or to enter into agreements or understandings with the other directed at other states. 10. Both sides are of the view that it would be against the interests of the peoples of the world for any major country to collude with another against other countries, or for major countries to divide up the world into spheres of interest. 11. The two sides reviewed the long-standing serious disputes between China and the United States. The Chinese side reaffirmed its position: the Taiwan question is the crucial question obstructing the normalization of relations between China and the United States; the Government of the Peoples Republic of China is the sole
legal government of China; Taiwan is a province of China which has long been returned to the motherland; the liberation of Taiwan is Chinas internal affair in which no other country has the right to interfere; and all U.S. forces and military installations must be withdrawn from Taiwan. The Chinese Government firmly opposes any activities which aim at the creation of one China, one Taiwan, one China, two governments, two Chinas, an independent Taiwan or advocate that the status of Taiwan remains to be determined. 12. The U.S. side declared: The United States acknowledges that all Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China. The United States Government does not challenge that position. It reaffirms its interest in a peaceful settlement of the Taiwan question by the Chinese themselves. With this prospect in mind, it affirms the ultimate objective of the withdrawal of all U.S. forces and military installations from Taiwan. In the meantime, it will progressively reduce its forces and military installations on Taiwan as the tension in the area diminishes. The two sides agreed that it is desirable to broaden the understanding between the two peoples. To this end, they discussed specific areas in such fields as science, technology, culture, sports and journalism, in which people-to-people contacts and exchanges would be mutually beneficial. Each side undertakes to facilitate the further development of such contacts and exchanges. 13. Both sides view bilateral trade as another area from which mutual benefit can be derived, and agreed that economic relations based on equality and mutual benefit are in the interest of the peoples of the two countries. They agree to facilitate the progressive development of trade between their two countries. 14. The two sides agreed that they will stay in contact through various channels, including the sending of a senior U.S. representative to Peking from time to time for concrete consultations to further the normalization of relations between the two countries and continue to exchange views on issues of common interest. 15. The two sides expressed the hope that the gains achieved during this visit would open up new prospects for the relations between the two countries. They believe that the normalization of relations between the two countries is not only in the interest of the Chinese and American peoples but also contributes to the relaxation of tension in Asia and the world. . . . President Nixon, Mrs. Nixon and the American party expressed their appreciation for the gracious hospitality shown them by the Government and people of the Peoples Republic of China.
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On the Social Basis of the Lin Piao [Lin Biao] Anti-Party Clique
ON THE SOCIAL BASIS OF THE LIN PIAO [LIN BIAO] ANTIPARTY CLIQUE
SOURCE
Yao Wenyuan. On the Social Basis of the Lin Piao Anti-Party Clique. Peking Review, March 7, 1975.
possibility remains for the emergence within the Party (and in society as well) of representatives of the bourgeoisie who will try to turn their hope for restoration into attempt at restoration. Therefore, we must heighten our vigilance and guard against and smash any plot by the reactionaries at home and abroad, and on no account must we slacken our vigilance. . . .
INTRODUCTION
The information that Chairman Maos designated successor and close comrade in arms had been killed in a plane crash after organizing a failed attempt to assassinate Mao shocked the Chinese public. Very little explanation was offered at the time of the announcement in late 1971, but from 1972 there were attempts to show that Lin Biao had always been a political swindler. Yao Wenyuan, the author of this 1975 attack on Lin, himself received a twentyyear prison sentence as a member of the Gang of Four after Maos death in 1976.
COMMUNIQUE OF THE THIRD PLENARY SESSION OF THE 11TH CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA
INTRODUCTION
It is fairly clear that the Lin Piao anti-Party clique represented the interests of the overthrown landlord and capitalist classes and the aspirations of the overthrown reactionaries to topple the dictatorship of the proletariat and restore the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. The Lin Piao anti-Party clique opposed the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution and had inveterate hatred for the socialist system under the dictatorship of the proletariat in our country, slandering it as feudal autocracy and cursing it as Chin Shih Huang of the contemporary era. They wanted the landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries, bad elements and Rightists to achieve genuine liberation politically and economically, i.e., politically and economically they wanted to turn the dictatorship of the proletariat into a dictatorship of the landlord and comprador-capitalist classes and the socialist system into the capitalist system. As an agent in the Party, an agent of the bourgeoisie working hard for a restoration, the Lin Piao anti-Party clique was wild in its attack on the Party and the dictatorship of the proletariat, so much so that it set up an organization of secret agents and plotted a counterrevolutionary armed coup detat. Such frenzy is a reflection of the fact that the reactionaries who have lost political power and the means of production inevitably will resort to every means to recapture the lost positions of the exploiting classes. We have seen how Lin Piao, after his political and ideological bankruptcy, tried to eat up the proletariat by staking everything on a single cast as a desperate gambler would do, and how he finally betrayed the country and fled to defect to the enemy; despite the very patient education, waiting and efforts to save him by Chairman Mao and the Party Central Committee, his counter-revolutionary nature did not change in the least. All this reflects the life-anddeath struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the two major antagonistic classes, under the dictatorship of the proletariat, a struggle that will go on for a long period. As long as the overthrown reactionary classes still exist, the
The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee approved the first measures in the program of economic liberalization and opening, which transformed the Chinese economy in the final decades of the twentieth century. The language of the document, dated December 22, 1978, is cautious. It pays tribute to Mao Zedong and claims that the policy decision is that of Hua Guofeng, still the Communist Party Chairman at this juncture, but the Plenum in fact represented a triumph for policies associated with Chen Yun and Deng Xiaoping, proponents of economic reform.
In the early years after the founding of the Peoples Republic, especially after the socialist transformation was in the main completed, Comrade Mao Tsetung instructed the whole Party time and again to shift the focus of our work to the field of the economy and technical revolution. Under the leadership of Comrade Mao Tsetung and Comrade Chou En-lai, our Party did a great deal for socialist modernization and scored important achievements. But the work was later interrupted and sabotaged by Lin Piao and the gang of four. Besides, we had some shortcomings and mistakes in our leading work because we lacked experience in socialist construction, and this also hampered the transition in the focus of our Partys work. Since the nationwide mass movement to expose and criticize Lin Piao and the gang of four has fundamentally come to a successful conclusion, though in a small number of places and departments the movement is less developed, still needs some time to catch up and so cannot end simultaneously, on the whole there is every condition needed for that transition. Therefore the plenary session unanimously endorsed the policy decision put forward by Comrade Hua Kuo-feng on behalf of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee that, to meet the developments at home and abroad, now is an appropriate time to take the decision to expose the large-scale nationwide mass movement to expose and criticize Lin Piao and the gang of four and to shift the emphasis of our Partys work
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The Fifth Modernization: Democracy
and the attention of the people of the whole country to socialist modernization. This is of major significance for fulfillment of the three-year and eight-year programmes for the development of the national economy and the outline for 23 years, for the modernization of science and technology and for the consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat in our country. The general task put forward by our Party for the new period reflects the demands of history and the peoples aspirations and represents their fundamental interests. Whether or not we can carry this general task to completion, speed socialist modernization and on the basis of rapid growth in production improve the peoples living standards significantly and strengthen national defencethis is a major issue which is of paramount concern to all our people and of great significance to the cause of world peace and progress. Carrying out the four modernizations requires great growth in the productive forces, which in turn requires diverse changes in those aspects of the relations of production and the superstructure not in harmony with the growth of the productive forces, and requires changes in all methods of management, actions and thinking which stand in the way of such growth. Socialist modernization is therefore a profound and extensive revolution. There is still in our country today a small handful of counter-revolutionary elements and criminals who hate our socialist modernization and try to undermine it. We must not relax our class struggle against them, nor can we weaken the dictatorship of the proletariat. But as Comrade Mao Tsetung pointed out, the large-scale turbulent class struggles of a mass character have come to an end. Class struggle in socialist society should be carried out on the principle of strictly differentiating the two different types of contradictions and correctly handling them in accordance with the procedures prescribed by the Constitution and the law. It is impermissible to confuse the two different types of contradictions and damage the political stability and unity required for socialist modernization. The plenary session calls on the whole Party, the whole army and the people of all our nationalities to work with one heart and one mind, enhance political stability and unity, mobilize themselves immediately to go all out, pool their wisdom and efforts and carry out the new Long March to make China a modern, powerful socialist country before the end of the century.
INTRODUCTION
The four modernizations of agriculture, industry, technology and defense were first promoted by Zhou Enlai but later used by Deng Xiaoping as a slogan for the reform era. The famous article reprinted below first appeared as a signed poster on December 5, 1978, on Democracy Wall, the Beijing wall where activists publicized their ideas and conducted debates. In the article Wei Jingsheng insists that democracy is a fifth modernization, necessary for Chinas development. The text was subsequently cited at Weis trial at which he was sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment.
THE FIFTH MODERNIZATION: DEMOCRACY

SOURCE
Wei Jingsheng. The Fifth Modernization: Democracy. In The Courage to Stand Alone: Letters from Prison and and Other Writings, 201212. New York: Viking Press, 1997.
Newspapers and television no longer assail us with deafening praise for the dictatorship of the proletariat and class struggle. This is in part because these were once the magical incantations of the now-overthrown Gang of Four. But more importantly, its because the masses have grown absolutely sick of hearing these worn-out phrases and will never be duped by them again. The laws of history tell us that only when the old is gone can the new take its place. Now that the old is gone, the people have been anxiously waiting to see what the new will bring; gods never betray the faithful, they thought. But what theyve long awaited is none other than a grandiose promise called the Four Modernizations. Our wise leader, Chairman Hua Guofeng, along with Vice Chairman Deng Xiaoping, whom many consider even wiser and grander, have finally crushed the Gang of Four. There is now the possibility that those brave souls whose blood flowed over Tiananmen Square might have their dreams of democracy and prosperity realized. After the arrest of the Gang of Four, the people eagerly hoped that Vice Chairman Deng Xiaoping, who might possibly restore capitalism, would rise up again like a magnificent banner. Finally, he did regain his position in the central leadership. How excited the people felt! How inspired they were! But alas, the old political system so despised by the people remains unchanged, and the democracy and freedom they longed for has not even been mentioned. Their living conditions remain the same and increased wages have far from kept up with the rapid rise in prices. There was talk of restoring capitalism and instituting a bonus system, but after careful consideration, it was determined that such measures would simply be invisible whips of the type once cursed by our Marxist forefathers as the greatest form of worker exploitation. There are reports confirming that deceptive policies will no longer be implemented and that the people will no longer follow a great helmsman. Instead, wise leaders will lead them to catch up with and surpass the most advanced nations of the world such as Britain, the United States, Japan, and Yugoslavia(!). Its no longer fashionable to take part in the revolution, a college education will take
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you further in the world. Cries of class struggle no longer need fill peoples ears, the Four Modernizations will take care of everything. Of course, in order to realize this beautiful dream, we must still follow the guiding central spirit passed down from the April Fifth Society as well as the guidance and direction of a unified leadership There are two ancient Chinese sayings that go: Sketch cakes to allay your hunger and Think of plums to quench your thirst. People of ancient times had such wit and sarcasm, and theyve even been said to have progressed since then. So now no one would ever actually consider doing such ridiculous things, would they? Well, not only did some consider doing such things, they actually did. For decades, the Chinese people faithfully followed the Great Helmsman while he used Communist idealism to sketch cakes and offered up the Great Leap Forward and the Three Red Banners as thirst-quenching plums. People tightened their belts and forged ahead undaunted. Thirty years flew by and the experience taught them one lesson: For three decades weve been acting like monkeys grabbing for the moons reflection in a lakeno wonder weve come up empty-handed! Therefore, when Vice Chairman Deng called for practicality, the peoples enthusiasm surged forth like a rolling tide and swept him back into power. Everyone expected him to employ the maxim Seek truth from facts to review the past and lead the people toward a promising future. But once again there are people warning us that Marxist-Leninist-Mao Zedong Thought is the foundation of all things, even speech; that Chairman Mao was the great savior of the people; and that without the Communist Party, there would be no new China actually means without Chairman Mao, there would be no new China. Official notices will clear things up for anyone who refuses to believe this. There are even those who seek to remind us that Chinese people need a dictator; if he is even more dictatorial than the emperors of old, this only proves his greatness. The Chinese people dont need democracy, they say, for unless it is a democracy under centralized leadership, it isnt worth a cent. Whether you believe it or not is up to you, but there are plenty of empty prison cells waiting for you if you dont. But now someone has provided us with a way out: Take the Four Modernizations as your guiding principle; forge ahead with stability and unity; and bravely serve the revolution like a faithful old ox and you will reach your paradisethe prosperity of Communism and the Four Modernizations. And these kind-hearted someones have warned us that if we are confused, we must undertake a serious and thorough study of Marxist-Leninist-Mao Zedong Thought! If youre still confused, its because you dont understand, and not understanding only reflects
just how profound the theory is! Dont be disobedient or the leadership of your work unit will be uncompromising! And so on and so on. I urge everyone to stop believing such political swindlers. When we all know that we are going to be tricked, why dont we trust ourselves instead? The Cultural Revolution has tempered us and we are no longer so ignorant. Let us investigate for ourselves what should be done!
I. WHY DEMOCRACY?
People have discussed this question for centuries. And now those who voice their opinions at Democracy Wall have carried out a thorough analysis and shown just how much better democracy is than autocracy. People are the masters of history. Is this fact or merely empty talk? It is both fact and empty talk. It is fact that without the effort and participation of the people there can be no history. No great helmsman or wise leader could exist, let alone any history be created. From this we can see that the slogan should be Without the new Chinese people, there would be no new China, not Without Chairman Mao, there would be no new China. Its understandable that Vice Chairman Deng is grateful to Chairman Mao for saving his life, but why is he so ungrateful to all of those whose outcries propelled him back into power? Is it reasonable for him to say to them: You must not criticize Chairman Mao, because he saved my life? From this we can see that phrases like people are the masters of history are nothing but empty talk. Such words become hollow when people are unable to choose their own destiny by majority will, or when their achievements are credited to others, or when their rights are stripped away and woven into the crowns of others. What kind of masters are these? It would be more appropriate to call them docile slaves. Our history books tell us that the people are the masters and creators of everything, but in reality they are more like faithful servants standing at attention and waiting to be led by leaders who swell like yeasted bread dough. The people should have democracy. When they call for democracy they are demanding nothing more than that which is inherently theirs. Whoever refuses to return democracy to them is a shameless thief more despicable than any capitalist who robs the workers of the wealth earned with their own sweat and blood. Do the people have democracy now? No! Dont the people want to be the masters of their own destiny? Of course they do! That is precisely why the Communist Party defeated the Nationalists. But what became of all their promises once victory was achieved? Once they began championing a dictatorship of the proletariat instead of a peoples democratic dictatorship, even the democracy still enjoyed by a tenth of a millionth of the population was displaced by the individual dictatorship of the great
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leader. Even Peng Dehuai was denounced for following the orders of the great leader and airing complaints. A new promise was made: If a leader is great, then blind faith in him will bring greater happiness to the people than democracy. Half forced, half willingly, people have continued to believe in this promise right up until the present. But are they any happier? No. They are more miserable and more backward. Why, then, are things the way they are? This is the first question the people must consider. What should be done now? This is the second. At present, there is absolutely no need to assess the achievements and failures of Mao Zedong. When Mao himself suggested this be done, it was only out of self-defense. Instead, the people should be asking themselves whether without the dictatorship of Mao Zedong China would have fallen into its current state. Are the Chinese people stupid? Are they lazy? Do they not want to live more prosperous lives? Or are they unruly by nature? Quite the opposite. How, then, did things get the way they are? The answer is obvious: The Chinese people should not have followed the path they did. Why, then, did they follow this path? Was it because a self-glorifying dictator led them down it? The truth is, even if people had refused to follow this path, they would still have been crushed by the dictatorship. And when no one could hear any other alternative, the people felt that this was the one and only path to take. Is this not deceit? Is there any merit in this at all? What path was taken? Its often called the socialist road. According to the definition formulated by our Marxist forefathers, the premise of socialism is that the masses, or what is called the proletariat, are the masters of everything. But let me ask the Chinese workers and peasants: Aside from the few coins you receive each month to feed yourselves with, what are you the masters of? And what do you master? Its pitiful to say it, but the truth is, you are mastered by others, even down to your own marriages! Socialism guarantees that the producer will receive the surplus fruits of his labor after he has fulfilled his duty to society. But is there any limit to the amount of this duty? Are you getting anything more than the meager wage necessary to sustain your productive labor? Can socialism guarantee the right of every citizen to receive an education, to make full use of his abilities, and so forth? We can observe none of these things in our daily lives. We see only the dictatorship of the proletariat and a variation of Russian autocracythat is, Chinese-style socialist autocracy. Is this the kind of socialist road the people need? Does dictatorship, therefore, amount to the peoples happiness? Is this the socialist road Marx described and the people aspired to? Obviously not. Then what is it? As ridiculous as it may sound, it actually resembles the feudal socialism referred to in The Communist
Manifesto as feudal monarchy under a socialist cloak. Its said that the Soviet Union has been elevated to socialist imperialism from socialist feudalism. Must the Chinese people follow the same path? People have suggested that we settle all our old accounts by blaming them all on the fascist dictatorship of feudal socialism. I completely agree with this because there is no question of right or wrong. In passing, I would like to point out that the correct name for the notorious German fascism is national socialism. It too had an autocratic tyrant; it too ordered people to tighten their belts; and it too deceived the people with the words: You are a great people. Most importantly, it too stamped out even the most rudimentary forms of democracy, for it fully recognized that democracy was its most formidable and irrepressible enemy. On this basis, Stalin and Hitler shook hands and signed the German-Soviet Pact whereby a socialist state and a national-socialist state toasted the partition of Poland while the peoples of both countries suffered slavery and poverty. Must we go on suffering from this kind of slavery and poverty? If not, then democracy is our only choice. In other words, if we want to modernize our economy, sciences, military, and other areas, then we must first modernize our people and our society.
II. THE FIFTH MODERNIZATION: WHAT KIND OF DEMOCRACY DO WE WANT?
I would like to ask everyone: What do we want modernization for? Many might still feel that the times depicted in Dream of the Red Chamber were just fine. One could do some reading, dabble in poetry, cavort with women, and be fed and clothed effortlessly. These days such a person might even go to see foreign movies as well what a godlike existence! Its not bad to live like a god, but such a lifestyle remains irrelevant to ordinary people. They want simply to have the chance to enjoy a happy life, or at least one that is no less than what people enjoy in other countries. A prosperity that all members of society can enjoy equally will only be achieved by raising the level of social productivity. This is quite obvious, but some people have completely overlooked one important point: When social productivity increases, will the people be able to enjoy prosperous lives? The problems of allocation, distribution, and exploitation still remain. In the decades since Liberation, people have tightened their belts and worked hard to produce a great deal of wealth. But where has it all gone? Some say its gone to plump up small-scale autocratic regimes like Vietnam, while others say its been used to fatten the new bourgeois elements like Lin Biao and Jiang Qing. Both are correct, but the bottom line is, none of it has trickled down into the hands of the working people of China.
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If powerful political swindlers, both big and small, have not squandered the wealth themselves, then they have given it to scoundrels in Vietnam and Albania who cherish ideals similar to their own. Shortly before his death, Mao Zedong got upset when his old lady asked him for several thousand yuan, but did anyone ever know him to feel any pain as he threw away tens of billions of yuan earned with the sweat and blood of the Chinese people? And this was all done while the Chinese people were building socialism by tightening their belts and begging on the streets for food. Why, then, cant all those people who keep running to Democracy Wall to praise Mao Zedong open their eyes and see this? Could it be that they are deliberately blind to it? If they genuinely cant see it, I would ask them all to use the time they spend writing wall posters to go over to Beijing or Yongdingmen Train Station, or to any street in the city, and ask those country folk arriving from the provinces whether begging for food is such a rare occurrence where they come from. I can also bet that they arent that willing to give away their snow-white rice to aid friends in the Third World! But does their opinion matter? The sad thing is that in our peoples republic all real power is in the hands of those people who live like gods and have nothing better to do after stuffing their faces than to read novels and write poetry. Are not the people completely justified in seizing power from the hands of such overlords? What is democracy? True democracy means placing all power in the hands of the working people. Are working people unable to manage state power? Yugoslavia has taken this route and proven to us that people have no need for dictators, whether big or small; they can take care of things much better themselves. What is true democracy? It is when the people, acting on their own will, have the right to choose representatives to manage affairs on the peoples behalf and in accordance with the will and interests of the people. This alone can be called democracy. Furthermore, the people must have the power to replace these representatives at any time in order to keep them from abusing their powers to oppress the people. Is this actually possible? The citizens of Europe and the United States enjoy precisely this kind of democracy and can run people like Nixon, de Gaulle, and Tanaka out of office when they wish and can even reinstate them if they so desire. No one can interfere with their democratic rights. In China, however, if a person even comments on the great helmsman or the Great Man peerless in history, Mao Zedong, who is already dead, the mighty prison gates and all kinds of unimaginable misfortunes await him. If we compare the socialist system of centralized democracy with the exploiting class democracy of capitalism, the difference is as clear as night and day.
Will the country sink into chaos and anarchy if the people achieve democracy? On the contrary, have not the scandals exposed in the newspapers recently shown that it is precisely due to an absence of democracy that the dictators, large and small, have caused chaos and anarchy? The maintenance of democratic order is an internal problem that the people themselves must solve. It is not something that the privileged overlords need concern themselves with. Besides, they are not really concerned with democracy for the people, but use this as a pretext to deny the people of their democratic rights. Of course, internal problems cannot be solved overnight but must be constantly addressed as part of a long-term process. Mistakes and shortcomings will be inevitable, but these are for us to worry about. This is infinitely better than facing abusive overlords against whom we have no means of redress. Those who worry that democracy will lead to anarchy and chaos are just like those who, following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, worried that without an emperor, the country would fall into chaos. Their decision was to patiently suffer oppression because they feared that without the weight of oppression, their spines might completely collapse! To such people, I would like to say, with all due respect: We want to be the masters of our own destiny. We need no gods or emperors and we dont believe in saviors of any kind. We want to be masters of our universe; we do not want to serve as mere tools of dictators with personal ambitions for carrying out modernization. We want to modernize the lives of the people. Democracy, freedom, and happiness for all are our sole objectives in carrying out modernization. Without this Fifth Modernization, all other modernizations are nothing but a new lie. Comrades, I appeal to you: Let us rally together under the banner of democracy. Do not be fooled again by dictators who talk of stability and unity. Fascist totalitarianism can bring us nothing but disaster. Harbor no more illusions; democracy is our only hope. Abandon our democratic rights and we shackle ourselves again. Let us have confidence in our own strength! We are the creators of human history. Banish all self-proclaimed leaders and teachers, for they have already cheated the people of their most valuable rights for decades. I firmly believe that production will flourish more when controlled by the people themselves because the workers will be producing for their own benefit. Life will improve because the workers interests will be the primary goal. Society will be more just because all power will be exercised by the people as a whole through democratic means. I dont believe that all of this will be handed to the people effortlessly by some great savior. I also refuse to believe that China will abandon the goals of democracy, freedom, and happiness because of the many difficulties
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it will surely encounter along the way. As long as people clearly identify their goal and realistically assess the obstacles before them, then surely they will trample any pests that might try to bar their way.
III. MARCHING TOWARD MODERNIZATION: DEMOCRACY IN PRACTICE
To achieve modernization, the Chinese people must first put democracy into practice and modernize Chinas social system. Democracy is not merely an inevitable stage of social development as Lenin claimed. In addition to being the result of productive forces and productive relations having developed to a certain stage, democracy is also the very condition that allows for the existence of such development to reach beyond this stage. Without democracy, society will become stagnant and economic growth will face insurmountable obstacles. Judging from history, therefore, a democratic social system is the premise and precondition for all development, or what we can also call modernization. Without this precondition, not only is further development impossible, but even preserving the level of development already attained would be very difficult. The experience of our great nation over the past three decades is the best evidence for this. Why must human history follow a path toward development, or modernization? It is because humans need all of the tangible advantages that development can provide them. These advantages then enable them to achieve their foremost goal in the pursuit of happiness: freedom. Democracy is the greatest freedom ever known to man. Therefore, isnt it quite apparent why the goal of all recent human struggles has been democracy? Why have all the reactionaries in modern history united under a common banner against democracy? It is because democracy gives their enemythe common people everything, and provides themthe oppressorsno weapons with which to oppose the people. The greatest reactionaries are always the greatest opponents of democracy. The histories of Germany, the Soviet Union, and New China make this very clear and show that these reactionaries are also the most formidable and dangerous enemies of social peace and prosperity. The more recent histories of these countries make it apparent that all the struggles of the people for prosperity and of society for development are ultimately directed against the enemies of democracythe dictatorial fascists. When democracy defeats dictatorship, it always brings with it the most favorable conditions for accelerating social development. The history of the United States offers the most convincing evidence of this. The success of any struggle by the people for happiness, peace, and prosperity is contingent upon the quest for democracy. The success of all straggles by the people against oppression and exploitation depends upon achieving democracy. Let us throw ourselves completely into the
struggle for democracy! Only through democracy can the people obtain everything. All illusions of undemocratic means are hopeless. All forms of dictatorship and totalitarianism are the most immediate and dangerous enemies of the people. Will our enemies let us implement democracy? Of course not. They will stop at nothing to hinder the progress of democracy. Deception and trickery are the most effective means they have. All dictatorial fascists tell their people: Your situation is truly the best in the entire world. Does democracy come about naturally when society reaches a certain stage? Absolutely not. A high price is paid for every tiny victory; even coming to a recognition of this fact will cost blood and sacrifice. The enemies of democracy have always deceived their people by saying that just as democracy is inevitable, it is doomed, and, therefore, it is not worth wasting energy to fight for. But let us look at the real history, not that fabricated by the hired hacks of the socialist government. Every small branch or twig of true and valuable democracy is stained with the blood of martyrs and tyrants, and every step taken toward democracy has been fiercely attacked by the reactionary forces. The fact that democracy has been able to surmount such obstacles proves that it is precious to the people and that it embodies their aspirations. Therefore the democratic trend cannot be stopped. The Chinese people have never feared anything. They need only recognize the direction to be taken and the forces of tyranny will no longer be invincible. Is the struggle for democracy what the Chinese people want? The Cultural Revolution was the first time they flexed their muscles, and all the reactionary forces trembled before them. But at that time the people had no clear direction and the force of democracy was not the main thrust of their struggle. As a result, the dictators silenced most of them through bribes, deception, division, slander, or violent suppression. At the time, people also had a blind faith in all kinds of ambitious dictators, so once again they unwittingly became the tools and sacrificial lambs of tyrants and potential tyrants. Now, twelve years later, the people have finally recognized their goal. They see clearly the real direction of their fight and have found their true leader: the banner of democracy. The Democracy Wall at Xidan has become the first battlefield in the peoples fight against the reactionary forces. The struggle will be victoriousthis is already a commonly accepted belief; the people will be liberatedthis slogan has already taken on new significance. There may be bloodshed and sacrifice, and people may fall prey to even more sinister plots, yet the banner of democracy will never again be obscured by the evil fog of the reactionary forces. Let us unite together under this great and true banner and march toward modernization
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Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future
of society for the sake of the tranquillity, happiness, rights, and freedom of all the people!
EMANCIPATE THE MIND, SEEK TRUTH FROM FACTS AND UNITE AS ONE IN LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
SOURCE
varying degrees. All this represents marked progress in our inner-Party life and will give a big impetus to the cause of our Party and people. Today, I mainly want to discuss one question, namely, how to emancipate our minds, use our heads, seek truth from facts and unite as one in looking to the future.
I. EMANCIPATING THE MIND IS A VITAL POLITICAL TASK
Deng Xiaoping. Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future. Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (19751982), 151 165. Translated by The Bureau for the Compilation and Translation of Works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Beijing: Peoples Publishing House, 1983.
INTRODUCTION
The key speech reprinted below was delivered on December 13, 1978, just before the Third Plenary session of the Eleventh Central Committee, the meeting that approved Deng Xiaopings reform program. Deng is careful to pay tribute to Mao Zedong and his record (indeed seek truth from facts is taken from a 1941 speech by Mao), but in urging the emancipation of the mind he also criticizes much of the Maoist past and signals commitment to thoroughgoing reform.
Comrades, This conference has lasted over a month and will soon end. The Central Committee has put forward the fundamental guiding principle of shifting the focus of all Party work to the four modernizations and has solved a host of important problems inherited from the past. This will surely strengthen the determination, confidence and unity of the Party, the army and the people of all of Chinas nationalities. Now we can be certain that under the correct leadership of the Central Committee, the Party, army and people will achieve victory after victory in our new Long March. The present conference has been very successful and will have an important place in our Partys history. We have not held one like it for many years. There has been lively debate here and the Partys democratic tradition has been revived and carried forward. We should spread this style of work to the whole Party, army and people. At this conference we have discussed and resolved many major issues concerning the destinies of our Party and state. The participants have spoken their minds freely and fully and have boldly aired their honest opinions. They have laid problems on the table and have felt free to criticize things, including the work of the Central Committee. Some comrades have criticized themselves to
When it comes to emancipating our minds, using our heads, seeking truth from facts and uniting as one in looking to the future, the primary task is to emancipate our minds. Only then can we, guided as we should be by Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, find correct solutions to the emerging as well as inherited problems, fruitfully reform those aspects of the relations of production and of the superstructure that do not correspond with the rapid development of our productive forces, and chart the specific course and formulate the specific policies, methods and measures needed to achieve the four modernizations under our actual conditions. The emancipation of minds has not been completely achieved among our cadres, particularly our leading cadres. Indeed, many comrades have not yet set their brains going; in other words, their ideas remain rigid or partly so. That isnt because they are not good comrades. It is a result of specific historical conditions. First, it is because during the past dozen years Lin Biao and the Gang of Four set up ideological taboos or forbidden zones and preached blind faith to confine peoples minds within the framework of their phoney Marxism. No one was allowed to go beyond the limits they prescribed; anyone who did was tracked down, stigmatized and attacked politically. In this situation, some people found it safer to stop using their heads and thinking questions over. Second, it is because democratic centralism was undermined and the Party was afflicted with bureaucratism resulting from, among other things, overconcentration of power. This kind of bureaucratism often masquerades as Party leadership, Party directives, Party interests and Party discipline, but actually it is designed to control people, hold them in check and oppress them. At that time many important issues were often decided by one or two persons. The others could only do what those few ordered. That being so, there wasnt much point in thinking things out for yourself. Third, it is because no clear distinction was made between right and wrong or between merit and demerit, and because rewards and penalties were not meted out as deserved. No distinction was made between those who worked well and those who didnt. In some cases, even people who worked well were attacked while those who
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did nothing or just played it safe weathered every storm. Under those unwritten laws, people were naturally reluctant to use their brains. Fourth, it is because people are still subject to the force of habit of the small producer, who sticks to old conventions, is content with the status quo and is unwilling to seek progress or accept anything new. When peoples minds arent yet emancipated and their thinking remains rigid, curious phenomena emerge. Once peoples thinking becomes rigid, they will increasingly act according to fixed notions. To cite some examples, strengthening Party leadership is interpreted as the Partys monopolizing and interfering in everything. Exercising centralized leadership is interpreted as erasing distinctions between the Party and the government, so that the former replaces the latter. And maintaining unified leadership by the Central Committee is interpreted as doing everything according to unified standards. We are opposed to home-grown policies that violate the fundamental principles of those laid down by the Central Committee, but there are also home-grown policies that are truly grounded in reality and supported by the masses. Yet such correct policies are still often denounced for their not conforming to the unified standards. People whose thinking has become rigid tend to veer with the wind. They are not guided by Party spirit and Party principles, but go along with whatever has the backing of the authorities and adjust their words and actions according to whichever way the wind is blowing. They think that they will thus avoid mistakes. In fact, however, veering with the wind is in itself a grave mistake, a contravention of the Party spirit which all Communists should cherish. It is true that people who think independently and dare to speak out and act cant avoid making mistakes, but their mistakes are out in the open and are therefore more easily rectified. Once peoples thinking becomes rigid, book worship, divorced from reality, becomes a grave malady. Those who suffer from it dare not say a word or take a step that isnt mentioned in books, documents or the speeches of leaders: everything has to be copied. Thus responsibility to the higher authorities is set in opposition to responsibility to the people. Our drive for the four modernizations will get nowhere unless rigid thinking is broken down and the minds of cadres and of the masses are completely emancipated. In fact, the current debate about whether practice is the sole criterion for testing truth is also a debate about whether peoples minds need to be emancipated. Everybody has recognized that this debate is highly important and necessary. Its importance is becoming clearer all the time. When everything has to be done by the book, when thinking turns rigid and blind faith is the fashion, it is
impossible for a party or a nation to make progress. Its life will cease and that party or nation will perish. Comrade Mao Zedong said this time and again during the rectification movements. Only if we emancipate our minds, seek truth from facts, proceed from reality in everything and integrate theory with practice, can we carry out our socialist modernization programme smoothly, and only then can our Party further develop Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. In this sense, the debate about the criterion for testing truth is really a debate about ideological line, about politics, about the future and the destiny of our Party and nation. Seeking truth from facts is the basis of the proletarian world outlook as well as the ideological basis of Marxism. Just as in the past we achieved all the victories in our revolution by following this principle, so today we must rely on it in our effort to accomplish the four modernizations. Comrades in every factory, government office, school, shop and production team as well as comrades in Party committees at the central, provincial, prefectural, county and commune levels all should act on this principle, emancipate their minds and use their heads in thinking questions through and taking action on them. The more Party members and other people there are who use their heads and think things through, the more our cause will benefit. To make revolution and build socialism we need large numbers of pathbreakers who dare to think, explore new ways and generate new ideas. Otherwise, we wont be able to rid our country of poverty and backwardness or to catch up with still less surpass the advanced countries. We hope every Party committee and every Party branch will encourage and support people both inside and outside the Party to dare to think, explore new paths and put forward new ideas, and that they will urge the masses to emancipate their minds and use their heads.
II. DEMOCRACY IS A MAJOR CONDITION FOR EMANCIPATING THE MIND
One important condition for getting people to emancipate their minds and use their heads is genuine practice of the proletarian system of democratic centralism. We need unified and centralized leadership, but centralism can be correct only when there is a full measure of democracy. At present, we must lay particular stress on democracy, because for quite a long time democratic centralism was not genuinely practised: centralism was divorced from democracy and there was too little democracy. Even today, only a few advanced people dare to speak up. There are a good many such people at this conference. But in the Party and the country as a whole, there are still many who hesitate to speak their minds. Even when they have
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worthwhile opinions, they hesitate to express them, and they are not bold enough in struggling against bad things and bad people. If this doesnt change, how can we persuade everyone to emancipate his mind and use his head? And how can we bring about the four modernizations? We must create the conditions for the practice of democracy, and for this it is essential to reaffirm the principle of the three donts: dont pick on others for their faults, dont put labels on people, and dont use a big stick. In political life within the Party and among the people we must use democratic means and not resort to coercion or attack. The rights of citizens, Party members and Party committee members are respectively stipulated by the Constitution of the Peoples Republic and the Constitution of the Communist Party. These rights must be resolutely defended and no infringement of them must be allowed. The recent reversal of the verdict on the Tiananmen Incident has elated the people of all of Chinas nationalities and greatly stimulated mass enthusiasm for socialism. The masses should be encouraged to offer criticisms. There is nothing to worry about even if a few malcontents take advantage of democracy to make trouble. We should deal with such situations appropriately, having faith that the overwhelming majority of the people are able to use their own judgement. One thing a revolutionary party does need to worry about is its inability to hear the voice of the people. The thing to be feared most is silence. Today many rumours some true, some false circulate through the grapevine inside and outside the Party. This is a kind of punishment for the long-standing lack of political democracy. If we had a political situation with both centralism and democracy, both discipline and freedom, both unity of will and personal ease of mind and liveliness, there wouldnt be so many rumours and anarchism would be easier to overcome. We believe our people are mindful of the overall interests of the country and have a good sense of discipline. Our leading cadres at all levels, and especially those of high rank, should for their part take care to strictly observe Party discipline and keep Party secrets; they should refrain from spreading rumours, circulating handwritten copies of speeches and the like. As it is only natural that some opinions expressed by the masses should be correct and others not, we should examine them analytically. The Party leadership should be good at synthesizing the correct opinions and explaining why the others are incorrect. In dealing with ideological problems we must never use coercion but should genuinely carry out the policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought contend. We must firmly put a stop to bad practices such as attacking and trying to silence people who make critical comments especially sharp ones by
ferreting out their political backgrounds, tracing political rumours to them and opening special case files on them. Comrade Mao Zedong used to say that such actions were really signs of weakness and lack of courage. No leading comrades at any level must ever place themselves in opposition to the masses. We must never abandon this principle. But of course we must not let down our guard against the handful of counter-revolutionaries who still exist in our country. Now I want to speak at some length about economic democracy. Under our present system of economic management, power is over-concentrated, so it is necessary to devolve some of it to the lower levels without hesitation but in a planned way. Otherwise it will be difficult to give full scope to the initiative of local as well as national authorities and to the enterprises and workers, and difficult to practise modern economic management and raise the productivity of labour. The various localities, enterprises and production teams should be given greater powers of decision regarding both operation and management. There are many provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions in China, and some of our mediumsized provinces are as big as a large European country. They must be given greater powers of decision in economic planning, finance and foreign trade always within the framework of a nationwide unity of views, policies, planning, guidance and action. At present the most pressing need is to expand the decision-making powers of mines, factories and other enterprises and of production teams, so as to give full scope to their initiative and creativity. Once a production team has been empowered to make decisions regarding its own operations, its members and cadres will lie awake at night so long as a single piece of land is left unplanted or a single pond unused for aquatic production, and they will find ways to remedy the situation. Just imagine the additional wealth that could be created if all the people in Chinas hundreds of thousands of enterprises and millions of production teams put their minds to work. As more wealth is created for the state, personal income and collective benefits should also be increased somewhat. As far as the relatively small number of advanced people is concerned, it wont matter too much if we neglect the principle of more pay for more work and fail to stress individual material benefits. But when it comes to the masses, that approach can only be used for a short time it wont work in the long run. Revolutionary spirit is a treasure beyond price. Without it there would be no revolutionary action. But revolution takes place on the basis of the need for material benefit. It would be idealism to emphasize the spirit of sacrifice to the neglect of material benefit.
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It is also essential to ensure the democratic rights of the workers and peasants, including the rights of democratic election, management and supervision. We must create a situation in which not only every workshop director and production team leader but also every worker and peasant is aware of his responsibility for production and tries to find ways of solving related problems. To ensure peoples democracy, we must strengthen our legal system. Democracy has to be institutionalized and written into law, so as to make sure that institutions and laws do not change whenever the leadership changes, or whenever the leaders change their views or shift the focus of their attention. The trouble now is that our legal system is incomplete, with many laws yet to be enacted. Very often, what leaders say is taken as the law and anyone who disagrees is called a law-breaker. That kind of law changes whenever a leaders views change. So we must concentrate on enacting criminal and civil codes, procedural laws and other necessary laws concerning factories, peoples communes, forests, grasslands and environmental protection, as well as labour laws and a law on investment by foreigners. These laws should be discussed and adopted through democratic procedures. Meanwhile, the procuratorial and judicial organs should be strengthened. All this will ensure that there are laws to go by, that they are observed and strictly enforced, and that violators are brought to book. The relations between one enterprise and another, between enterprises and the state, between enterprises and individuals, and so on should also be defined by law, and many of the contradictions between them should be resolved by law. There is a lot of legislative work to do, and we dont have enough trained people. Therefore, legal provisions will have to be less than perfect to start with, then be gradually improved upon. Some laws and statutes can be tried out in particular localities and later enacted nationally after the experience has been evaluated and improvements have been made. Individual legal provisions can be revised or supplemented one at a time, as necessary; there is no need to wait for a comprehensive revision of an entire body of law. In short, it is better to have some laws than none, and better to have them sooner than later. Moreover, we should intensify our study of international law. Just as the country must have laws, the Party must have rules and regulations. The fundamental ones are embodied in the Party Constitution. Without rules and regulations in the Party it would be hard to ensure that the laws of the state are enforced. The task of the Partys discipline inspection commissions and its organization departments at all levels is not only to deal with particular cases but, more important, to uphold the Partys rules and regulations and make earnest efforts to improve its
style of work. Disciplinary measures should be taken against all persons who violate Party discipline, no matter who they are, so that clear differentiation is made between merits and demerits, rewards and penalties are meted out as deserved, and rectitude prevails and bad tendencies are stemmed.
III. SOLVING OLD PROBLEMS WILL HELP PEOPLE LOOK TO THE FUTURE
This conference has solved some problems left over from the past and distinguished clearly between the merits and demerits of some persons, and remedies have been made for a number of major cases in which the charges were false or which were unjustly or incorrectly dealt with. This is essential for emancipating minds and for ensuring political stability and unity. Its purpose is to help us turn our thoughts to the future and smoothly shift the focus of the Partys work. Our principle is that every wrong should be righted. All wrongs done in the past should be corrected. Some questions that cannot be settled right now should be settled after this conference. But settlement must be prompt and effective, without leaving any loose ends and on the basis of facts. We must solve these problems left over from the past thoroughly. It is not good for them to be left unsolved or for comrades who have made mistakes to refuse to make self-criticisms, or for us to fail to deal with their cases properly. However, we cannot possibly achieve and should not expect a perfect settlement of every case. We should have the major aspect of each problem in mind and solve it in broad outline; to go into every detail is neither possible nor necessary. Stability and unity are of prime importance. To strengthen the unity of people of whatever nationality, we must first strengthen unity throughout the Party, and especially within the central leadership. Our Partys unity is based on Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. Inside the Party we should distinguish right from wrong in terms of theory and of the Party line, conduct criticism and self-criticism and help and supervise each other in correcting wrong ideas. Comrades who have made mistakes should be urged to sum up their experience and draw the necessary lessons, so that they can recognize those mistakes and correct them. We should give them time to think. Once they improve their understanding of cardinal issues of right and wrong and conduct self-criticism, we should make them welcome again. In dealing with people who have made mistakes, we must weigh each case very carefully. Where there is a choice, it is better to err on the side of leniency, but we should be more severe if the problems recur. We should be somewhat lenient with
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rank-and-file Party members, but more severe with leading cadres, especially those of high rank. From now on we must be very careful in the selection of cadres. We must never assign important posts to persons who have engaged in beating, smashing and looting, who have been obsessed by factionalist ideas, who have sold their souls by framing innocent comrades, or who disregard the Partys vital interests. Nor can we lightly trust persons who sail with the wind, curry favour with those in power and ignore the Partys principles. We should be wary of such people and at the same time educate them and urge them to change their world outlook. People both at home and abroad have been greatly concerned recently about how we would evaluate Comrade Mao Zedong and the cultural revolution. The great contributions of Comrade Mao in the course of long revolutionary struggles will never fade. If we look back at the years following the failure of the revolution in 1927, it appears very likely that without his outstanding leadership the Chinese revolution would still not have triumphed even today. In that case, the people of all our nationalities would still be suffering under the reactionary rule of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucratcapitalism, and our Party would still be engaged in bitter struggle in the dark. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that were it not for Chairman Mao there would be no New China. Mao Zedong Thought has nurtured our whole generation. All comrades present here may be said to have been nourished by Mao Zedong Thought. Without Mao Zedong Thought, the Communist Party of China would not exist today, and that is no exaggeration either. Mao Zedong Thought will forever remain the greatest intellectual treasure of our Party, our army and our people. We must understand the scientific tenets of Mao Zedong Thought correctly and as an integral whole and develop them under the new historical conditions. Of course Comrade Mao was not infallible or free from shortcomings. To demand that of any revolutionary leader would be inconsistent with Marxism. We must guide and educate the Party members, the army officers and men and the people of all of Chinas nationalities and help them to see the great services of Comrade Mao Zedong scientifically and in historical perspective. The Cultural Revolution should also be viewed scientifically and in historical perspective. In initiating it Comrade Mao Zedong was actuated mainly by the desire to oppose and prevent revisionism. As for the shortcomings that appeared during the course of the cultural revolution and the mistakes that were made then, at an appropriate time they should be summed up and lessons should be drawn from them that is essential for achieving unity of understanding throughout the
Party. The cultural revolution has become a stage in the course of Chinas socialist development, hence we must evaluate it. However, there is no need to do so hastily. Serious research must be done before we can make a scientific appraisal of this historical stage. It may take a rather long time to fully understand and assess some of the particular issues involved. We will probably be able to make a more correct analysis of this period in history after some time has passed than we can right now.
IV. STUDY THE NEW SITUATION AND TACKLE THE NEW PROBLEMS
In order to look forward, we must study the new situation and tackle the new problems in good time; otherwise, there can be no smooth progress. In three fields especially, the new situation and new problems demand attention: methods of management, structure of management and economic policy. So far as methods of management are concerned, we should lay particular stress on overcoming bureaucratism. Our bureaucracy, which is a result of small-scale production, is utterly incompatible with large-scale production. To achieve the four modernizations and shift the technological basis of our entire socialist economy to that of large-scale production, it is essential to overcome the evils of bureaucracy. Our present economic management is marked by overstaffing, organizational overlapping, complicated procedures and extremely low efficiency. Everything is often drowned in empty political talk. This is not the fault of any group of comrades. The fault lies in the fact that we havent made reforms in time. Our modernization programme and socialist cause will be doomed if we dont make them now. We must learn to manage the economy by economic means. If we ourselves dont know about advanced methods of management, we should learn from those who do, either at home or abroad. These methods should be applied not only in the operation of enterprises with newly imported technology and equipment, but also in the technical transformation of existing enterprises. Pending the introduction of a unified national programme of modern management, we can begin with limited spheres, say, a particular region or a given trade, and then spread the methods gradually to others. The central government departments concerned should encourage such experiments. Contradictions of all kinds will crop up in the process and we should discover and overcome them in good time. That will speed up our progress. Henceforth, now that the question of political line has been settled, the quality of leadership given by the Party committee in an economic unit should be judged mainly by the units adoption of advanced methods of
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management, by the progress of its technical innovation, and by the margins of increase of its productivity of labour, its profits, the personal income of its workers and the collective benefits it provides. The quality of leadership by Party committees in all fields should be judged by similar criteria. This will be of major political importance in the years to come. Without these criteria as its key elements, our politics would be empty and divorced from the highest interests of both the Party and the people. So far as the structure of management is concerned, the most important task at present is to strengthen the work responsibility system. Right now a big problem in enterprises and institutions across the country and in Party and government organs at various levels is that nobody takes responsibility. In theory, there is collective responsibility. In fact, this means that no one is responsible. When a task is assigned, nobody sees that it is properly fulfilled or cares whether the result is satisfactory. So there is an urgent need to establish a strict responsibility system. Lenin said, To refer to collegiate methods as an excuse for irresponsibility is a most dangerous evil. He called it an evil which must be halted at all costs as quickly as possible and by whatever the means. For every job or construction project it is necessary to specify the work to be done, the personnel required to do it, work quotas, standards of quality, and a time schedule. For example, in introducing foreign technology and equipment we should specify what items are to be imported from where, where they are going, and who is to take charge of the work. Whether it is a question of importing foreign equipment or of operating an existing enterprise, similar specifications should be made. When problems arise, it doesnt help just to blame the planning commissions and Party committees concerned, as we do now the particular persons responsible must feel the heat. By the same token, rewards also should go to specific collectives and persons. In implementing the system according to which the factory directors assume overall responsibility under the leadership of the Party committees, we must state explicitly who is responsible for each aspect of the work. To make the best use of the responsibility system, the following measures are essential. First, we must extend the authority of the managerial personnel. Whoever is given responsibility should be given authority as well. Whoever it is a factory director, engineer, technician, accountant or cashier he should have his own area not only of responsibility but of authority, which must not be infringed upon by others. The responsibility system is bound to fail if there is only responsibility without authority. Second, we must select personnel wisely and assign duties according to ability. We should seek out existing
specialists and train new ones, put them in important positions, raise their political status and increase their material benefits. What are the political requirements in selecting someone for a job? The major criterion is whether the person chosen can work for the good of the people and contribute to the development of the productive forces and to the socialist cause as a whole. Third, we must have a strict system of evaluation and distinguish clearly between a performance that should be rewarded and one that should be penalized. All enterprises, schools, research institutes and government offices should set up systems for evaluating work and conferring academic, technical and honorary titles. Rewards and penalties, promotions and demotions should be based on work performance. And they should be linked to increases or reductions in material benefits. In short, through strengthening the responsibility system and allotting rewards and penalties fairly, we should create an atmosphere of friendly emulation in which people vie with one another to become advanced elements, working hard and aiming high. In economic policy, I think we should allow some regions and enterprises and some workers and peasants to earn more and enjoy more benefits sooner than others, in accordance with their hard work and greater contributions to society. If the standard of living of some people is raised first, this will inevitably be an impressive example to their neighbours, and people in other regions and units will want to learn from them. This will help the whole national economy to advance wave upon wave and help the people of all our nationalities to become prosperous in a comparatively short period. Of course, there are still difficulties in production in the Northwest, Southwest and some other regions, and the life of the people there is hard. The state should give these places many kinds of help, and in particular strong material support. These are major policies which can have an effect on the whole national economy and push it forward. I suggest that you study them carefully. During the drive to realize the four modernizations, we are bound to encounter many new and unexpected situations and problems with which we are unfamiliar. In particular, the reforms in the relations of production and in the superstructure will not be easy to introduce. They touch on a wide range of issues and concern the immediate interests of large numbers of people, so they are bound to give rise to complications and problems and to meet with numerous obstacles. In the reorganization of enterprises, for example, there will be the problem of deciding who will stay on and who will leave, while in that of government departments, a good many people will be transferred to other jobs, and some may complain.
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Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations
And so on. Since we will have to confront such problems soon, we must be mentally prepared for them. We must teach Party members and the masses to give top priority to the overall situation and the overall interests of the Party and the state. We should be full of confidence. We will be able to solve any problem and surmount any obstacle so long as we have faith in the masses, follow the mass line and explain the situation and problems to them. There can be no doubt that as the economy grows, more and more possibilities will open up and each person will be able to make his contribution to society. The four modernizations represent a great and profound revolution in which we are moving forward by resolving one new contradiction after another. Therefore, all Party comrades must learn well and always keep on learning. On the eve of nationwide victory in the Chinese revolution, Comrade Mao Zedong called on the whole Party to start learning afresh. We did that pretty well and consequently, after entering the cities, we were able to rehabilitate the economy very quickly and then to accomplish the socialist transformation. But we must admit that we have not learned well enough in the subsequent years. Expending our main efforts on political campaigns, we did not master the skills needed to build our country. Our socialist construction failed to progress satisfactorily and we experienced grave setbacks politically. Now that our task is to achieve modernization, our lack of the necessary knowledge is even more obvious. So the whole Party must start learning again. What shall we learn? Basically, we should study Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought and try to integrate the universal principles of Marxism with the concrete practice of our modernization drive. At present most of our cadres need also to apply themselves to three subjects: economics, science and technology, and management. Only if we study these well will we be able to carry out socialist modernization rapidly and efficiently. We should learn in different ways through practice, from books and from the experience, both positive and negative, of others as well as our own. Conservatism and book worship should be overcome. The several hundred members and alternate members of the Central Committee and the thousands of senior cadres at the central and local levels should take the lead in making an in-depth study of modern economic development. So long as we unite as one, work in concert, emancipate our minds, use our heads and try to learn what we did not know before, there is no doubt that we will be able to quicken the pace of our new Long March. Under the leadership of the Central Committee and the State Council, let us advance courageously to change the
backward condition of our country and turn it into a modern and powerful socialist state.
JOINT COMMUNIQUE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
INTRODUCTION
After the Shanghai Communique0 of 1972, which began the thaw in U.S.-China relations, the status of Taiwan remained a difficult issue. The United States continued its diplomatic recognition of the Republic of China on Taiwan until January 1, 1979, when it recognized the Beijing government as the sole legal government of China. This move accelerated the growing diplomatic isolation of Taiwan.
The United States of America and the Peoples Republic of China have agreed to recognize each other and to establish diplomatic relations as of January 1, 1979. The United States of America recognizes the Government of the Peoples Republic of China as the sole legal Government of China. Within this context, the people of the United States will maintain cultural, commercial, and other unofficial relations with the people of Taiwan. The United States of America and the Peoples Republic of China reaffirm the principles agreed on by the two sides in the Shanghai Communique0 and emphasize once again that: Both wish to reduce the danger of international military conflict. Neither should seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region or in any other region of the world and each is opposed to efforts by any other country or group of countries to establish such hegemony. Neither is prepared to negotiate on behalf of any third party or to enter into agreements or understandings with the other directed at other states. The Government of the United States of America acknowledges the Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China. Both believe that normalization of Sino-American relations is not only in the interest of the Chinese and American peoples but also contributes to the cause of peace in Asia and the world.
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A Message to Compatriots in Taiwan
The United States of America and the Peoples Republic of China will exchange Ambassadors and establish Embassies on March 1, 1979. [Note: This is the English version in which the United States takes precedence.]
Every Chinese is proud to see the growing strength and prosperity of our motherland. If we can end the present disunity and join forces soon, we will make limitless contributions to the future of mankind. Early reunification of our motherland is not only the common desire of all the people of China, including our compatriots in Taiwan, but the common wish of all peace-loving peoples and countries the world over. Reunification of China today is consonant with popular sentiment and the unfolding of history. The world by and large recognizes only one China, with the Government of the Peoples Republic of China as its sole legal Government. The recent conclusion of the China-Japan Treaty of Peace and Friendship and the normalization of relations between China and the United States show still more clearly that no one can stop this trend. The present situation in the motherland, one of stability and unity, is better than ever. The people of all nationalities on the mainland are working hard with one will for the great goal of the four modernizations. It is our fervent hope that Taiwan returns to the embrace of the motherland at an early date so that we can work together for the great cause of national development. Our state leaders have firmly declared that in accomplishing the great cause of reunification they will take present realities into account, respect the status quo on Taiwan and the opinions of Taiwan people in all walks of life, and adopt reasonable policies and measures in settling the question of reunification so as not to cause the people of Taiwan any losses. On the other hand, people in all walks of life in Taiwan have expressed their yearning for their homeland and old friends, stated their desire to identify themselves with and rejoin their kinsmen, and raised diverse proposals which are expressions of their earnest hope for an early return to the embrace of the motherland. Now that all conditions are favourable and ready for reunification, no one should go against the will of the nation and against the trend of history. We place our hope on the 17 million people on Taiwan, including the Taiwan authorities. The Taiwan authorities have always firmly stood for one China and opposed an independent Taiwan. We take the same stand and it is the basis for our co-operation. Our position has always been that all patriots belong to one family. The responsibility of reunifying the motherland rests with each of us. We hope the Taiwan authorities will treasure national interests and make valuable contributions to the reunification of the motherland. The Chinese Government has ordered the Peoples Liberation Army to stop the bombardment of Jinmen (Quemoy) and other islands as of today. A state of military confrontation between the two sides still exists along the Taiwan Straits. This can only breed tension. We hold first of all that this military confrontation be
A MESSAGE TO COMPATRIOTS IN TAIWAN

INTRODUCTION
The context of this 1979 New Years message, adopted by the National Peoples Congress at its Fifth Plenary Session, in effect set out a new line on Taiwan that was adopted by Chinas reform leadership. The insistence that Taiwan is part of China was preserved, but the message made clear that the Chinese government would consider an arrangement that allowed the people of Taiwan to preserve their way of life. The message announced an end to the bombardment of Taiwanese islands and proposed closer links between Taiwan and the Mainland.
[The] Chinese nation is a great nation. It accounts for almost a quarter of the worlds population and has a long history and brilliant culture, and its outstanding contributions to world civilization and human progress are universally recognized. Since ancient times Taiwan has been an inalienable part of China. The Chinese nation has great vitality and cohesion. Throughout its history, foreign invasions and internal strife have failed to permanently split our nation. Taiwans separation from the motherland for nearly thirty years has been artificial and against national interests and aspirations, and this state of affairs must not be allowed to continue. Every Chinese, in Taiwan or on the mainland, has a compelling responsibility for the survival, growth and prosperity of the Chinese nation. The important task of reunifying our motherland, on which hinges the future of the whole nation, now lies before us all; it is an issue no one can, or should try to evade. If we do not quickly set about ending this disunity so that our motherland is reunified at an early date, how will we answer to our ancestors and explain it to our descendants? This sentiment is shared by all. Who among the descendants of the Yellow Emperor wishes to go down in history as a traitor? Radical changes have taken place in Chinas status in the world over the past thirty years. Our countrys international prestige is rising constantly and its international role becomes ever more important. The people and governments of almost all countries place tremendous hope on us in the struggle against hegemonism and in safeguarding peace and stability in Asia and the whole world.
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Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles
ended through discussions between the Government of the Peoples Republic of China and the Taiwan authorities; only in this way can we create the necessary conditions and a secure environment for the two sides to make contact in any and all areas. Our prolonged separation has led to inadequate mutual understanding between and inconveniences for the compatriots on the mainland and on Taiwan. Since overseas Chinese residing in distant lands can return for visits and reunite with their families, why cant compatriots living so close to each other, on the mainland and on Taiwan, visit each other freely? We hold that there is no reason for such barriers to remain. We hope that at an early date, transportation and postal links will be established, allowing compatriots of both sides to have direct contact, write to each other, visit relatives and friends, exchange tours and visits and carry out academic, cultural, athletic and technological interchanges. Economically, Taiwan and the mainland of the motherland were originally one entity. Unfortunately, economic ties have been suspended for many years. Construction is going ahead vigorously on the motherland and it is our wish that Taiwan also continues to prosper. There is every reason for us to develop trade and carry out economic exchanges, with each side making up for what the other lacks. This is mutually desired and will benefit both parties without harming either. Dear compatriots in Taiwan: The bright future of our great motherland belongs to us and to you. The reunification of the motherland is the sacred mission history has handed to our generation. Times are moving ahead and circumstances are changing. The earlier we fulfil this mission, the sooner we can jointly write an unprecedented, brilliant page in the history of our country, catch up with advanced powers, and work together with them for world peace, prosperity and progress. Let us join hands and work together for this glorious goal!
March 30, 1979, fends off attacks from leftists who considered his program of reform a betrayal of Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. At the same time he makes it clear that he has no sympathy with those who challenge the leadership of the Communist Party or advocate bourgeois democracy.
[What] I want to talk about now is ideological and political questions. The Central Committee maintains that, to carry out Chinas four modernizations, we must uphold the Four Cardinal Principles ideologically and politically. This is the basic prerequisite for achieving modernization. The four principles are: 1. We must keep to the socialist road. 2. We must uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat. 3. We must uphold the leadership of the Communist Party. 4. We must uphold Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. As we all know, far from being new, these Four Cardinal Principles have long been upheld by our Party. The Central Committee has been adhering to these principles in all its guidelines and policies adopted since the smashing of the Gang of Four, and especially since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee. . . . [To] sum up, in order to achieve the four modernizations we must keep to the socialist road, uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat, uphold the leadership of the Communist Party, and uphold Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought. The Central Committee considers that we must now repeatedly emphasize the necessity of upholding these four cardinal principles, because certain people (even if only a handful) are attempting to undermine them. In no way can such attempts be tolerated. No Party member and, needless to say, no Party ideological or theoretical worker, must ever waver in the slightest on this basic stand. To undermine any of the four cardinal principles is to undermine the whole cause of socialism in China, the whole cause of modernization. Is the Central Committee making a mountain out of a molehill when it takes this view of the matter? No, it is not. In the light of current developments the Party has no choice. In the recent period a small number of persons have provoked incidents in some places. Instead of accepting the guidance, advice, and explanations of leading officials of the Party and government, certain bad elements have raised sundry demands that cannot be met at present or are altogether unreasonable. They have provoked or tricked some of the masses into raiding Party
UPHOLD THE FOUR CARDINAL PRINCIPLES

SOURCE
Deng Xiaoping. Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles. In Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (19751982), 166191. Translated by The Bureau for the Compilation and Translation of Works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Beijing: Peoples Publishing House, 1983.
INTRODUCTION
By his insistence that China must uphold these four very left-sounding political principles, Deng Xiaoping, in this excerpt of a speech delivered on
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Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles
and government organizations, occupying offices, holding sit-down and hunger strikes and obstructing traffic, thereby seriously disrupting production, other work and public order. Moreover, they have raised such sensational slogans as Oppose hunger and Give us human rights, inciting people to hold demonstrations and deliberately trying to get foreigners to give worldwide publicity to their words and deeds. There is a so-called China Human Rights Group which has gone so far as to put up big-character posters requesting the President of the United States to show concern for human rights in China. Can we permit such an open call for intervention in Chinas internal affairs? There is also a so-called Thaw Society which has issued a declaration openly opposing the dictatorship of the proletariat on the ground that it divides mankind. Can we tolerate this kind of freedom of speech which flagrantly contravenes the principles of our Constitution? In Shanghai there is a so-called Democracy Forum. Some of its members have slandered Comrade Mao Zedong and put up big counter-revolutionary posters proclaiming that proletarian dictatorship is the source of all evils and that it is necessary to resolutely and thoroughly criticize the Communist Party of China. They allege that capitalism is better than socialism and that, therefore, instead of carrying out the four modernizations China should introduce what they call social reform, by which they mean that it should turn to capitalism. They publicly declare that their task is to settle accounts with those whom the Gang of Four called the capitalist roaders but whom it had failed to deal with. Some of them have asked to go abroad to seek political asylum, and some have even made clandestine contact with the Kuomintang secret service, plotting sabotage. It is obvious that these people are out to use any and all means to disrupt our effort to shift the focus of our work to the achievement of modernization. If we ignored these grave problems, our Party and government organs at various levels would be so harassed that they would find it impossible to function. How, then, could we concentrate on the four modernizations? It is true that there are very few such incidents and that the overwhelming majority of our people disapprove of them. Nevertheless, they merit our serious attention. First, these trouble-makers generally say they speak in the name of democracy, a claim by which people are easily misled. Second, taking advantage of social problems left over from the time when Lin Biao and the Gang of Four held sway, they may deceive some people who have difficulties which the government cannot help to clear up at the moment. Third, the troublemakers have begun to form all kinds of secret or semiENCYCLOPEDIA OF MODERN CHINA
secret organizations which seek to establish contact with each other on a nationwide scale and at the same time to collaborate with political forces in Taiwan and abroad. Fourth, some of these people work hand in glove with gangster organizations and followers of the Gang of Four, trying to expand the scope of their sabotage. Fifth, they do all they can to use as a pretext or as a shield indiscreet statements of one sort or another made by some of our comrades. All this shows that the struggle against these individuals is no simple matter that can be settled quickly. We must strive to clearly distinguish between people (many of them innocent young people) and the counter-revolutionaries and bad elements who have hoodwinked them, and whom we must deal with sternly and according to law. At the same time, we must educate comrades throughout the Party about the necessity of sharpening their vigilance, bearing in mind the interests of the country as a whole and uniting as one under the leadership of the Central Committee. We must encourage them to continue the emancipation of their minds and consistently promote democracy so that they can mobilize all positive forces while at the same time endeavouring to clear up the ideological confusion among a small section of the people, especially young people. We must make a special effort to explain the question of democracy clearly to the people, and to our youth in particular. The socialist road, the dictatorship of the proletariat, the leadership of the Communist Party and Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought all these are tied up with democracy. What kind of democracy do the Chinese people need today? It can only be socialist democracy, peoples democracy, and not bourgeois democracy, individualist democracy. . . . [While] propagating democracy, we must strictly distinguish between socialist democracy on the one hand and bourgeois, individualist democracy on the other. We must link democracy for the people with dictatorship over the enemy, and with centralism, legality, discipline and the leadership by the Communist Party. At present when we are confronted with manifold difficulties in our economic life which can be overcome only by a series of readjustments and by consolidation and reorganization, it is particularly necessary to stress publicly the importance of subordinating personal interests to collective ones, interests of the part to those of the whole, and immediate to long-term interests. Only when everyone whether inside or outside the Party, in a leading position or among the rank and file is concerned for the overall interests shall we be able to overcome our difficulties and ensure a bright future for the four modernizations. Conversely, departure from the four cardinal principles and talk about democracy in the abstract will inevitably lead to the unchecked spread of ultra-democracy and
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Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci
anarchism, to the complete disruption of political stability and unity, and to the total failure of our modernization programme. If this happens, the decade of struggle against Lin Biao and the Gang of Four will have been in vain, China will once again be plunged into chaos, division, retrogression and darkness, and the Chinese people will be deprived of all hope. This is a matter of deep concern not only for the Chinese people of whatever nationality but also for all people abroad who wish to see China strong. . . .
ANSWERS TO THE ITALIAN JOURNALIST ORIANA FALLACI

SOURCE
Fallaci, Oriana, with Deng Xiaoping. Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci. Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (19751982), 326344. Translated by The Bureau for the Compilation and Translation of Works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin Under the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Beijing: Peoples Publishing House, 1983.
INTRODUCTION
The well-known Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci, who died in 2006, conducted the interview excerpted below with Deng Xiaoping in 1980. She questioned the reform leader about many sensitive issues such as the historical assessment of Mao Zedong and his mistakes, the Cultural Revolution and the future role of foreign capital in China.
Oriana Fallaci: Will Chairman Maos portrait above Tiananmen Gate be kept there? Deng Xiaoping: It will, forever. In the past there were too many portraits of Chairman Mao. They were hung everywhere. That was not proper and it didnt really show respect for Chairman Mao. Its true that he made mistakes in a certain period, but he was after all a principal founder of the Chinese Communist Party and the Peoples Republic of China. In evaluating his merits and mistakes, we hold that his mistakes were only secondary. What he did for the Chinese people can never be erased. In our hearts we Chinese will always cherish him as a founder of our Party and our state. Question: We Westerners find a lot of things hard to understand. The Gang of Four are blamed for all the faults. Im told that when the Chinese talk about the Gang of Four, many of them hold up five fingers. Answer: We must make a clear distinction between the nature of Chairman Maos mistakes and the crimes of Lin Biao and the Gang of Four. For most of his life, Chairman Mao did very good things. Many times he saved the Party and the state from crises. Without him the Chinese people would, at the very least, have spent
much more time groping in the dark. Chairman Maos greatest contribution was that he applied the principles of Marxism-Leninism to the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution, pointing the way to victory. It should be said that before the sixties or the late fifties many of his ideas brought us victories, and the fundamental principles he advanced were quite correct. He creatively applied Marxism-Leninism to every aspect of the Chinese revolution, and he had creative views on philosophy, political science, military science, literature and art, and so on. Unfortunately, in the evening of his life, particularly during the Cultural Revolution, he made mistakes and they were not minor ones which brought many misfortunes upon our Party, our state and our people. As you know, during the Yanan days our Party summed up Chairman Maos thinking in various fields as Mao Zedong Thought, and we made it our guiding ideology. We won great victories for the revolution precisely because we adhered to Mao Zedong Thought. Of course, Mao Zedong Thought was not created by Comrade Mao alone other revolutionaries of the older generation played a part in forming and developing it but primarily it embodies Comrade Maos thinking. Nevertheless, victory made him less prudent, so that in his later years some unsound features and unsound ideas, chiefly Left ones, began to emerge. In quite a number of instances he went counter to his own ideas, counter to the fine and correct propositions he had previously put forward, and counter to the style of work he himself had advocated. At this time he increasingly lost touch with reality. He didnt maintain a good style of work. He did not consistently practise democratic centralism and the mass line, for instance, and he failed to institutionalize them during his lifetime. This was not the fault of Comrade Mao Zedong alone. Other revolutionaries of the older generation, including me, should also be held responsible. Some abnormalities appeared in the political life of our Party and state patriarchal ways or styles of work developed, and glorification of the individual was rife; political life in general wasnt too healthy. Eventually these things led to the Cultural Revolution, which was a mistake. Question: You mentioned that in his last years, Chairman Mao was in poor health. But at the time of Liu Shaoqis arrest and his subsequent death in prison Maos health wasnt so bad. And there are other mistakes to be accounted for. Wasnt the Great Leap Forward a mistake? Wasnt copying the Soviet model a mistake? And what did Chairman Mao really want with the Cultural Revolution? Answer: Mistakes began to occur in the late fifties the Great Leap Forward, for instance. But that wasnt solely Chairman Maos fault either. The people around him got carried away too. We acted in direct contravention of objective laws, attempting to boost the economy all at once. As our subjective wishes went against objective
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laws, losses were inevitable. Still, it is Chairman Mao who should be held primarily responsible for the Great Leap Forward. But it didnt take him long just a few months to recognize his mistake, and he did so before the rest of us and proposed corrections. And in 1962, when because of some other factors those corrections had not been fully carried out, he made a self-criticism. But the lessons were not fully drawn, and as a result the Cultural Revolution erupted. So far as Chairman Maos own hopes were concerned, he initiated the Cultural Revolution in order to avert the restoration of capitalism, but he had made an erroneous assessment of Chinas actual situation. In the first place, the targets of the revolution were wrongly defined, which led to the effort to ferret out capitalist roaders in power in the Party. Blows were dealt at leading cadres at all levels who had made contributions to the revolution and had practical experience, including Comrade Liu Shaoqi. In the last couple of years before Chairman Maos death he said that the Cultural Revolution had been wrong on two counts: one was overthrowing all, and the other was waging a full-scale civil war. These two counts alone show that the Cultural Revolution cannot be called correct. Chairman Maos mistake was a political mistake, and not a small one. On the other hand, it was taken advantage of by the two counter-revolutionary cliques headed by Lin Biao and the Gang of Four, who schemed to usurp power. Therefore, we should draw a line between Chairman Maos mistakes and the crimes of Lin Biao and the Gang of Four. Question: But we all know that it was Chairman Mao himself who chose Lin Biao1 as his successor, much in the same way as an emperor chooses his heir. Answer: This is what Ive just referred to as an incorrect way of doing things. For a leader to pick his own successor is a feudal practice. It is an illustration of the imperfections in our institutions which I referred to a moment ago. Question: To what extent will Chairman Mao be involved when you hold your next Party congress? Answer: We will make an objective assessment of Chairman Maos contributions and his mistakes. We will reaffirm that his contributions are primary and his mistakes secondary. We will adopt a realistic approach towards the mistakes he made late in life. We will continue to adhere to Mao Zedong Thought, which represents the correct part of Chairman Maos life. Not only did Mao Zedong Thought lead us to victory in the revolution in the past; it is and will continue to be a treasured possession of the Chinese Communist Party and of our country. That is why we will forever keep Chairman Maos portrait on Tiananmen Gate as a symbol of our country, and we will always remember him as a founder of our Party and state. Moreover, we will adhere to Mao Zedong Thought. We will not do to Chairman Mao what Khrushchov did to Stalin.
Question: Do you mean to say that the name of Chairman Mao will inevitably come up when the Gang of Four is brought to trial as well as when you have your next Party congress? Answer: His name will be mentioned. Not only at the next Party congress but also on other occasions. But the trial of the Gang of Four will not detract from Chairman Maos prestige. Of course, he was responsible for putting them in their positions. Nevertheless, the crimes the Gang of Four themselves committed are more than sufficient to justify whatever sentences may be passed on them. Question: I have heard that Chairman Mao frequently complained that you didnt listen to him enough, and that he didnt like you. Is it true? Answer: Yes, Chairman Mao did say I didnt listen to him. But this wasnt directed only at me. It happened to other leaders as well. It reflects some unhealthy ideas in his twilight years, that is, patriarchal ways which are feudal in nature. He did not readily listen to differing opinions. We cant say that all his criticisms were wrong. But neither was he ready to listen to many correct opinions put forward not only by me but by other comrades. Democratic centralism was impaired, and so was collective leadership. Otherwise, it would be hard to explain how the Cultural Revolution broke out. Question: There was one personage in China who always went unscathed, and that was Premier Zhou Enlai. How do you explain this fact? Answer: Premier Zhou was a man who worked hard and uncomplainingly all his life. He worked 12 hours a day, and sometimes 16 hours or more, throughout his life. We got to know each other quite early, that is, when we were in France on a work-study programme during the 1920s. I have always looked upon him as my elder brother. We took the revolutionary road at about the same time. He was much respected by his comrades and all the people. Fortunately he survived during the Cultural Revolution when we were knocked down. He was in an extremely difficult position then, and he said and did many things that he would have wished not to. But the people forgave him because, had he not done and said those things, he himself would not have been able to survive and play the neutralizing role he did, which reduced losses. He succeeded in protecting quite a number of people. Question: I dont see how terrible things like the Cultural Revolution can be avoided or prevented from recurring. Answer: This issue has to be addressed by tackling the problems in our institutions. Some of those we established in the past were, in fact, tainted by feudalism, as manifested in such things as the personality cult, the patriarchal ways or styles of work, and the life tenure of
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cadres in leading posts. We are now looking into ways to prevent such things from recurring and are preparing to start with the restructuring of our institutions. Our country has a history of thousands of years of feudalism and is still lacking in socialist democracy and socialist legality. We are now working earnestly to cultivate socialist democracy and socialist legality. Only in this way can we solve the problem. Question: Are you sure that things will proceed more smoothly from now on? Can you attain the goal you have set yourselves? I hear that the so-called Maoists are still around. By Maoists I mean those who backed the Cultural Revolution. Answer: The influence of the Gang of Four should not be underrated, but it should be noted that 97 or 98 per cent of the population hate them intensely for their crimes. This was shown by the mass movement against the Gang of Four which erupted at Tiananmen Square on April 5, 1976, when the Gang were still riding high, Chairman Mao was critically ill and Premier Zhou had passed away. Since the Gangs overthrow [in 1976], and particularly in the past two years, the will and demands of the people have been given expression in the Third, Fourth and Fifth Plenary Sessions of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. We are considering ways of resolving our problems by improving our institutions. Many issues have already been raised now. Particular emphasis is being laid on working single-mindedly for the four modernizations, and this is winning the hearts of the people. They want political stability and unity. They are fed up with large-scale movements. Such movements invariably ended up hurting a number and not a small number of people. Incessant movements make it practically impossible to concentrate on national construction. Therefore, we can say for sure that given the correctness of our present course, the people will support us and such phenomena as the Cultural Revolution will not happen again. Question: The Gang of Four could only have been arrested after the death of Chairman Mao. Who engineered their arrest? Who initiated the idea? Answer: It was collective effort. First of all, I think, it had a mass base laid by the April 5th Movement [of 1976]. The term Gang of Four was coined by Chairman Mao a couple of years before his death. We waged struggles against the Gang for two years, in 1974 and 1975. By then people clearly saw them for what they were. Although Chairman Mao had designated his successor, the Gang of Four refused to accept this. After Chairman Maos death, the Gang took the opportunity to try and get all power into their own hands, and the situation demanded action from us. They were rampant at that time, trying to overthrow the new leadership.
Under these circumstances, the great majority of the comrades of the Political Bureau were agreed that measures had to be taken to deal with the Gang. The efforts of one of two individuals would not have sufficed for this purpose. It should be pointed out that some of the things done after the arrest of the Gang of Four were inconsistent with Chairman Maos wishes, for instance, the construction of the Chairman Mao Memorial Hall. He had proposed in the fifties that we should all be cremated when we died and that only our ashes be kept, that no remains should be preserved and no tombs built. Chairman Mao was the first to sign his name, and we all followed suit. Nearly all senior cadres at the central level and across the country signed. We still have that book of signatures. What was done in the matter after the smashing of the Gang of Four was prompted by the desire to achieve a relative stability. Question: Does this mean that the Chairman Mao Memorial Hall will soon be demolished? Answer: I am not in favour of changing it. Now that it is there, it would not be appropriate to remove it. It wasnt appropriate to build it in the first place, but to change it would give rise to all kinds of talk. Many people are now speculating whether we will demolish the Memorial Hall. We have no such idea. Question: It is said that you are giving up the post of Vice-Premier. Answer: I will not be the only one to resign. All other comrades of the older generation are giving up their concurrent posts. Chairman Hua Guofeng will no longer serve concurrently as Premier of the State Council. The Central Committee of the Party has recommended Comrade Zhao Ziyang as candidate for that post. If we old comrades remain at our posts, newcomers will be inhibited in their work. We face the problem of gradually reducing the average age of leaders at all levels. We have to take the lead. There were previously no relevant rules. In fact, however, there was life tenure in leading posts. This does not facilitate the renewal of leadership or the promotion of younger people. It is an institutional defect which was not evident in the sixties because we were then in the prime of life. This issue involves not just individuals but all the relevant institutions. It has an even greater bearing on our general policy and on whether our four modernizations can be achieved. Therefore, we say it would be better for us old comrades to take an enlightened attitude and set an example in this respect. Question: I have seen other portraits in China. At Tiananmen Ive seen portraits of Marx, Engels and Lenin and particularly of Stalin. Do you intend to keep them there?
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Answer: Before the Cultural Revolution they were put up only on important holidays. The practice was changed during the Cultural Revolution, when they were displayed permanently. Now we are going back to the former way. Question: The four modernizations will bring foreign capital into China, and this will inevitably give rise to private investment. Wont this lead to a miniaturized capitalism? Answer: In the final analysis, the general principle for our economic development is still that formulated by Chairman Mao, that is, to rely mainly on our own efforts with external assistance subsidiary. No matter to what degree we open up to the outside world and admit foreign capital, its relative magnitude will be small and it cant affect our system of socialist public ownership of the means of production. Absorbing foreign capital and technology and even allowing foreigners to construct plants in China can only play a complementary role to our effort to develop the productive forces in a socialist society. Of course, this will bring some decadent capitalist influences into China. We are aware of this possibility; its nothing to be afraid of. Question: Does it mean that not all in capitalism is so bad? Answer: It depends on how you define capitalism. Any capitalism is superior to feudalism. And we cannot say that everything developed in capitalist countries is of a capitalist nature. For instance, technology, science even advanced production management is also a sort of science will be useful in any society or country. We intend to acquire advanced technology, science and management skills to serve our socialist production. And these things as such have no class character. Question: I remember that several years ago, when talking about private plots in rural areas, you acknowledged that man needs some personal interest to produce. Doesnt this mean to put in discussion communism itself? Answer: According to Marx, socialism is the first stage of communism and it covers a very long historical period in which we must practise the principle to each according to his work and combine the interests of the state, the collective and the individual, for only thus can we arouse peoples enthusiasm for labour and develop socialist production. At the higher stage of communism, when the productive forces will be greatly developed and the principle from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs will be practised, personal interests will be acknowledged still more and more personal needs will be satisfied.
Question: You mentioned that there are others who made contributions to Mao Zedong Thought. Who were they? Answer: Other revolutionaries of the older generation, for example Premier Zhou Enlai, Comrades Liu Shaoqi and Zhu De and many others. Many senior cadres are creative and original in their thinking. Question: Why did you leave your own name out? Answer: I am quite insignificant. Of course, I too have done some work. Otherwise, I wouldnt be counted as a revolutionary. Question: What we did not understand was: If the Gang of Four was, as you said, a minority with all the country against them, how could it happen that they were holding the whole country, including the veteran leaders? Was it because one of the four was the wife of Mao Zedong and the ties between Mao Zedong and her were so profound that no one dared to touch her? Answer: This was one of the factors. As Ive said, Chairman Mao made mistakes, one of which was using the Gang, letting them come to power. Also, the Gang had their own factional set-up and they built a clique of some size particularly they made use of ignorant young people as a front, so they had a fair-sized base. Question: Was Mao Zedong blinded by her so that he wouldnt see what she was doing? And was she an adventuress like the Empress Dowager Yehonala? Answer: Jiang Qing did evil things by flaunting the banner of Chairman Mao. But Chairman Mao and Jiang Qing lived separately for years. Question: We didnt know that. Answer: Jiang Qing did what she did by flaunting the banner of Chairman Mao, but he failed to intervene effectively. For this he should be held responsible. Jiang Qing is rotten through and through. Whatever sentence is passed on the Gang of Four wont be excessive. They brought harm to millions upon millions of people. Question: How would you assess Jiang Qing? What score would you give her? Answer: Below zero. A thousand points below zero. Question: How would you assess yourself? Answer: I would be quite content if I myself could be rated fifty-fifty in merits and demerits. But one thing I can say for myself: I have had a clear conscience all my life. Please mark my words: I have made quite a few mistakes, and I have my own share of responsibility for some of the mistakes made by Comrade Mao Zedong. But it can be said that I made my mistake with good intentions. There is nobody who doesnt make mistakes.
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Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of our Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China
We should not lay all past mistakes on Chairman Mao. So we must be very objective in assessing him. His contributions were primary, his mistakes secondary. We will inherit the many good things in Chairman Maos thinking while at the same time explaining clearly the mistakes he made.
RESOLUTION ON CERTAIN QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF OUR PARTY SINCE THE FOUNDING OF THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA
INTRODUCTION
and it is this synthesis which is Mao Zedong Thought, the product of the integration of the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution. . . . [I]t constitutes a correct theory, a body of correct principles and a summary of the experiences that have been confirmed in the practice of the Chinese revolution, a crystallization of the collective wisdom of the Chinese Communist Party. Many outstanding leaders of our Party made important contributions to the formation and development of Mao Zedong Thought, and they are synthesized in the scientific works of Comrade Mao Zedong. . . . 31. Mao Zedong Thought is the valuable spiritual asset of our Party. It will be our guide to action for a long time to come. The Party leaders and the large group of cadres nurtured by Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought were the backbone forces in winning great victories for our cause; they are and will remain our treasured mainstay in the cause of socialist modernization. While many of Comrade Mao Zedongs important works were written during the periods of new-democratic revolution and of socialist transformation, we must still constantly study them. This is not only because one cannot cut the past off from the present and failure to understand the past will hamper our understanding of present-day problems, but also because many of the basic theories, principles and scientific approaches set forth in these works are of universal significance and provide us with invaluable guidance now and will continue to do so in the future. Therefore, we must continue to uphold Mao Zedong Thought, study it in earnest and apply its stand, viewpoint and method in studying the new situation and solving the new problems arising in the course of practice. Mao Zedong Thought has added much that is new to the treasure-house of Marxist-Leninist theory. We must combine our study of the scientific works of Comrade Mao Zedong with that of the scientific writings of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin. It is entirely wrong to try to negate the scientific value of Mao Zedong Thought and to deny its guiding role in our revolution and construction just because Comrade Mao Zedong made mistakes in his later years. And it is likewise entirely wrong to adopt a dogmatic attitude towards the sayings of Comrade Mao Zedong, to regard whatever he said as the immutable truth which must be mechanically applied everywhere, and to be unwilling to admit honestly that he made mistakes in his later years, and even try to stick to them in our new activities. Both these attitudes fail to make a distinction between Mao Zedong Thoughta scientific theory formed and tested over a long period of timeand the mistakes Comrade Mao Zedong made in his later years. And it is absolutely necessary that this distinction should be made. We must treasure all the positive experience obtained in the course of integrating
The post-Mao leadership of China jettisoned many of Maos policies, condemned the leftist excesses of his later years, in particular the Cultural Revolution, and rehabilitated many victims of his political campaigns. Yet given that the reform leaders own records and that of the Communist Party and the revolution were so closely associated with the late leader, the evaluation of Mao Zedongs legacy was a delicate task. The Resolution on Certain Questions (adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on June 27, 1981), the authoritative official verdict that was made required reading for Chinas 37 million party members, ruled that Maos contributions to the revolution far outweighed his mistakes and reaffirmed the value of Mao Zedong Thought, redefined as the crystallization of the collective wisdom of the Chinese Communist Party.
27. Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the cultural revolution, but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary. He rendered indelible meritorious service in founding and building up our Party and the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, in winning victory for the cause of liberation of the Chinese people, in founding the Peoples Republic of China and in advancing our socialist cause. He made major contributions to the liberation of the oppressed nations of the world and to the progress of mankind. 28. The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, made a theoretical synthesis of Chinas unique experience in its protracted revolution in accordance with the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism. This synthesis contributed a scientific system of guidelines befitting Chinas conditions,
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Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China
the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of Chinas revolution and construction over fifty years or so, apply and carry forward this experience in our new work and enrich and develop Party theory with new principles and new conclusions corresponding to reality, so as to ensure the continued progress of our cause along the scientific course of MarxismLeninism and Mao Zedong Thought.
1949, overthrew the rule of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat capitalism, won the great victory of the newdemocratic revolution and founded the Peoples Republic of China. Thereupon the Chinese people took state power into their own hands and became masters of the country. . . .
CHAPTER II: THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS
CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA

INTRODUCTION
The first Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China appeared in 1954, replacing the Common Program [see p. 221] which had played the role of a constitution since 1949. It effectively became irrelevant during the Cultural Revolution when regular political institutions and processes ceased to operate. A second constitution, adopted in 1975 and reflecting the more radical tone of the Cultural Revolution, was replaced by the constitution of 1978, which essentially reasserted the pre-Cultural Revolution norms. The 1982 Constitution which is excerpted here reflected the views of the post-Mao reform leadership by then firmly in power. It attempted to reduce the control of the Communist Party over state organizations and to strengthen the rights of the citizen notably in relation to property and inheritance. It was passed by the National Peoples Congress December 4, 1982. Minor amendments to it were passed in 1988, 1993, 1999, and 2004.
Article 33. All persons holding the nationality of the Peoples Republic of China are citizens of the Peoples Republic of China. All citizens of the Peoples Republic of China are equal before the law. Every citizen enjoys the rights and at the same time must perform the duties prescribed by the Constitution and the law. Article 34. All citizens of the Peoples Republic of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and stand for election, regardless of nationality, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status, or length of residence, except persons deprived of political rights according to law. Article 35. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration. Article 36. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion. The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination. Article 37. The freedom of person of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China is inviolable. No citizen may be arrested except with the approval or by decision of a peoples procuratorate or by decision of a peoples court, and arrests must be made by a public security organ. Unlawful deprivation or restriction of citizens freedom of
PREAMBLE
China is one of the countries with the longest histories in the world. The people of all nationalities in China have jointly created a splendid culture and have a glorious revolutionary tradition. Feudal China was gradually reduced after 1840 to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country. The Chinese people waged wave upon wave of heroic struggles for national independence and liberation and for democracy and freedom. Great and earth-shaking historical changes have taken place in China in the 20th century. The Revolution of 1911, led by Dr Sun Yat-sen, abolished the feudal monarchy and gave birth to the Republic of China. But the Chinese people had yet to fulfil their historical task of overthrowing imperialism and feudalism. After waging hard, protracted and tortuous struggles, armed and otherwise, the Chinese people of all nationalities led by the Communist Party of China with Chairman Mao Zedong as its leader ultimately, in
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Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China
person by detention or other means is prohibited; and unlawful search of the person of citizens is prohibited. Article 38. The personal dignity of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China is inviolable. Insult, libel, false charge or frameup directed against citizens by any means is prohibited. Article 39. The home of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China is inviolable. Unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a citizens home is prohibited. Article 40. The freedom and privacy of correspondence of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China are protected by law. No organization or individual may, on any ground, infringe upon the freedom and privacy of citizens correspondence except in cases where, to meet the needs of state security or of investigation into criminal offences, public security or procuratorial organs are permitted to censor correspondence in accordance with procedures prescribed by law. Article 41. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China have the right to criticize and make suggestions to any state organ or functionary. Citizens have the right to make to relevant state organs complaints and charges against, or exposures of, violation of the law or dereliction of duty by any state organ or functionary; but fabrication or distortion of facts with the intention of libel or frame-up is prohibited. In case of complaints, charges or exposures made by citizens, the state organ concerned must deal with them in a responsible manner after ascertaining the facts. No one may suppress such complaints, charges and exposures, or retaliate against the citizens making them. Citizens who have suffered losses through infringement of their civil rights by any state organ or functionary have the right to compensation in accordance with the law. Article 42. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China have the right as well as the duty to work. Using various channels, the state creates conditions for employment, strengthens labour protection, improves working conditions and, on the basis of expanded production, increases remuneration for work and social benefits. Work is the glorious duty of every able-bodied citizen. All working people in state enterprises and in urban and rural economic collectives should perform their tasks with an attitude consonant with their status as masters of the country. The state
promotes socialist labour emulation, and commends and rewards model and advanced workers. The state encourages citizens to take part in voluntary labour. The state provides necessary vocational training to citizens before they are employed. Article 43. Working people in the Peoples Republic of China have the right to rest. The state expands facilities for rest and recuperation of working people, and prescribes working hours and vacations for workers and staff. Article 44. The state prescribes by law the system of retirement for workers and staff in enterprises and undertakings and for functionaries of organs of state. The livelihood of retired personnel is ensured by the state and society. Article 45. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China have the right to material assistance from the state and society when they are old, ill or disabled. The state develops the social insurance, social relief and medical and health services that are required to enable citizens to enjoy this right. The state and society ensure the livelihood of disabled members of the armed forces, provide pensions to the families of martyrs and give preferential treatment to the families of military personnel. The state and society help make arrangements for the work, livelihood and education of the blind, deaf-mute and other handicapped citizens. Article 46. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China have the duty as well as the right to receive education. The state promotes the all-round moral, intellectual and physical development of children and young people. Article 47. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China have the freedom to engage in scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural pursuits. The state encourages and assists creative endeavours conducive to the interests of the people made by citizens engaged in education, science, technology, literature, art and other cultural work. Article 48. Women in the Peoples Republic of China enjoy equal rights with men in all spheres of life, political, economic, cultural and social, and family life. The state protects the rights and interests of women, applies the principle of
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Joint Communique0 on Arms Sales to Taiwan
equal pay for equal work for men and women alike and trains and selects cadres from among women. Article 49. Marriage, the family, and mother and child are protected by the state. Both husband and wife have the duty to practise family planning. Parents have the duty to rear and educate their minor children, and children who have come of age have the duty to support and assist their parents. Violation of the freedom of marriage is prohibited. Maltreatment of old people, women and children is prohibited. Article 50. The Peoples Republic of China protects the legitimate rights and interests of Chinese nationals residing abroad and protects the lawful rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese and of the family members of Chinese nationals residing abroad. Article 51. The exercise by citizens of the Peoples Republic of China of their freedoms and rights may not infringe upon the interests of the state, of society and of the collective, or upon the lawful freedoms and rights of other citizens. Article 52. It is the duty of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China to safeguard the unity of the country and the unity of all its nationalities. Article 53. Citizens of the Peoples Republic of China must abide by the constitution and the law, keep state secrets, protect public property and observe labour discipline and public order and respect social ethics. Article 54. It is the duty of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China to safeguard the security, honour and interests of the motherland; they must not commit acts detrimental to the security, honour and interests of the motherland. Article 55. It is the sacred obligation of every citizen of the Peoples Republic of China to defend the motherland and resist aggression. It is the honourable duty of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China to perform military service and join the militia in accordance with the law.
Article 56. It is the duty of citizens of the Peoples Republic of China to pay taxes in accordance with the law. . . .
JOINT COMMUNIQUE ON ARMS SALES TO TAIWAN

INTRODUCTION
Even as the United States recognized the government of the Peoples Republic of China as the sole legal government of China on January 1, 1979, U.S. relations with Taiwan continued to be a flashpoint between the two governments. As this communique0 indicates, the Chinese government was particularly annoyed that the U.S. continued to supply arms to Taiwan.
0
JOINT COMMUNIQUE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA
August 17, 1982 1. In the Joint Communique0 on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations on January 1, 1979, issued by the Government of the United States of America and the Peoples Republic of China, the United States of America recognized the Government of the Peoples Republic of China as the sole legal Government of China, and it acknowledged the Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China. Within that context, the two sides agreed that the people of the United States would continue to maintain cultural, commercial, and other unofficial relations with the people of Taiwan. On this basis, relations between the United States and China were normalized. 2. The question of United States arms sales to Taiwan was not settled in the course of negotiations between the two countries on establishing diplomatic relations. The two sides held differing positions, and the Chinese side stated that it would raise the issue again following normalization. Recognizing that this issue would seriously hamper the development of United States - China relations, they have held further discussions on it, during and since the meetings between President Ronald Reagan and Premier Zhao Ziyang and between Secretary of State Alexander M. Haig, Jr. and Vice Premier and Foreign Minister Huang Hua in October 1981. 3. Respect for each others sovereignty and territorial integrity and non-interference in each others internal affairs constitute the fundamental principles guiding United States - China relations. These principles were confirmed in the Shanghai Communique0 of February
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Sino-British Joint Declaration
28, 1972 and reaffirmed in the Joint Communique0 on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations which came into effect on January 1, 1979. Both sides emphatically state that these principles continue to govern all aspects of their relations. 4. The Chinese Government reiterates that the question of Taiwan is Chinas internal affair. The Message to Compatriots in Taiwan issued by China on January 1, 1979 promulgated a fundamental policy of striving for peaceful reunification of the motherland. The Nine-Point Proposal put forward by China on September 30, 1981 represented a further major effort under this fundamental policy to strive for a peaceful solution to the Taiwan question. 5. The United States Government attaches great importance to its relations with China, and reiterates that it has no intention of infringing on Chinese sovereignty and territorial integrity, or interfering in Chinas internal affairs, or pursuing a policy of two Chinas or one China, one Taiwan. The United States Government understands and appreciates the Chinese policy of striving for a peaceful resolution of the Taiwan question as indicated in Chinas Message to Compatriots in Taiwan issued on January 1, 1979 and the Nine-Point Proposal put forward by China on September 30, 1981. The new situation which has emerged with regard to the Taiwan question also provides favorable conditions for the settlement of United States - China differences over United States arms sales to Taiwan. Having in mind the foregoing statements of both sides, the United States Government states that it does not seek to carry out a long-term policy of arms sales to Taiwan, that its arms sales to Taiwan will not exceed, either in qualitative or in quantitative terms, the level of those supplied in recent years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and China, and that it intends gradually to reduce its sale of arms to Taiwan, leading, over a period of time, to a final resolution. In so stating, the United States acknowledges Chinas consistent position regarding the thorough settlement of this issue. 6. In order to bring about, over a period of time, a final settlement of the question of United States arms sales to Taiwan, which is an issue rooted in history, the two Governments will make every effort to adopt measures and create conditions conducive to the thorough settlement of this issue. 7. The development of United States - China relations is not only in the interests of the two peoples but also conducive to peace and stability in the world. The two sides are determined, on the principle of equality and mutual benefit, to strengthen their ties in the economic, cultural, educational, scientific, technological and other
fields and make strong, joint efforts for the continued development of relations between the Governments and peoples of the United States and China. 8. In order to bring about the healthy development of United States - China relations, maintain world peace and oppose aggression and expansion, the two Governments reaffirm the principles agreed on by the two sides in the Shanghai Communique0 and the Joint Communique0 on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations. The two sides will maintain contact and hold appropriate consultations on bilateral and international issues of common interest.
SINO-BRITISH JOINT DECLARATION

INTRODUCTION
The Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping made it clear to the British government in 1982 that the resumption of Chinese sovereignty over Hong Kong when Britains 99 year lease on the New Territories came to an end in 1997 was non-negotiable. Under pressure to ensure stability and a smooth handover, Chinese and British officials agreed to the SinoBritish Joint Declaration in 1984, promising the territory autonomy under Beijing and a continuation of its laws for 50 years. The Chinese and English language versions of this document were to be accepted as equally valid, sharply distinguishing it from the unequal treaties.
The Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Peoples Republic of China have reviewed with satisfaction the friendly relations existing between the two Governments and peoples in recent years and agreed that a proper negotiated settlement of the question of Hong Kong, which is left over from the past, is conducive to the maintenance of the prosperity and stability of Hong Kong and to the further strengthening and development of the relations between the two countries on a new basis. To this end, they have, after talks between the delegations of the two Governments, agreed to declare as follows: 1. The Government of the Peoples Republic of China declares that to recover the Hong Kong area (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories, hereinafter referred to as Hong Kong) is the common aspiration of the entire Chinese people, and that it has decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong with effect from 1 July 1997. 2. The Government of the United Kingdom declares that it will restore Hong Kong to the Peoples Republic of China with effect from 1 July 1997.
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Sino-British Joint Declaration
The Government of the Peoples Republic of China declares that the basic policies of the Peoples Republic of China regarding Hong Kong are as follows: i. Upholding national unity and territorial integrity and taking account of the history of Hong Kong and its realities, the Peoples Republic of China has decided to establish, in accordance with the provisions of Article 31 of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, a Hong Kong Special Administrative Region upon resuming the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong.
vi. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will retain the status of a free port and a separate customs territory. vii. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will retain the status of an international financial centre, and its markets for foreign exchange, gold, securities and futures will continue. There will be free flow of capital. The Hong Kong dollar will continue to circulate and remain freely convertible. viii. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will have independent finances. The Central Peoples Government will not levy taxes on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. ix. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region may establish mutually beneficial economic relations with the United Kingdom and other countries, whose economic interests in Hong Kong will be given due regard. x. Using the name of Hong Kong, China, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region may on its own maintain and develop economic and cultural relations and conclude relevant agreements with states, regions and relevant international organisations. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region may on its own issue travel documents for entry into and exit from Hong Kong.
ii. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be directly under the authority of the Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will enjoy a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs which are the responsibilities of the Central Peoples Government. iii. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be vested with executive, legislative and independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication. The laws currently in force in Hong Kong will remain basically unchanged. iv. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be composed of local inhabitants. The chief executive will be appointed by the Central Peoples Government on the basis of the results of elections or consultations to be held locally. Principal officials will be nominated by the chief executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for appointment by the Central Peoples Government. Chinese and foreign nationals previously working in the public and police services in the government departments of Hong Kong may remain in employment. British and other foreign nationals may also be employed to serve as advisers or hold certain public posts in government departments of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. v. The current social and economic systems in Hong Kong will remain unchanged, and so will the lifestyle. Rights and freedoms, including those of the person, of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of travel, of movement, of correspondence, of strike, of choice of occupation, of academic research and of religious belief will be ensured by law in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Private property, ownership of enterprises, legitimate right of inheritance and foreign investment will be protected by law.
xi. The maintenance of public order in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be the responsibility of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. xii. The above-stated basic policies of the Peoples Republic of China regarding Hong Kong and the elaboration of them in Annex I to this Joint Declaration will be stipulated, in a Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, by the National Peoples Congress of the Peoples Republic of China, and they will remain unchanged for 50 years. 4. The Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Peoples Republic of China declare that, during the transitional period between the date of the entry into force of this Joint Declaration and 30 June 1997, the Government of the United Kingdom will be responsible for the administration of Hong Kong with the object of maintaining and preserving its economic prosperity and social stability; and that the Government of the Peoples Republic of China will give its cooperation in this connection.
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Implementing The Three Peoples Principles
5. The Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Peoples Republic of China declare that, in order to ensure a smooth transfer of government in 1997, and with a view to the effective implementation of this Joint Declaration, a Sino-British Joint Liaison Group will be set up when this Joint Declaration enters into force; and that it will be established and will function in accordance with the provisions of Annex II to this Joint Declaration. 6. The Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Peoples Republic of China declare that land leases in Hong Kong and other related matters will be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of Annex III to this Joint Declaration. 7. The Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Peoples Republic of China agree to implement the preceding declarations and the Annexes to this Joint Declaration. 8. This Joint Declaration is subject to ratification and shall enter into force on the date of the exchange of instruments of ratification, which shall take place in Beijing before 30 June 1985. This Joint Declaration and its Annexes shall be equally binding. Done in duplicate at Beijing on 19 December 1984 in the English and Chinese languages, both texts being equally authentic.
people trust one another and are harmoniously united, providing for democracy and a stable political environment. 2. Our policy of a free economy with planned characteristics encourages private enterprise and stimulates the diligence of the people and the creativity of entrepreneurs. 3. The implementation of an excellent, universal educational system with everyone having equal access to education and the promotion of the development of science and technology have raised the productive power of the people. 4. [By] adhering to a policy of [providing] equal [access to] wealth, we have lessened the gap between rich and poor, enhanced social well-being, raised the quality of life, and created an equal and harmonious society. Question: What specific policies did your government adopt to promote this economic development? Answer: These can be divided into several stages: 1. In the early 1950s we first carried out currency reform, encouraging saving and successfully stabilizing the value of the currency and the price of commodities. Next, we implemented equitable land reform and adapted the strategy of developing both agriculture and industry equally, [thus] smoothly solving the unemployment problem. 2. At the end of the 1950s we successively reformed foreign exchange, trade, financial administartion, and banking and encouraged light industry, which already had a foundation to open up export markets. [All of these measures] caused industrial production and foreign trade to soar in the 1960s. 3. In the 1970s we methodically developed heavy industry and the chemical industry while improving basic infrastructure such as transportation and electricity, [thus] establishing an excellent foundation for economic growth and development. In addition, successive administrative reform measures such as extending compulsory education to nine years beginning in 1968 and actively encouraging foreign-trained students to return and serve the nation greatly enhanced the human resources needed for economic growth. 4. Now in the 1980s our policy is to emphasize the development of high-tech industry and the implementation of the requisite social and economic systemic reforms. At the same time, we strive to maintain the good quality of the environment to become a truly modern nation.
IMPLEMENTING THE THREE PEOPLES PRINCIPLES

SOURCE
Jiang Jingguo. Implementing The Three Peoples Principles. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 349350. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
INTRODUCTION
Jiang Jingguo (Chiang Ching-kuo), son of Chiang Kai-shek, was president of the Republic of China on Taiwan from 1978 to his death in 1988. In this exerpt of a December 1985 interview with Readers Digest, he attributes Taiwans modern economic success to the implementation of Sun Yatsens Three Peoples Principles and comments unfavorably on the record of the Communist regime on the mainland.
Question: How did the Republic of China achieve its remarkable economic development? Answer: The basic reasons for the success of our nations economic development are: 1. We advocate freedom and democracy and hold fast to a constitutional system. The government and the
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Another Discussion of One-Party Autocracy
Question: If the regime on the mainland were not communist, could it reach the same economic level as the Republic of China? Answer: I must first stress that as long as the Communists occupy the mainland, no matter what economic reforms they carry out they will be unable to become a noncommunist regime. Therefore, if the mainland wants to reach our economic level, it must abandon communism and adopt. The Three Peoples Principles. If it can do this, considering the size and great human and material resources of the mainland, it would of course be able to attain the economic level of the Republic of China on Taiwan. This is why we have raised the slogan Unite China with The Three Peoples Principles.
realize policies to promote democracy and the rule of law adopted at the beginning of the republic. With more than thirty years of work [on Taiwan], the political situation is stable, the economy flourishing, and education universal. Consequently, the government, after carefully researching social change and the needs of the people, has decided to end martial law, lift the ban on political activities, and expand democratic, constitutional government in the near future.
ANOTHER DISCUSSION OF ONEPARTY AUTOCRACY

SOURCE
THE STRUGGLE WITH COMMUNISTS IS A STRUGGLE OVER LIFESTYLE

SOURCE
Minzhu Han, ed. Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement, 143145. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. In the Beijing Spring of 1989, the student movement demanded political reforms to match the economic reforms carried out by the Communist Party in the previous decade. The text reprinted below, displayed as a big character poster at the elite Beijing Normal University, is typical of many that demanded democracy, equality and the rule of law. Its insistence on the end of one-party rule was of course unacceptable to the government, which suppressed the movement a month later on June 4.
INTRODUCTION
Jiang Jingguo. The Struggle with Communists Is a Struggle over Lifestyle. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume II: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, ed. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, 348349. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. By 1987 martial law had ended on Taiwan and rapid economic growth had begun. Jiang Jingguo, then president of the Republic of China on Taiwan, implies in this excerpt of a 1987 interview that the Guomindang can beat the Communists development record even if it cannot defeat them militarily.
INTRODUCTION
Since the founding of the Republic of China [in 1912], implementing democratic, constitutional government has been the goal of our nation. Unfortunately, because of frequent domestic and foreign turmoil, constitutional government could not be realized until 1947. It had not been in force for even two years when the Communists seized the mainland. In order to prevent Communist military invasion and subversion after the government moved to Taiwan in 1949, we declared martial law on Taiwan and [the offshore islands of] Penghu, Jinmen, and Mazu to protect national security and guarantee a secure environment for the constitution. The facts clearly show that the scope of martial law was extremely limited and had little effect on the peoples daily life and basic rights. Moreover, the government on Taiwan, Penghu, Jinmen, and Mazu worked steadily and vigorously to promote democratic, constitutional government. The recent decision by the government to end martial law and lift the ban on political activities seeks to
China, it has been said, is following a capitalist road under the guise of socialism. Indeed, this is socialism with Chinese characteristics: a handful of people have monopolized the political power of the central government and have been exercising a one-party dictatorship. . . . In this system, in order to secure their rule in perpetuity, this small group is allowed to manipulate the law as they please and rape the peoples will. They can appoint their sons or grandsons to important offices, put the mass media under full control, and adopt an obscurantist policy of lying to the people. Or they may grant a portion of their power to yes men, making them agree to be chained, so as to put chains on others. In this system, they are able to ask the people of the whole nation to follow the Four Cardinal Principles [adherence to the socialist path, the leadership of the Communist Party, MarxismLeninismMao Tsetung Thought, and the peoples democratic dictatorship]. Now, consider only one of the Four Cardinal Principles, uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. It has fooled generations of Chinese people, and has left them with a very deep and strong inertia. Do whatever the Party asks you to do. This motto is a precise manifestation of the benightedness of the Chinese. And others such as one hundred thousand people, all of
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Reflections on the Chinese Communist Party
one mind, or ten thousand people with only one head are but fairy tales from the Arabian Nights. A person with any sense of independence should have his own mind and own views, and should not blindly follow someone elses instructions. We may give full support to the correct leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, but we may of course choose not to follow misguided leadership. Changing the first of the Four Cardinal Principles to: Support the correct leadership of the Chinese Communist Party would, I feel, make it more appropriate. The world of the future will be a pluralistic world, a world of coexistence; in that world, a hundred schools of thought will be able to contend in cultural and art forums, and many economic systems will be able to exist side by side. Thus, to claim that unified leadership [under the Party] is the only type of political system required undoubtedly violates laws of common sense. The Party has coined the euphemism of the coexistence of pluralism with unified leadership. Such a creature is really hard to understand; pluralism in the hand of one-party leadership is like a free man dancing in chains. If we do want democracy, it is necessary that we destroy the one-party autocracy or establish genuine democratic institutions capable of truly representing the interests of all social strata (such as nongovernment-controlled labor unions). And if we want democracy and freedom, the only thing to do is to give legislative power to the people. Only by following the principle of legislation by the people can there be true freedom of press and true freedom of speech. I believe that the only way to change the current political situation in China is to fight for democracyto emphasize that all people are equal before the law, and that no one is above the law. Political change requires that the right of legislation truly belong to the people. It means that laws will not be made by a small handful of government officials, and that they shall reflect the common will of the people. The primary objective of legislation is freedom and equality. Only when people equally abide by laws that reflect their common wishes can there be freedom. Only when genuine rule by law replaces rule by autocracy, which is monarchy in disguise, can there be genuine democracy, and can it be possible for our society to overcome the defects of feudalism. The government is only an administrator of the peoples sovereign will, an institution to which the people grant administrative power and entrust law enforcement power. If the National Peoples Congress is truly to reflect the peoples will, the electoral procedures for its representatives must be changed. In the absence of a genuine peoples supervisory organ, a government [with unchecked power to] implement the law will become corrupt.
Let us greet the coming of a genuinely democratic, free spring with our actions! By a Non-Revolutionary of Beijing Normal University, May 2, 1989 (big-character poster at Beijing Normal University)
REFLECTIONS ON THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY

SOURCE
Minzhu Han, ed. Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement, 145148. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
INTRODUCTION
The excerpted text reprinted below, appearing in an anonymous big character poster from the student movement in the Beijing Spring of 1989, attacks the dominance of the Chinese Communist Party and its lack of answerability. These reflections insist that China is not a democracy and suggest that citizens have no obligation to support a political party that has not been chosen by the people. Such ideas alarmed the Communist Party and eventually led it to condemn the movement as counter-revolutionary.
[Turning] now to its organizational principles and methodology, the Chinese Communist Party has been an excellent carrier of the genes for dictatorship and bureaucracy; the latter is not only a true-to-the-original copy of the former but also its logical extension. Today, after so many years, the Party still maintains the organizational form that existed when our nation had not yet been founded, a structure shaped by security considerations and based on military models. [This structure] stipulates that the individual obeys the organization, subordinates obey their superiors, the entire Party obeys the Central Committee, and the Central Committee obeys one person (or a few persons). In short, to obey orders is a duty. How could this type of closed organization be anything but a breeding ground for dictatorships, patriarchies, and personality cults? Ours is a case of absolute nondemocracy (at times, the dictatorship of a single individual is realized through the tyranny of the majority, such as the Cultural Revolution and the downfall of Hu Yaobang), and all the dictatorships in China originate from within the Party (as in the case of Mao as well as Hua Guofeng). In a country such as ours, it is not at all surprising that, under the lengthy centralized leadership of a single party which founded itself on such principles and methods, dictatorship and bureaucracy should arise again and again. Nowadays, many people are placing their hopes in the possibility that one or two wise and capable individuals might arise from within the Party. The idea is absolutely terrifying; have we not had enough of handing over
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Hunger Strike Manifesto
the lives of a billion people to one or two leaders? So many times has the Party said the simple phrase: in the end, our great Party always brings order to chaos, but this is nothing but [a justification for] at the cost of several decades of their lives for hundreds of millions of people (half their lives); the cost of the lives of hundreds and thousands of others, and the cost of pushing history back several decades, or several hundreds of years (as did the Cultural Revolution in China, and Stalinist revisionism in the Soviet Union). Now, if a party has been committing unpardonable errors for most of its time, and yet we continue to place the fate of a billion people into its hands instead of their own, how does it differ from gambling? The Communist Party has always loved to drag out in the open a handful of persons outside its ranks. Why doesnt it expose the large handful within the Party itself? If 80 percent of the [nearly forty-seven million] Party members are good (and the standard for goodness is here measured by the ethical standards ordinary citizens ought to possess), how about the other 20 percent? Can nearly ten million people not be considered a large handful? . . . When it comes to the political structure of the entire country, the Communist Party holds a rather dubious position. It was announced on October 1, 1949 [upon the founding of the Peoples Republic], that all the power resides in the people and in the National Peoples Congress composed of peoples representatives, and that daily administrative affairs are the domain of the government. However, up to the present day in China we still have a system of unified leadership under the Party. The Party, instead of establishing its political program through national elections, and instead of having its will expressed through the mechanism of the National Peoples Congress, has placed itself high above what the Constitution has designated as the supreme organ of state power the National Peoples Congressand the supreme administrative bodythe State Council. If the National Peoples Congress and the State Council are its machines, whats the point of adding the word supreme to them? And if the representative assembly that the people has elected is only the Partys machine, isnt the phrase all power resides with the people superfluous? Better just to get it over with and acknowledge that all power lies in the Party and the Partys Gestapo. Indeed, when a few statements of a certain individual from the Party, who is neither an organ of state power nor an administrative body, can for a few years determine the directions or policy decisions of a country, does this not alarm us and make us bristle with anger? . . . It is not that our nation does not need a nucleus; what is crucial is that this nucleus be chosen by the people. If a party or an organization has the people on its side, the people will elect it to power and make it possible for it to carry out its program. In brief, everything must be chosen by the people.
If, let us say, a citizen who has no right to speak up and express his opinions has no obligation to obey his government, then the people will have no need or obligation to support or heed a political party which, claiming as it may to represent the people, is totally devoid of a conscience and which has not been chosen by the people. We should recognize that the people and the national government come first and that the Party comes last. It is absolutely not the other way round, where we recognize not the people and the government but a Party which represents nothing at all! May 17, 1989 (big-character poster at Beijing University)
HUNGER STRIKE MANIFESTO

SOURCE
Liu Xiaobo, with Zhou Duo, Hou Dejian, and Gao Xin. Hunger Strike Manifesto. In Cries for Democracy: Writings and Speeches from the 1989 Chinese Democracy Movement, ed. Han Minzhu, 349354. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. Students first occupied Tiananmen Square with their demands for political reform and democracy on May 4, 1989. For a month demonstrators came and went, and there were speeches, discussions, teach-ins, and hunger strikes. The hunger strike manifesto issued by four well-known figures on June 2 argued that this was not merely a student movement, pleading for a new political culture and advocating only peaceful means to achieve change. Two days later the occupation of Tiananmen was brought to an end with extraordinary violence by the Peoples Liberation Army.
INTRODUCTION
We are on a hunger strike! We protest! We appeal! We repent! Death is not what we seek; we are searching for true life. In the face of the irrational, high-handed military violence of the Li Peng government, Chinese intellectuals must dispose of their age-old disease, passed down over centuries, of being spineless, of merely speaking and not acting. By means of action, we protest against military control; by means of action, we call for the birth of a new political culture; and by means of action, we express our repentance for the wrongs that have been the doing of our own age-old weakness. The Chinese nation has fallen behind; for this, each one of us bears his share of responsibility. . . . Our hunger strike is no longer a petition, but a protest against martial law and military control! We advocate the use of peaceful means to further democratization
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in China and to oppose any form of violence. Yet we do not fear brute force; through peaceful means, we will demonstrate the resilience of the democratic strength of the people, and smash the undemocratic order held together by bayonets and lies. . . . The thousands of years of Chinese history have been a story of violence met with violence, of learning to hate and to be hated. Entering the modern era, this enemy consciousness [where one separates the enemy from the people] has become the legacy of the Chinese. The post1949 slogan: Take class struggle as the key link [to all human struggles and as the motive force of history] has pushed to the extreme this traditional mentality of hatred, this enemy consciousness, and the practice of meeting violence with violence. This time, the imposition of military control is but another manifestation of the political culture of class struggle. It is because of this that we are on a hunger strike; we appeal to the Chinese people that from now on they gradually discard and eradicate [our] enemy consciousness and mentality of hatred, and completely forsake [our] class struggle form of political culture, for hatred generates only violence and autocracy. We must use a democratic spirit of tolerance and cooperation to begin the construction of democracy in China. For democratic politics is a politics without enemies and without a mentality of hatred, a politics of consultation, discussion, and decision by vote, based on mutual respect, mutual tolerance, and mutual accommodation. Since as Premier, Li Peng has made grave mistakes, he should be made to resign according to democratic processes. However, Li Peng is not our enemy; even if he steps down, he would still enjoy the rights that citizens should have, even the right to adhere to his mistaken beliefs. We appeal to all Chinese, from those in the government down to every ordinary citizen, to give up the old political culture and begin a new one. We ask that the government end martial law at once. We ask that both the students and the government once again turn to peaceful negotiation and consultative dialogue to resolve their differences. The present student movement has received an unprecedented amount of sympathy, understanding, and support from all sectors of society. The implementation of martial law has turned a student movement into a national democracy movement. Undeniable, however, is the fact that many of those who have supported the students have acted out of humanitarian sympathy and discontent with the government; they have lacked a citizens sense of political responsibility. Because of this, we appeal to all [members] of [Chinese] society gradually to drop the attitude of [merely] being onlookers and simply expressing sympathy. We appeal to you to acquire a sense of citizen consciousness. First of all, this citizen consciousness is the awareness that [all citizens] possess
political rights. Every citizen must have the self-confidence that ones own political rights are equal to the rights of the Premier. Next, citizen consciousness is a consciousness of rationalized political involvementof political responsibilitynot just a sense of justice and sympathy. It means that every man or woman cannot only express sympathy and support, but also must become directly involved in the construction of democracy. Finally, citizen consciousness means self-awareness of ones responsibilities and obligations. In the construction of social politics bound by rationality and law, every one of us must contribute his part; likewise, where social politics are irrational and lawless, each bears his share of responsibility. Voluntary participation in the political life of society and voluntary acceptance of ones responsibilities are the inescapable duties of every citizen. The Chinese people must see that, in democratized politics, everyone is first and foremost a citizen, and then a student, a professor, a worker, a cadre, or a soldier. For thousands of years, Chinese society has followed a vicious cycle of overthrowing an old emperor just to put up a new one. History has shown that the fall of a leader who has lost the peoples support or the rise of a leader who has the backing of the people cannot solve Chinas essential political problem. What we need is not a perfect savior, but a sound democratic system. We thus call for the following: (1) all [sectors of] society should establish lawful, autonomous citizens organizations, and gradually develop these organizations into citizens political forces that will act to check government policy making, for the quintessence of democracy is the curbing and balancing of power. We would rather have ten monsters that are mutually restrained than one angel of absolute power; (2) by impeaching leaders who have committed serious errors, [we should] gradually establish a sound system for the impeachment of officials. Whoever rises and whoever falls is not important; what is important is how one ascends to, or falls from, power. An undemocratic procedure of appointment and dismissal can only result in dictatorship. In the course of the present movement, both the government and the students have made mistakes. The main mistake of the government was that, conditioned by the outmoded political ideology of class struggle, it has chosen to take a stand in opposition to [the position of] the great majority of students and residents, thus causing continuous intensification of the conflict. The main mistake of the students is that, because the organizing of their own organizations left much to be desired, many undemocratic elements have appeared in the very process of striving for democracy. We therefore call on both the government and students to conduct levelheaded self-examination. It is our belief that, on the whole, the greater fault for the present situation lies with
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the government. Actions such as demonstrations and hunger strikes are democratic ways through which people express their wishes; they are completely legal and reasonable. They are anything but turmoil. Yet the government ignored the basic rights of the people granted by the Constitution; on the basis of its autocratic political ideology, it labeled the student movement as turmoil. This stand led to a series of wrong decisions, which then led to the growth of the movement and rising antagonism. The real catalyst for the turmoil is therefore the governments wrong decisions, errors of a gravity no less than [those committed in] the Cultural Revolution. It was only due to the great restraint shown by the students and people of Beijing and to impassioned appeals from all sectors of societyincluding the Party, the government, and the militarythat wide-scale bloodshed has been avoided. In view of this, the government must admit to and examine these mistakes it has made. We believe that it is not yet too late to correct the mistakes. The government should draw some painful lessons from this major movement. It should learn to become accustomed to listening to the voice of the people, to allowing people to express their desires through the exercise of the constitutionally granted rights, and to governing the country in a democratic way. This nationwide movement for democracy is a lesson for the government in how to govern society by means of democracy and the rule of law. The students mistakes are mainly manifested in the internal chaos of their organizations and the lack of efficient and democratic procedures. Although their goal is democracy, their means and procedures for achieving democracy are not democratic. Their theories call for democracy, but their handling of specific problems is not democratic. Their lack of cooperative spirit and the secretarianism that has caused their forces to neutralize each other have resulted in all their policies coming to naught. More faults can be named: financial chaos; material waste; an excess of emotion and a lack of reason; too much of the attitude that they are privileged, and not enough of the belief in equality; and so on. In the last hundred years, the great majority of the Chinese peoples struggles for democracy has remained at the level of ideological battles and slogan shouting. Enlightenment is much talked about, but little is said about the actual running of a democracy. Goals are discussed, but not the means, the procedures, or process through which they will be achieved. We believe that the actual realization of a democratic political system lies in the democratization of the process, means, and procedures of operating such a system. For this, we appeal to the Chinese people to forsake this tradition of empty democracy, a democracy of only ideology, slogans, and [abstract] goals, and begin the construction of the process, means, and procedures for the operation of a democracy. We ask you to
transform a democratic movement focused on ideological enlightenment into a movement of democracy in action; this must be done by starting with each specific matter. We call for the students to begin a self-examination that should focus on the overhaul and reorganization of the student groups in Tiananmen Square. The governments grave mistakes in its approach were also reflected in its use of the term a handful of persons [to refer to participants in pro-democracy protests]. Through our hunger strike, we would like to tell the media, home and abroad, who this so-called handful of persons [really] are: they are not [a bunch of] students, but citizens with a sense of political responsibility who have voluntarily participated in the present nationwide democratic movement led by the students. All we have done and all we are doing is lawful and reasonable. In this combat of opposing political cultures, of character cultivation and of moral strength, the hunger strikers intend to use their wisdom and actions to make the government feel shamed, to make it admit and correct its wrongdoings. We also intend to encourage the autonomous student organizations to improve themselves daily in accordance with democratic and legal procedures. It must be acknowledged that democratic governance of the country is unfamiliar to every Chinese citizen. And every Chinese citizen, including the highest officials in the Party and the government, must learn it from the bottom up. In this learning process, mistakes by both the government and the people are inevitable. The key is to admit mistakes when they become evident and to correct them after they appear; to learn from our mistakes and turn them into positive lessons; and, during the continuous process of rectifying our mistakes, to learn gradually how to govern the country democratically. We dont have enemies! Dont let hatred and violence poison wisdom and the process of democratization in China! We all must carry out a self-examination! Everyone bears responsibility for the backwardness of China! We are above all citizens! We are not seeking death! We are searching for true life! Liu Xiaobo, Ph.D. in Literature, Assistant Professor, Chinese Department, Beijing Normal University. Zhou Duo, former Assistant Professor, Sociology Research Institute, Beijing University; Director, Comprehensive Planning Division, Beijing Stone Corporation Group. Hou Dejian, well-known composer and song writer. Gao Xin, former Chief Editor of Normal University Weekly, Party member.
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The Truth about the Beijing Turmoil
THE TRUTH ABOUT THE BEIJING TURMOIL

SOURCE
The Truth about the Beijing Turmoil. Edited by the Editorial Board of the Truth about the Beijing Turmoil. Beijing Publishing House, 1990. http://www.tsquare.tv/ themes/truthturm.html. The massacre of students and other demonstrators in and near Tiananmen Square on the night of June 34, 1989, provoked horrified and indignant reactions all around the world. The decision to fire was even criticized by some in the Chinese leadership. The Chinese government attempted damage limitation by issuing its own statements and accounts, which always refer to the demonstrations and their suppression as turmoil, a pejorative term frequently also employed in official descriptions of the Cultural Revolution since the death of Mao.
INTRODUCTION
In 1989 when spring was passing to summer, a shocking turmoil happened in Beijing, which has attracted the close attention of people at home and abroad. Influenced by foreign media, people have many questions, guesses and misunderstandings. What really happened in China? What is the situation now like in Beijing? This album, with its abundant pictures, will help our readers understand the whole story of and truth about the turmoil and the present situation in Beijing. This turmoil was not a chance occurrence. It was a political turmoil incited by a very small number of political careerists after a few years of plotting and scheming. It was aimed at subverting the socialist Peoples Republic. By making use of some failings in the work of the Chinese government and the temporary economic difficulties, they spread far and wide many views against the Constitution, the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party and the Peoples Government, preparing the ground for the turmoil ideologically, organizationally and in public opinion. The former general secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Zhao Ziyang supported the turmoil and thus has unshirkable responsibility for its formation and development. The various political forces and reactionary organizations abroad had a hand in the turmoil from the very beginning. Some newspapers, magazines and broadcasting stations, especially the Voice of America, fabricated rumours to mislead people, thus adding fuel to the flames. When Hu Yaobang suddenly died on April 15, a handful of people, thinking that their time had come, stirred up a student upheaval on the pretext of mourning for Hu Yaobang. The student unrest had been taken advantage of by the organizers of the turmoil from the very
beginning. In violation of the Constitution, laws and regulations, some people put up big-character posters everywhere on the college campuses, preaching bourgeois liberalization and calling for the overthrow of the Communist Party and the legal government. They held many rallies, made speeches, boycotted classes and organized demonstrations, all without permission; they stormed the seat of the Party Central Committee and the State Council; they forcibly occupied the Tiananmen Square on many occasions and organized various illegal organizations without registration for approval. In Changsha, Xian and other cities, some people engaged in grave criminal activities such as beating, smashing, looting and burning stores, and even broke into the compounds of provincial government seats and set fire to the motor vehicles there. In view of this turmoil, the Peoples Daily issued, on April 26, an editorial exposing the nature of the turmoil. Even under this circumstance, the Party and the government exercised great restraint towards the students extremist slogans and actions and had all along given due recognition to the students patriotic enthusiasm and reasonable demands. At the same time, the Party and the government warned the students not to be made use of by a handful of people and expressed the hope for solving the problems through dialogues and by normal, democratic and legal procedures. However, on May 13, the illegal student organization started a general hunger strike involving over 3,000 people and lasting for seven days. Party and government leaders, on the one hand, went to see the fasting students at Tiananmen Square and met with students representatives on many occasions, asking them to value their lives and stop the hunger strike, and on the other hand, they lost no time in organizing on-the-spot rescue teams and providing all kinds of materials so as to relieve the suffering of the fasting students. Thanks to efforts of the government and other quarters. not a single student died in the hunger strike. But all this failed to win active response. On the contrary, some media, taking the cue from a small number of people, wrongly guided the public opinion, escalating the turmoil and throwing Beijing and even the whole country in a serious anarchic situation, something that cannot be tolerated in any other country. In Beijing, demonstrations were held continuously, slogans insulting and attacking leaders and openly calling for overthrowing the government could be heard and seen everywhere. The traffic was seriously congested and difficulties were created for Beijings production and daily supplies. The police was unable to keep normal social order. Gorbachevs schedules in China were also seriously hampered. The small handful of people attempted to take the chaos as an opportunity to seize political power and threatened to set up a new government in three days.
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The Truth about the Beijing Turmoil
On May 19, the Party Central Committee held a meeting attended by cadres from the Party, government and military institutions in Beijing, At the meeting, Premier Li Peng and President of the Peoples Republic of China Yang Shangkun announced the decision to adopt resolute measures to stop the turmoil. But Zhao Ziyang, then general secretary of the Party Central Committee, refused to attend this important meeting. On May 20, Li Peng signed a martial law order as empowered by Clause 16 of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. The martial law was to be enforced at 10 a.m. on the same day in parts of Beijing. The small handful of people took fright and coerced those residents who were in the dark about the truth to set up roadblocks at major crossroads to stop the advance of army vehicles and prevent the martial law enforcement troops from getting to designated places according to plan. Besides, they threatened to mobilize 200,000 people to occupy Tiananmen Square and organize a nation-wide general strike. Using the funds provided by reactionary forces at home and abroad, they installed sophisticated communication facilities and illegally purchased weapons. They gathered together hooligans and ruffians to set up terrorist organizations such as the Dare-to-Die Corps and the Flying Tiger Team, and threatened to kidnap or put Party and government leaders under house arrest. They offered high prices in recruiting thugs and fabricated rumours to deceive people. All the facts proved that, no matter how tolerant and restrained the government was, such people would not give up their wild scheme; on the contrary they threatened to fight to the end against the government. On the evening of June 2, a handful of people bent upon inciting a riot used a traffic accident to spread rumours and mislead people, lighting the fuse of a rebellion. In the small hours of June 3, rioters set up roadblocks at every crossroad, beat up soldiers and armed police, seized weapons, ammunition and other military materials. Mobs also assaulted the Great Hall of the People, the Central Propaganda Department, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Radio, Film and Television and the west and south gates of Zhongnanhai, the seat of the Party Central Committee and the State Council. At about 5 p.m., the illegal organizations distributed kitchen knives, daggers and iron bars, to the crowd on Tiananmen Square and incited them to take up weapons and overthrow the government. A group of ruffians banded together about 1,000 people to push down the wall of a construction site near Xidan and seized large quantities of tools, reinforcing bars and bricks, ready for street fighting. They planned to incite people to take to the streets the next day, a Sunday, to
stage a violent rebellion in an attempt to overthrow the government and seize power at one stroke. At this critical juncture, the martial law troops were ordered to move in by force to quell the anti-government rebellion. At 6:30 p.m., on June 3, the Beijing municipal government and the headquarters of the martial law enforcement troops issued an emergency announcement, asking all citizens to keep off the streets and stay at home. The announcement was broadcast over and over again. At about 10 p.m., the martial law troops headed for Beijing proper from various directions. The rioters, taking advantage of the soldiers restraint, blocked military and other kinds of vehicles before they smashed and burned them. They also seized guns, ammunitions and transceivers. Several rioters seized an armoured car and fired guns as they drove it along the street. Rioters also assaulted civilian installations and public buildings. Several rioters even drove a public bus loaded with gasoline drums towards the Tiananmen gatetower in an attempt to set fire to it. At the same time, rioters savagely beat up, kidnapped and killed soldiers and officers. On the Changan Avenue, when a military vehicle suddenly broke down, rioters surrounded it and ferociously crushed the driver with bricks. At Fuchengmen, a soldiers body was hung heel over head on the overpass balustrade after he had been savagely killed. At Chongwenmen, another soldier was thrown down from the flyover and burned alive. Near a cinema, an officer was beaten to death, disembowelled and his eyes gouged out. His body was then strung up on a burning bus. Over 1,280 vehicles were burned or damaged in the rebellion, including over 1,000 military trucks, more than 60 armoured cars, over 30 police cars, over 120 public buses and trolley buses and over 70 motor vehicles of other kinds. More than 6,000 martial law officers and soldiers were injured and scores of them killed. Such heavy losses are eloquent testimony to the restraint and tolerance shown by the martial law enforcement troops. For fear of injuring civilians by accident, they would rather endure humiliation and meet their death unflinchingly, although they had weapons in their hands. It can be said that there is no other army in the world that can exercise restraint to such an extent. The martial law troops, having suffered heavy casualties and been driven beyond forbearance, were forced to fire into the air to clear the way forward. During the counter-attack, some rioters were killed, some onlookers were hit by stray bullets and some wounded or killed by armed ruffians. According to reliable statistics, more than 3,000 civilians were wounded and over 200, including 36 college students, were killed. At 1:30 a.m. on June 4, the Beijing municipal government and the martial law headquarters issued an
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White Paper on Human Rights, Preface
emergency notice asking all students and other citizens to leave Tiananmen Square. The notice was broadcast repeatedly for well over three hours over loudspeakers. The students on Tiananmen Square, after discussion among themselves, sent representatives to the troops to express their willingness to withdraw from the square and this was approved by the troops. Then at about 5 a.m., several thousand students left the square in an orderly manner through a wide corridor in the southeastern part of the square vacated by the troops, carrying their own banners and streamers. Those who refused to leave were forced to leave by the soldiers. By 5:30 a.m., the clearing operation of the square had been completed. During the whole operation not a single person was killed. The allegations that Tiananmen Square was plunged into a bloodbath and thousands of people were killed in the square are sheer rumours, and the true state of affairs will eventually be clear to the public. After the decisive victory in quelling the riot, order in the capital was basically restored to normal and the situation throughout China soon became stable. The measures adopted by the Chinese government to stop the turmoil and put down the rebellion have not only won the acclaim and support of the Chinese people, but they have also won the understanding and support of the governments and people of many other countries. The Chinese government has announced that it will unswervingly carry on the policy of reform and opening to the outside world, the policy of developing friendly cooperation with different countries of the world on the basis of the five principles of peaceful coexistence, and the policy towards Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan. We will continue to strive for the realization of the socialist modernization. We are fully confident of our future.
Rights in China (1995), Progress in Chinas Human Rights Cause in 1996 (1996), Fifty Years of Progress in Chinas Human Rights (2000), and Progress in Chinas Human Rights Cause in 2004 (2005). The following excerpt is from the Preface to the first White Paper on Human Rights in 1991.
It has been a long-cherished ideal of mankind to enjoy human rights in the full sense of the term. Since this great termhuman rightswas coined centuries ago, people of all nations have achieved great results in their unremitting struggle for human rights. However, on a global scale, modern society has fallen far short of the lofty goal of securing the full range of human rights for people the world over. And this is why numerous people with lofty ideals are still working determinedly for this cause. Under long years of oppression by the three big mountainsimperialism, feudalism and bureaucratcapitalismpeople in old China did not have any human rights to speak of. Suffering bitterly from this, the Chinese people fought for more than a century, defying death and personal sacrifices and advancing wave upon wave, in an arduous struggle to overthrow the three big mountains and gain their human rights. The situation in respect to human rights in China took a basic turn for the better after the founding of the Peoples Republic of China. Greatly treasuring this hard-won achievement, the Chinese government and people have spared no effort to safeguard human rights and steadily improve their human rights situation, and have achieved remarkable results. This has won full confirmation and fair appraisal from all people who have a real understanding of Chinese conditions and who are not prejudiced. The issue of human rights has become one of great significance and common concern in the world community. The series of declarations and conventions adopted by the United Nations have won the support and respect of many countries. The Chinese government has also highly appraised the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, considering it the first international human rights document that has laid the foundation for the practice of human rights in the world arena. However, the evolution of the situation in regard to human rights is circumscribed by the historical, social, economic and cultural conditions of various nations, and involves a process of historical development. Owing to tremendous differences in historical background, social system, cultural tradition and economic development, countries differ in their understanding and practice of human rights. From their different situations, they have taken different attitudes towards the relevant UN conventions. Despite its international aspect, the issue of human rights falls by and large within the sovereignty of each country. Therefore, a
WHITE PAPER ON HUMAN RIGHTS, PREFACE

INTRODUCTION
The Chinese government is very sensitive to international criticism of its human rights record and has reacted especially strongly to the United States tabling of critical draft resolutions in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Beginning in 1991, often in response to such criticism, the State Council Information Office has published at least 18 white papers on human rights and related subjects emphasizing aspects of Chinas human rights work such as success in feeding and educating its population, its efforts to guarantee the rights of women and children, and to establish gender and ethnic equality. The major titles were: Human Rights in China (1991),The Progress of Human
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The Taiwan Question and Reunification of China
countrys human rights situation should not be judged in total disregard of its history and national conditions, nor can it be evaluated according to a preconceived model or the conditions of another country or region. Such is the practical attitude, the attitude of seeking truth from facts. From their own historical conditions, the realities of their own country and their long practical experience, the Chinese people have derived their own viewpoints on the human rights issue and formulated relevant laws and policies. It is stipulated in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China that all power in the Peoples Republic of China belongs to the people. Chinese human rights have three salient characteristics. First, extensiveness. It is not a minority of the people or part of a class or social stratum but the entire Chinese citizenry who constitutes the subject enjoying human rights. The human rights enjoyed by the Chinese citizenry encompass an extensive scope, including not only survival, personal and political rights, but also economic, cultural and social rights. The state pays full attention to safeguarding both individual and collective rights. Second, equality. China has adopted the socialist system after abolishing the system of exploitation and eliminating the exploiting classes. The Chinese citizenry enjoys all civic rights equally irrespective of the money and property status as well as of nationality, race, sex, occupation, family background, religion, level of education and duration of residence. Third, authenticity. The state provides guarantees in terms of system, laws and material means for the realization of human rights. The various civic rights prescribed in the Constitution and other state laws are in accord with what people enjoy in real life. Chinas human rights legislation and policies are endorsed and supported by the people of all nationalities and social strata and by all the political parties, social organizations and all walks of life. As a developing country, China has suffered from setbacks while safeguarding and developing human rights. Although much has been achieved in this regard, there is still much room for improvement. It remains a long-term historical task for the Chinese people and government to continue to promote human rights and strive for the noble goal of full implementation of human rights as required by Chinas socialism. . . .
document that is excerpted below, works directly under the State Council and is responsible for all matters connected to Taiwan. The offer of one country, two systems meant that in the event of reunification Taiwan would preserve internal autonomythe arrangement that was made for Hong Kong after its return to Chinese sovereignty in 1997.
FOREWORD
It is the sacred right of each and every sovereign State and a fundamental principle of international law to safeguard national unity and territorial integrity. The Charter of the United Nations specifically stipulates that the United Nations and its Members shall refrain from any action against the territorial integrity or political independence of any of its Members or any State and shall not intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State. The United Nations Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations points out that any attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national unity, territorial integrity or political independence of a State or country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. The modern history of China was a record of subjection to aggression, dismemberment and humiliation by foreign powers. It was also a chronicle of the Chinese peoples valiant struggles for national independence and in defense of their state sovereignty, territorial integrity and national dignity. The origin and evolution of the Taiwan question are closely linked with that period of history. For various reasons Taiwan is still separated from the mainland. Unless and until this state of affairs is brought to an end, the trauma on the Chinese nation will not be healed and the Chinese peoples struggle for national reunification and territorial integrity will continue. What is the present state of the Taiwan question? What is the crux of the problem? What are the position and views of the Chinese Government regarding the settlement of this issue? In order to facilitate a better understanding by the international community, it is necessary to elucidate the following points. . . .
III. THE CHINESE GOVERNMENTS BASIC POSITION REGARDING SETTLEMENT OF THE TAIWAN QUESTION
THE TAIWAN QUESTION AND REUNIFICATION OF CHINA

INTRODUCTION
Chinas reform leadership maintained the position that Taiwan was an inalienable part of China and the country should one day be reunited. The Taiwan Affairs Office, which issued the 1993
To settle the Taiwan question and achieve national reunificationthis is a sacrosanct mission of the entire Chinese people. The Chinese Government has persistently worked towards this end since the founding of
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The Taiwan Question and Reunification of China
the Peoples Republic. Its basic position on this question is: peaceful reunification; one country, two systems. Peaceful reunification; one country, two systems how has this position been formulated? The Chinese Government conceived a peaceful settlement of the Taiwan question as early as in the 1950s. In May 1955 the late Premier Zhou Enlai said at an NPC Standing Committee meeting that two alternatives were open to the Chinese people for the solution of the Taiwan questionby resort to war or by peaceful means. The Chinese people would strive for a peaceful solution wherever possible, he affirmed. In April 1956 the late Chairman Mao Zedong put forward thoughts for policymaking such as peace is the best option, all patriots are of one family and it is never too late to join the ranks of patriots. However, those wishes have not come to fruition for reasons such as interference by foreign forces. Major changes took place in and outside China in the 1970s. Diplomatic ties were established and relations normalized between China and the United States. The Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China decided to shift the focus of the work of the Party and the State to the economic modernization programme. In the meantime, people on both sides of the Taiwan Straits, compatriots of Hong Kong and Macao as well as overseas Chinese and people of Chinese descent all expressed their fervent hope that the two sides of the Straits would join hands to work for a resurgence of China. It was against this historical background that the Chinese Government formulated the position of peaceful reunification; one country, two systems. The position takes the overall national interests and the future of the country into consideration. It respects history as well as the prevailing situation. It is realistic and takes care of the interests of all. . . . Basic Contents of peaceful reunification; one country, two systems. This position is an important component of the theory and practice of building socialism with Chinese characteristics and a fundamental state policy of the Chinese Government which will not change for a long time to come. Its basic contents are as follows: 1. Only one China. There is only one China in the world, Taiwan is an inalienable part of China and the seat of Chinas central government is in Beijing. This is a universally recognized fact as well as the premise for a peaceful settlement of the Taiwan question. The Chinese Government is firmly against any words or deeds designed to split Chinas sovereignty and territorial integrity. It opposes two Chinas, one China, one Taiwan, one country, two governments or any attempt or act that could
lead to independence of Taiwan. The Chinese people on both sides of the Straits all believe that there is only one China and espouse national reunification. Taiwans status as an inalienable part of China has been determined and cannot be changed. Self-determination for Taiwan is out of the question. 2. Coexistence of two systems. On the premise of one China, socialism on the mainland and capitalism on Taiwan can coexist and develop side by side for a long time without one swallowing up the other. This concept has largely taken account of the actual situation in Taiwan and practical interests of our compatriots there. It will be a unique feature and important innovation in the state system of a reunified China. After reunification, Taiwans current socio-economic system, its way of life as well as economic and cultural ties with foreign countries can remain unchanged. Private property, including houses and land, as well as business ownership, legal inheritance and overseas Chinese and foreign investments on the island will all be protected by law. 3. A high degree of autonomy. After reunification, Taiwan will become a special administrative region. It will be distinguished from the other provinces or regions of China by its high degree of autonomy. It will have its own administrative and legislative powers, an independent judiciary and the right of adjudication on the island. It will run its own party, political, military, economic and financial affairs. It may conclude commercial and cultural agreements with foreign countries and enjoy certain rights in foreign affairs. It may keep its military forces and the mainland will not dispatch troops or administrative personnel to the island. On the other hand, representatives of the government of the special administrative region and those from different circles of Taiwan may be appointed to senior posts in the central government and participate in the running of national affairs. 4. Peace negotiations. It is the common aspiration of the entire Chinese people to achieve reunification of the country by peaceful means through contacts and negotiations. People on both sides of the Straits are all Chinese. It would be a great tragedy for all if Chinas territorial integrity and sovereignty were to be split and its people were to be drawn into a fratricide. Peaceful reunification will greatly enhance the cohesion of the Chinese nation. It will facilitate Taiwans socio-economic stability and development and promote the resurgence and prosperity of China as a whole. . . .
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CONCLUSION
Reunification of the country embodies the fundamental interest of the Chinese nation. After national reunification the two sides of the Taiwan Straits can pool their resources and make common cause in economic development and work towards Chinas resurgence. Numerous problems that have been besetting Taiwan would be judiciously resolved within the framework of one China. Taiwan compatriots will share the pride and glory of a great nation with their kith and kin from the other parts of the motherland.
MARRIAGE LAW OF THE PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA

INTRODUCTION
makes parents responsible for any damage to property done by their children. With an aging population the state has become concerned about the cost of care for the elderly. While the 1950 law mentioned only the obligation of parents to care for their children, the 1980 version made grandparents responsible for grandchildren when parents were dead and made children responsible for parents and grandparents when people of the older generation were unable to care for themselves. Citizens also have an obligation to care for their siblings who are unable to support themselves. The All-China Womens Federation was involved in the drafting of the law and in publicizing it and promoting its implementation.
Marriage law in China is in effect family law. It is interesting because it shows what the Communist Party regards as desirable in family relations and what it sees as undesirable. The first marriage law of the Peoples Republic of China came into force in 1950. The law was concerned to establish free choice monogamous marriage based on equality between men and women. Minimum ages for marriage at 18 for women and 20 for men were high by international standards because it was believed that this would help young people to avoid being coerced into unwanted matches by their parents. Women could keep their own surnames after marriage and children could take the surname of either their father or their mother. Both this law and subsequent texts expressly forbade infanticide. Current marriage law is based on a new and more detailed law adopted in 1980 and amended in 2001. It still reflects the major concerns of the 1950 law but there are some interesting changes and additions based on more contemporary social problems. Minimum age for marriage was raised to 20 for women and 22 for men, as late marriage is thought to contribute to lower birthrate. Married couples were required to practice family planning. More detail on property regimes in marriage, on inheritance and on the disposition of property after divorce reflected increasing prosperity and a rising divorce rate. Domestic violence is mentioned in the 2001 amendments, probably as a result of the influence of Western feminism. The treatment of cases of the abduction of women is considered. This became a problem in China beginning in the 1990s as in some areas the demand for brides exceeded the supply of women, and weakened social and political control made it easier to get away with such crime. A concern for vandalism can be discerned in the clause that
Adopted at the Third Session of the Fifth National Peoples Congress on September 10, 1980, and amended in accordance with Decision Regarding the Amendment (of Marriage Law of the Peoples Republic of China) passed at the 21st Session of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National Peoples Congress on April 28, 2001.
CHAPTER I: GENERAL PROVISIONS
Article 1 This Law is the fundamental code governing marriage and family relations. Article 2 A marriage system based on the free choice of partners, on monogamy and on equality between man and woman shall be applied. The lawful rights and interests of women, children and old people shall be protected. Family planning shall be practised. Article 3 Marriage upon arbitrary decision by any third party, mercenary marriage and any other acts of interference in the freedom of marriage shall be prohibited. The exaction of money or gifts in connection with marriage shall be prohibited. Bigamy shall be prohibited. Cohabitation of a married person with any third party shall be prohibited. Domestic violence shall be prohibited. Within the family maltreatment and desertion of one family member by another shall be prohibited. Article 4 Husband and wife shall be faithful to and respect each other. Within the family, family members shall respect
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the old and cherish the young, help one another, and maintain equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family relations.
CHAPTER II: MARRIAGE CONTRACT
rendering a person unfit for marriage and, after marriage, a cure is not effected; and 4. if the legally marriageable age is not attained. Article 11 In the case of a marriage made under coercion, the coerced party may make a request to the marriage registration office or the peoples court for the dissolution of the marriage contract. Such a request shall be made within one year as of the marriage registration date. The party concerned whose personal freedom is curbed illegitimately shall make a request for dissolution of the marriage contract within one year as of the date on which his or her personal freedom is restored. Article 12 Void or dissolved marriage shall be invalid from its inception. Neither party concerned shall have the rights and duties of husband or wife. The property acquired during their cohabitation shall be subject to disposition by mutual agreement. If they fail to reach an agreement, the peoples court shall give a ruling on the principle of caring for the no-fault party. The disposition of the property of void marriage caused by bigamy may not be to the detriment of the property rights and interests of the party concerned to the lawful marriage. The provisions of this Law regarding parents and children shall apply to the children born from the parties concerned.
CHAPTER III: FAMILY RELATIONS
Article 5 Marriage must be based upon the complete willingness of both man and woman. Neither party may use compulsion on the other party and no third party may interfere. Article 6 No marriage may be contracted before the man has reached 22 years of age and the woman 20 years of age. Late marriage and late childbirth shall be encouraged. Article 7 No marriage may be contracted under any of the following circumstances: 1. if the man and the woman are lineal relatives by blood, or collateral relatives by blood up to the third degree of kinship; and 2. if the man or the woman is suffering from any disease, which is regarded by medical science as rendering a person unfit for marriage. Article 8 Both the man and the woman desiring to contract a marriage shall register in person with the marriage registration office. If the proposed marriage is found to conform with the provisions of this Law, the couple shall be allowed to register and issued marriage certificates. The husband and wife relationship shall be established as soon as they acquire the marriage certificates. In the absence of the marriage registration, the man and the woman shall go through the procedures subsequently. Article 9 After a marriage has been registered, the woman may become a member of the mans family or vice versa, depending on the agreed wishes of the two parties. Article 10 Marriage shall be invalid under any of the following circumstances: 1. if one party commits bigamy; 2. if the man and the woman are relatives by blood up to the third degree of kinship; 3. if, before marriage, one party is suffering from a disease which is regarded by medical science as
Article 13 Husband and wife shall have equal status in the family. Article 14 Both husband and wife shall have the right to use his or her own surname and given name. Article 15 Both husband and wife shall have the freedom to engage in production and other work, to study and to participate in social activities; neither party may restrict or interfere with the other party. Article 16 Both husband and wife shall have the duty to practise family planning. Article 17 The following items of property acquired by husband and wife during the period in which they are under contract of marriage shall be jointly possessed:
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1. pay and bonus; 2. earnings from production and operation; 3. earnings from intellectual property rights; 4. property obtained from inheritance or gift except as provided for in Article 18 (3) of this Law; and 5. any other items of property which shall be jointly possessed. Husband and wife shall enjoy equal rights in the disposition of their jointly possessed property.
Article 21 Parents shall have the duty to bring up and educate their children; children shall have the duty to support and assist their parents. If parents fail to perform their duty, children who are minors or who are incapable of living on their own shall have the right to demand the cost of upbringing from their parents. If children fail to perform their duty, parents who are unable to work or have difficulties in providing for themselves shall have the right to demand support payments from their children. Infant drowning, deserting and any other acts causing serious harm to infants and infanticide shall be prohibited. Article 22 Children may adopt their fathers or their mothers surname. Article 23 Parents shall have the right and duty to subject their children who are minors to discipline and to protect them. If children who are minors cause damage to the State, the collective, or individuals, their parents shall have the duty to bear civil liability. Article 24 Husband and wife shall have the right to inherit each others property. Parents and children shall have the right to inherit each others property. Article 25 Children born out of wedlock shall enjoy the same rights as children born in wedlock. No one may harm or discriminate against them. The natural father or the natural mother who does not rear directly his or her child born out of wedlock shall bear the childs living and educational expenses until the child can support himself or herself. Article 26 The State shall protect lawful adoption. The relevant provisions of this Law governing the relationship between parents and children shall apply to the rights and duties in the relationship between foster parents and foster children. The rights and duties in the relationship between a foster child and his or her natural parents shall terminate with the establishment of this adoption.
Article 18 Any of the following items shall be husbands or wifes separate property: 1. prenuptial property in his or her separate possession; 2. expenses such as medical costs and costs of living of the disabled given to one party for his or her bodily infliction; 3. the property going only to husband or wife, as specified in a will or a gift contract; 4. one partys private articles for daily use; and 5. any other items of property which shall be in his or her separate possession. Article 19 So far as the property acquired during the period in which they are under contract of marriage and the prenuptial property are concerned, husband and wife may agree as to whether they should be in the separate possession, joint possession or partly separate possession and partly joint possession. The agreement shall be made in writing. The provisions of Articles 17 and 18 of this Law shall apply to the absence of such an agreement or to a vague one. The agreement reached between the husband and wife on the property acquired during the period in which they are under contract of marriage and on the prenuptial property is binding on both parties. If husband and wife agree, as is known to the third party, to separately possess their property acquired during their marriage life, the debt owed by the husband or the wife to any other person, shall be paid off out of the property separately possessed by him or her. Article 20 Husband and wife shall have the duty to maintain each other. If one party fails to perform this duty, the party in need of maintenance shall have the right to demand maintenance payments from the other party.
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Article 27 Maltreatment or discrimination shall not be permitted between stepparents and stepchildren. The relevant provisions in this Law governing the relationship between parents and children shall apply to the rights and duties in the relationship between stepfathers or stepmothers and their stepchildren who receive care and education from them. Article 28 Grandparents or maternal grandparents who can afford it shall have the duty to bring up their grandchildren or maternal grandchildren who are minors and whose parents are dead or have no capacity of bringing them up. Grandchildren or maternal grandchildren who can afford it shall have the duty to support their grandparents or maternal grandparents whose children are dead or cannot afford it. Article 29 Elder brothers or elder sisters who can afford it shall have the duty to bring up their younger brothers or sisters who are minors if their parents are dead or have no means to bring them up. Younger brothers or sisters who have been brought up by their elder brothers or elder sisters and have the means of maintenance shall have the duty to support them who are lacking in the capacity to work and in the source of income. Article 30 Children shall have respect for their parents matrimonial rights and shall not interfere in their parents remarriage and post-nuptial life. Childrens duty to maintain their parents shall not terminate with the change in their parents matrimonial relationship.
CHAPTER IV: DIVORCE
In dealing with a divorce case, the peoples court should carry out mediation between the parties. Divorce shall be granted if mediation fails because mutual affection no long exists. Divorce shall be granted if mediation fails under any of the following circumstances: 1. bigamy or, cohabitation of a married person with any third party; 2. domestic violence or, maltreatment and desertion of one family member by another; 3. bad habits of gambling or drug addiction which remain incorrigible despite repeated admonition; 4. separation caused by incompatibility, which lasts two full years; and 5. any other circumstances causing alienation of mutual affection. Divorce shall be granted if one party is declared to be missing and the other party thereby files an action for divorce. Article 33 If the spouse of a soldier in active military service desires a divorce, the soldiers consent must be obtained, except that the soldier commits a serious fault. Article 34 A husband may not apply for a divorce when his wife is pregnant or within one year after the birth of a child or within six months after pregnancy suspension. This restriction shall not apply in cases where the wife applies for a divorce, or when the peoples court deems it necessary to accept the divorce application made by the husband. Article 35 If, after divorce, both parties desire to resume their husband-and-wife relationship, they shall register for the remarrying of each other with the marriage registration office. Article 36 The relationship between parents and children shall not come to an end with the parents divorce. After divorce, whether the children are put in the custody of the father or the mother, they shall remain the children of both parents. After divorce, both parents shall still have the right and duty to bring up and educate their children. In principle the mother shall have the custody of a breast-fed infant after divorce. If a dispute arises between the two parties over the custody of their child who has been weaned and they fail to reach an agreement, the
Article 31 Divorce shall be granted if husband and wife both desire it. Both parties shall apply to the marriage registration office for divorce. The marriage registration office, after clearly establishing that divorce is desired by both parties and that appropriate arrangements have been made for the care of any children and the disposition of property, shall issue divorce certificates. Article 32 When one party alone desires a divorce, the organizations concerned may carry out mediation, or the party may appeal directly to a peoples court to start divorce proceedings.
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peoples court shall make a judgment in accordance with the rights and interests of the child and the actual conditions of both parents. Article 37 If, after divorce, one party has been given custody of a child, the other parent shall bear part or the whole of the childs necessary living and educational expenses. The two parties shall seek agreement regarding the amount and duration of such payment. If they fail to reach an agreement, the peoples court shall make a judgment. The agreement or the court judgment on a childs living and educational expenses shall not prevent the child from making a reasonable request, when necessary, to either parent for an amount exceeding what was decided upon in the said agreement or judgment. Article 38 After divorce, the father or the mother who does not rear their children directly shall have the right to visit them, while the other party shall have the duty to give assistance. The parents shall reach an agreement about how and when to exercise the right of visit. If they fail to reach an agreement, the peoples court shall make a judgment. If the father or the mother visits their children to the detriment of their mental and physical health, a peoples court shall suspend the right of visit according to law; and such a right shall be restored after the main content of the suspension disappears. Article 39 At the time of divorce, the disposition of the property in the joint possession of husband and wife is subject to agreement between the two parties. In cases where an agreement cannot be reached, the peoples court shall make a judgment in consideration of the actual circumstance of the property and on the principle of caring for the rights and interests of the wife and the child or children. The rights and interests enjoyed by husband or wife in the operation of land under a contract based on the household shall be protected according to law. Article 40 According to a couples written agreement, the items of property acquired during their marriage are in the separate possession. In this connection, if one party performs more duties in rearing their children, looking after their elders and assisting the other party in work, he or she shall have the right at the time of divorce to request compensation from the other party who shall make the compensation.
Article 41 At the time of divorce, debts incurred by the husband and wife during their marriage shall be paid off out of their jointly possessed property. If such property is insufficient to pay off the debts or, the items of the property are in the separate possession, the two parties shall work out an agreement with regard to the payment. If they fail to reach an agreement, the peoples court shall make a judgment. Article 42 If, at the time of divorce, one party has difficulties supporting himself or herself, the other party shall render appropriate help from her or his personal property such as a dwelling house. Specific arrangements shall be made between both parties through consultation. If they fail to reach an agreement, the peoples court shall make a judgment.
CHAPTER V: SUCCOUR MEASURES AND LEGAL LIABILITY
Article 43 In regard to the domestic violence to or maltreatment of family member(s), the victim shall have the right to make a request, and the neighborhood or villager committee as well as the units in which the parties concerned work shall dissuade the wrongdoer, and offer mediation. In regard to the domestic violence being committed, the victim shall have the right to make a request, the neighborhood or villager committee shall dissuade the wrongdoer, and the public security organ shall stop the violence. If, in regard to the domestic violence to or maltreatment of family member(s), the victim makes a request, the public security organ shall subject the wrongdoer to administrative penalty in accordance with the relevant provisions of administrative sanctions for public order. Article 44 In regard to the desertion of one family member by another, the victim shall have the right to make a request, and the neighborhood or villager committee as well as the units in which the parties concerned work shall dissuade the wrongdoer and offer mediation. If, in regard to the desertion of one family member by another, the victim makes a request, the peoples court shall pass a judgment on the effecting of maintenance, upbringing and support payments according to law. Article 45 If bigamy, domestic violence to or maltreatment and desertion of family member(s) constitute a crime, the criminal responsibility of the wrongdoer shall be investigated according to law. The victim may institute a
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Jiang Zemins Speech at the Meeting Celebrating the 80th Anniversary of the CCP
voluntary prosecution in a peoples court in accordance with the relevant provisions of the criminal procedure law. The public security organ shall investigate the case according to law and the peoples procuratorate shall initiate a public prosecution according to law. Article 46 A no-fault party shall have the right to make a request for damage compensation under any of the following circumstances bringing about divorce: 1. bigamy; 2. cohabitation of a married person with any third party; 3. domestic violence; and 4. maltreatment and desertion of one family member by another. Article 47 When the couples joint property is divided, the party may get smaller or no share of the property if he or she conceals, transfers, sells off, destroys the couples joint property, or forges debts in an attempt to convert the other partys property at the time of divorce. After divorce, the other party, on finding the above-mentioned acts, may file an action in a peoples court, and make a request for another division of the couples joint property. Regarding the acts to the prejudice of the civil litigation that are specified in the preceding paragraph, the peoples court shall subject the wrongdoer to the punishment according to the provisions of the civil procedure law. Article 48 In cases where the person refuses to abide by judgments or rulings on maintenance, upbringing or support payments, or on the division or inheritance of property, or on visits to children, the peoples court shall enforce the execution of the judgments or rulings according to law. The individuals and units concerned shall have the duty to assist such executions. Article 49 Where laws provide otherwise against illegal acts and for legal liability in regard to marriage and family, the provisions in such laws shall apply.
CHAPTER VI: SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS
adaptations formulated by autonomous prefectures and autonomous counties must be submitted to the standing committee of the peoples congress of the relevant province or autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central Government for approval. Provisions of adaptations formulated by autonomous regions must be submitted to the Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress for the record. Article 51 This Law shall come into force as of January 1, 1981. The Marriage Law of the Peoples Republic of China promulgated on May 1, 1950 shall be invalidated as of the day this Law comes into force.
JIANG ZEMINS SPEECH AT THE MEETING CELEBRATING THE 80th ANNIVERSARY OF THE FOUNDING OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF CHINA
INTRODUCTION
The First Congress of the Chinese Communist Party was held in Shanghai in 1921. The delegates first met in a small store in the French concession and then, fearing a police raid, fled to a houseboat on a lake near Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Scholars dispute the exact date of the founding but in China July 1 is always celebrated as the Partys birthday. The 80th anniversary of the founding was celebrated with considerable official pomp. Jiang Zemin, general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, delivered a speech (excerpted below) at a grand gathering at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing held on July 1, 2001 to emphasize the Partys achievements and the continuation of its leading role.
Article 50 The peoples congresses in national autonomous areas shall have the right to formulate certain adaptations in the light of the specific conditions of the local nationalities in regard to marriage and family. Provisions of
Comrades and Friends, We gather here today at this grand rally to celebrate the 80th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China together with the people of all ethnic groups across the country, and look to the bright future of the development of China and the rest of the world along with all people on earth who love peace and pursue progress. The Communist Party of China had only some 50 members at its birth 80 years ago and what it faced was a calamity-ridden old China. But today, 80 years later, our Party has become a big party that has been in power for more than 50 years and has more than 64 million members and what the Chinese people see is a prosperous
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Jiang Zemins Speech at the Meeting Celebrating the 80th Anniversary of the CCP
socialist motherland. This tremendous change is a historic miracle in the development of the Chinese nation. Reviewing the course of struggle of the Party and the people in the last century, we feel exultant and infinitely proud. Looking into the great journey of the Party and the people ahead in the new century, we are filled with strength and confidence that we are bound to win. . . . From the Opium War to the founding of the Communist Party of China, and from the founding of the Party to the present, China has experienced two completely different periods of 80 years. In the first 80-year period, the feudal rulers surrendered the countrys sovereign rights under humiliating terms, the society was thrown into wars and chaos, the country became impoverished and weak and the people lived in hunger and cold. In the second 80-year period, the Chinese people, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, have got unprecedentedly united and organized, overcome numerous difficulties and won one victory after another in their revolutionary struggle. Since the founding of New China, the economy and society have developed rapidly; the country has become increasingly prosperous; the peoples social status, living standards and cultural and educational level have risen markedly. Through the comparison of the two periods, the Chinese people and all the patriotic forces in China have come to realize that it is precisely the leadership of the Communist Party of China that has enabled the country to materialize the great historical transformation. China has thus come out of the most miserable plight and is now heading for a bright future. Without the Communist Party, there would have been no New China. With the Communist Party, China has put on an entirely new look. This is the fundamental and most important conclusion drawn by the Chinese people from their long years of struggle. . . . To ensure that our Party forever represent the orientation of the development of Chinas advanced culture, it is imperative that the Partys theories, line, program, principles, policies and all its work should orient toward modernization, the world and the future, reflect the requirements of developing a national, scientific and popular socialist culture, serve to upgrade the ideological and ethical standards and scientific and cultural levels of the whole nation and provide spiritual and intellectual support for the economic development and social progress. Socialist society is one of all-round development and progress. The socialist modernization cause features a mutually supplementary and coordinated development of both material and spiritual civilizations. All comrades in the Party must have a comprehensive mastery of the dialectical relationship between the two civilizations and energetically promote socialist spiritual civilization while
advancing material civilization. In contemporary China, to develop an advanced culture means to develop a socialist culture with distinctive Chinese characteristics and build socialist spiritual civilization. We should have a firm grip on the development trend and requirements of Chinas advanced culture. We must never deviate from the guidance of MarxismLeninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory. We should base ourselves on the practice of building socialism with Chinese characteristics, have our eyes on the frontline of the world science and culture, and develop a healthy, progressive, rich and colorful socialist culture with Chinese styles and characteristics to meet the growing spiritual and cultural needs of the people, and guide people to arming themselves with correct thinking and ideas so as to improve their mental outlook. That is also the fundamental expression and requirement for our Party to remain in the forefront of the times and maintain its advanced nature. . . . Marxism is the fundamental guiding principle for the consolidation of the Party and the development of the country. It also constitutes the common theoretical foundation of the concerted efforts of the people of all ethnic groups. The fundamental tenets of Marxism must never be abandoned, otherwise we would get lost or come to failure in the pursuit of our cause due to a lack of a correct theoretical basis and ideological soul. That explains why we must always uphold the basic tenets of Marxism. In terms of theory, Marxism develops with the advance of the times. If we dogmatically cling to some individual theses and specific programs of action formulated for a special situation by authors of Marxist classics under the specific historical conditions in spite of the changes in historical conditions and present realities, we will have difficulty in forging ahead smoothly and we may even make mistakes because our thinking is divorced from reality. That is one reason why we have remained opposed to dogmatism toward the theory of Marxism. Our Party made mistakes and even suffered serious setbacks in some historical periods. The most important cause for that was the fact that the guiding ideology of the Party was divorced from Chinese reality at the time. It was after our Party restored and upheld the ideological line of emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts that the Party corrected its mistakes, overcame its setbacks and forged ahead triumphantly by relying on the strengths of itself and the people. The experience and lessons our Party has in this regard have been reviewed systematically in its Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party and Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China. These are something that we must never forget. All comrades in the Party must uphold the scientific principles and
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Anti-Secession Law
spirit of Marxism, put changes in the right perspective and sum up fresh experience that people have gained from practice, so as to constantly enrich and develop the theory of Marxism. . . . The main criterion to judge the nature of a political party is its theory and program. If it is Marxist and represents the correct orientation of social development and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the people, the party is an advanced one and the vanguard of the working class. Our Party is a product of integration of Marxism-Leninism with the Chinese workers movement. The emergence of the working class is an essential condition for founding the Party. During the period of democratic revolution, given the social conditions then, most of our Party members came from peasants and other laborers, quite a few from intellectuals and some from other revolutionaries of non-laborers background. But the theory and program of our Party were Marxist and represented the correct orientation of Chinas social development. Our Party attached great importance to building up the Party ideologically and persisted in educating and arming all Party members with Marxist theory. It required Party members to join the Party not just organizationally, but first of all ideologically. It gave them guidance as to how to achieve the Partys program and tasks. All these enabled the Party to keep its nature of being the vanguard of the working class. . . .
Article 2 There is only one China in the world. Both the mainland and Taiwan belong to one China. Chinas sovereignty and territorial integrity brook no division. Safeguarding Chinas sovereignty and territorial integrity is the common obligation of all Chinese people, the Taiwan compatriots included. Taiwan is part of China. The state shall never allow the Taiwan independence secessionist forces to make Taiwan secede from China under any name or by any means. Article 3 The Taiwan question is one that is left over from Chinas civil war of the late 1940s. Solving the Taiwan question and achieving national reunification is Chinas internal affair, which subjects to no interference by any outside forces. Article 4 Accomplishing the great task of reunifying the motherland is the sacred duty of all Chinese people, the Taiwan compatriots included. Article 5 Upholding the principle of one China is the basis of peaceful reunification of the country. To reunify the country through peaceful means best serves the fundamental interests of the compatriots on both sides of the Taiwan Straits. The state shall do its utmost with maximum sincerity to achieve a peaceful reunification. After the country is reunified peacefully, Taiwan may practice systems different from those on the mainland and enjoy a high degree of autonomy. Article 6 The state shall take the following measures to maintain peace and stability in the Taiwan Straits and promote cross-Straits relations: 1. to encourage and facilitate personnel exchanges across the Straits for greater mutual understanding and mutual trust; 2. to encourage and facilitate economic exchanges and cooperation, realize direct links of trade, mail and air and shipping services, and bring about closer economic ties between the two sides of the Straits to their mutual benefit; 3. to encourage and facilitate cross-Straits exchanges in education, science, technology, culture, health and sports, and work together to carry forward the proud Chinese cultural traditions;
ANTI-SECESSION LAW
INTRODUCTION
For decades, the Beijing government and the Guomindang government in Taiwan agreed that Taiwan was an integral part of China and looked forward to eventual reunification. The defeat of the Guomindang government and the election to the presidency of Chen Shui-bian, leader of the Democratic Progressive Party, in 2000 and again in 2004, caused alarm in Beijing. The fear that pro-independence sentiment was on the rise in Taiwan may have triggered the decision to draft the Anti-Secession Law setting out Beijings position on the islands status. The law was adopted at the Third Session of the Tenth National Peoples Congress Monday, March 13, 2005.
Article 1 This Law is formulated, in accordance with the Constitution, for the purpose of opposing and checking Taiwans secession from China by secessionists in the name of Taiwan independence, promoting peaceful national reunification, maintaining peace and stability in the Taiwan Straits, preserving Chinas sovereignty and territorial integrity, and safeguarding the fundamental interests of the Chinese nation.
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Charter 08
4. to encourage and facilitate cross-Straits cooperation in combating crimes; and 5. to encourage and facilitate other activities that are conducive to peace and stability in the Taiwan Straits and stronger cross-Straits relations. The state protects the rights and interests of the Taiwan compatriots in accordance with law. Article 7 The state stands for the achievement of peaceful reunification through consultations and negotiations on an equal footing between the two sides of the Taiwan Straits. These consultations and negotiations may be conducted in steps and phases and with flexible and varied modalities. The two sides of the Taiwan Straits may consult and negotiate on the following matters: 1. officially ending the state of hostility between the two sides; 2. mapping out the development of cross-Straits relations; 3. steps and arrangements for peaceful national reunification; 4. the political status of the Taiwan authorities; 5. the Taiwan regions room of international operation that is compatible with its status; and 6. other matters concerning the achievement of peaceful national reunification. Article 8 In the event that the Taiwan independence secessionist forces should act under any name or by any means to cause the fact of Taiwans secession from China, or that major incidents entailing Taiwans secession from China should occur, or that possibilities for a peaceful reunification should be completely exhausted, the state shall employ non-peaceful means and other necessary measures to protect Chinas sovereignty and territorial integrity. The State Council and the Central Military Commission shall decide on and execute the non-peaceful means and other necessary measures as provided for in the preceding paragraph and shall promptly report to the Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress. Article 9 In the event of employing and executing non-peaceful means and other necessary measures as provided for in this Law, the state shall exert its utmost to protect the lives, property and other legitimate rights and interests of Taiwan civilians and foreign nationals in Taiwan, and to
minimize losses. At the same time, the state shall protect the rights and interests of the Taiwan compatriots in other parts of China in accordance with law. Article 10 This Law shall come into force on the day of its promulgation.
CHARTER 08
SOURCE
Link, Perry, trans. Charter 08. The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/ 22210.
INTRODUCTION
The manifesto, Charter 2008, signed by a group of more than 300 Chinese intellectuals, journalists, and rural activists, provided a blueprint for a free and democratic China where human rights, democracy and the rule of law would be paramount. Charter 08 took its name from Charter 77, the manifesto produced by Czech intellectuals in 1977 which demanded an alternative to Soviet-style communism. Like the signatories of the Czech document, the signatories of Charter 08 have been subjected to monitoring and arrest.
A hundred years have passed since the writing of Chinas first constitution. 2008 also marks the sixtieth anniversary of the promulgation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the thirtieth anniversary of the appearance of the Democracy Wall in Beijing, and the tenth of Chinas signing of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. We are approaching the twentieth anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen massacre of prodemocracy student protesters. The Chinese people, who have endured human rights disasters and uncountable struggles across these same years, now include many who see clearly that freedom, equality, and human rights are universal values of humankind and that democracy and constitutional government are the fundamental framework for protecting these values. By departing from these values, the Chinese governments approach to modernization has proven disastrous. It has stripped people of their rights, destroyed their dignity, and corrupted normal human intercourse. So we ask: Where is China headed in the twenty-first century? Will it continue with modernization under authoritarian rule, or will it embrace universal human values, join the mainstream of civilized nations, and build a democratic system? There can be no avoiding these questions. . . . [The] political reality, which is plain for anyone to see, is that China has many laws but no rule of law; it has
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a constitution but no constitutional government. The ruling elite continues to cling to its authoritarian power and fights off any move toward political change. The stultifying results are endemic official corruption, an undermining of the rule of law, weak human rights, decay in public ethics, crony capitalism, growing inequality between the wealthy and the poor, pillage of the natural environment as well as of the human and historical environments, and the exacerbation of a long list of social conflicts, especially, in recent times, a sharpening animosity between officials and ordinary people. As these conflicts and crises grow ever more intense, and as the ruling elite continues with impunity to crush and to strip away the rights of citizens to freedom, to property, and to the pursuit of happiness, we see the powerless in our societythe vulnerable groups, the people who have been suppressed and monitored, who have suffered cruelty and even torture, and who have had no adequate avenues for their protests, no courts to hear their pleasbecoming more militant and raising the possibility of a violent conflict of disastrous proportions. The decline of the current system has reached the point where change is no longer optional. . . . [For] China the path that leads out of our current predicament is to divest ourselves of the authoritarian notion of reliance on an enlightened overlord or an honest official and to turn instead toward a system of liberties, democracy, and the rule of law, and toward fostering the consciousness of modern citizens who see rights as fundamental and participation as a duty. Accordingly, and in a spirit of this duty as responsible and constructive citizens, we offer the following recommendations on national governance, citizens rights, and social development: 1. A New Constitution. We should recast our present constitution, rescinding its provisions that contradict the principle that sovereignty resides with the people and turning it into a document that genuinely guarantees human rights, authorizes the exercise of public power, and serves as the legal underpinning of Chinas democratization. The constitution must be the highest law in the land, beyond violation by any individual, group, or political party. 2. Separation of Powers. We should construct a modern government in which the separation of legislative, judicial, and executive power is guaranteed. We need an Administrative Law that defines the scope of government responsibility and prevents abuse of administrative power. Government should be responsible to taxpayers. Division of power between provincial governments and the central government should adhere to the principle that central powers are
only those specifically granted by the constitution and all other powers belong to the local governments. 3. Legislative Democracy. Members of legislative bodies at all levels should be chosen by direct election, and legislative democracy should observe just and impartial principles. 4. An Independent Judiciary. The rule of law must be above the interests of any particular political party and judges must be independent. We need to establish a constitutional supreme court and institute procedures for constitutional review. As soon as possible, we should abolish all of the Committees on Political and Legal Affairs that now allow Communist Party officials at every level to decide politically sensitive cases in advance and out of court. We should strictly forbid the use of public offices for private purposes. 5. Public Control of Public Servants. The military should be made answerable to the national government, not to a political party, and should be made more professional. Military personnel should swear allegiance to the constitution and remain nonpartisan. Political party organizations must be prohibited in the military. All public officials including police should serve as nonpartisans, and the current practice of favoring one political party in the hiring of public servants must end. 6. Guarantee of Human Rights. There must be strict guarantees of human rights and respect for human dignity. There should be a Human Rights Committee, responsible to the highest legislative body, that will prevent the government from abusing public power in violation of human rights. A democratic and constitutional China especially must guarantee the personal freedom of citizens. No one should suffer illegal arrest, detention, arraignment, interrogation, or punishment. The system of Reeducation through Labor must be abolished. 7. Election of Public Officials. There should be a comprehensive system of democratic elections based on one person, one vote. The direct election of administrative heads at the levels of county, city, province, and nation should be systematically implemented. The rights to hold periodic free elections and to participate in them as a citizen are inalienable. 8. Rural-Urban Equality. The two-tier household registry system must be abolished. This system favors urban residents and harms rural residents. We should establish instead a system that gives every
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citizen the same constitutional rights and the same freedom to choose where to live. 9. Freedom to Form Groups. The right of citizens to form groups must be guaranteed. The current system for registering nongovernment groups, which requires a group to be approved, should be replaced by a system in which a group simply registers itself. The formation of political parties should be governed by the constitution and the laws, which means that we must abolish the special privilege of one party to monopolize power and must guarantee principles of free and fair competition among political parties. 10. Freedom to Assemble. The constitution provides that peaceful assembly, demonstration, protest, and freedom of expression are fundamental rights of a citizen. The ruling party and the government must not be permitted to subject these to illegal interference or unconstitutional obstruction. 11. Freedom of Expression. We should make freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and academic freedom universal, thereby guaranteeing that citizens can be informed and can exercise their right of political supervision. These freedoms should be upheld by a Press Law that abolishes political restrictions on the press. The provision in the current Criminal Law that refers to the crime of incitement to subvert state power must be abolished. We should end the practice of viewing words as crimes. 12. Freedom of Religion. We must guarantee freedom of religion and belief, and institute a separation of religion and state. There must be no governmental interference in peaceful religious activities. We should abolish any laws, regulations, or local rules that limit or suppress the religious freedom of citizens. We should abolish the current system that requires religious groups (and their places of worship) to get official approval in advance and substitute for it a system in which registry is optional and, for those who choose to register, automatic. 13. Civic Education. In our schools we should abolish political curriculums and examinations that are designed to indoctrinate students in state ideology and to instill support for the rule of one party. We should replace them with civic education that advances universal values and citizens rights, fosters civic consciousness, and promotes civic virtues that serve society. 14. Protection of Private Property. We should establish and protect the right to private property and promote an economic system of free and fair markets. We should do away with government monopolies in
commerce and industry and guarantee the freedom to start new enterprises. We should establish a Committee on State-Owned Property, reporting to the national legislature, that will monitor the transfer of state-owned enterprises to private ownership in a fair, competitive, and orderly manner. We should institute a land reform that promotes private ownership of land, guarantees the right to buy and sell land, and allows the true value of private property to be adequately reflected in the market. 15. Financial and Tax Reform. We should establish a democratically regulated and accountable system of public finance that ensures the protection of taxpayer rights and that operates through legal procedures. We need a system by which public revenues that belong to a certain level of governmentcentral, provincial, county or localare controlled at that level. We need major tax reform that will abolish any unfair taxes, simplify the tax system, and spread the tax burden fairly. Government officials should not be able to raise taxes, or institute new ones, without public deliberation and the approval of a democratic assembly. We should reform the ownership system in order to encourage competition among a wider variety of market participants. 16. Social Security. We should establish a fair and adequate social security system that covers all citizens and ensures basic access to education, health care, retirement security, and employment. 17. Protection of the Environment. We need to protect the natural environment and to promote development in a way that is sustainable and responsible to our descendants and to the rest of humanity. This means insisting that the state and its officials at all levels not only do what they must do to achieve these goals, but also accept the supervision and participation of nongovernmental organizations. 18. A Federated Republic. A democratic China should seek to act as a responsible major power contributing toward peace and development in the Asian Pacific region by approaching others in a spirit of equality and fairness. In Hong Kong and Macao, we should support the freedoms that already exist. With respect to Taiwan, we should declare our commitment to the principles of freedom and democracy and then, negotiating as equals and ready to compromise, seek a formula for peaceful unification. We should approach disputes in the national-minority areas of China with an open mind, seeking ways to find a workable framework within which all ethnic and religious groups can flourish. We should aim ultimately at a federation of democratic communities of China.
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19. Truth in Reconciliation. We should restore the reputations of all people, including their family members, who suffered political stigma in the political campaigns of the past or who have been labeled as criminals because of their thought, speech, or faith. The state should pay reparations to these people. All political prisoners and prisoners of conscience must be released. There should be a Truth Investigation Commission charged with finding the facts about past injustices and atrocities, determining responsibility for them, upholding justice, and, on these bases, seeking social reconciliation.
China, as a major nation of the world, as one of five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, and as a member of the UN Council on Human Rights, should be contributing to peace for humankind and progress toward human rights. Unfortunately, we stand today as the only country among the major nations that remains mired in authoritarian politics. Our political system continues to produce human rights disasters and social crises, thereby not only constricting Chinas own development but also limiting the progress of all of human civilization. This must change, truly it must. The democratization of Chinese politics can be put off no longer.
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Bibliography
This annotated bibliography is the product of the efforts of the Board of Editors to identify works that have had a major academic or sociopolitical impact or that represent exceptional creativity and originality. This list may be helpful as a starting point for students and researchers; by no means do the Board of Editors claim that this bibliography encompasses all works of merit on the study of China.
Transnationalism, Identity. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Provides a thorough and well-researched case study of Chinese overseas communities, placing them in their historical and political context and understanding them as political and social agents acting in an international arena. Setting a new, high standard for writing on the Chinese diaspora, this work is poised to become a classic.
Andrews, Julia F. Painters and Politics in the Peoples Republic of China, 19491979. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
The definitive English-language work on painting in the early decades of the Communist era.
` Bergere, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-sen. Trans. Janet Lloyd. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998.
Of a handful of biographies of the Father of the Republic available in English, this is arguably the best to date.
Andrews, Julia F. and Kuiyi Shen, eds. A Century in Crisis: Modernity and Tradition in the Art of Twentieth-Century China. New York: Guggenheim Museum, 1998.
An important collection of essays by leading scholars exploring modern and contemporary Chinese art. Color plates highlight commercial art, calligraphy, woodblock prints, the Shanghai school paintings, socialist realist paintings, and more.
Bianco, Lucien. Peasants Without the Party: Grass-roots Movements in Twentieth-century China. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 2001.
A good book on the continuity of peasants actions against the representatives of the state from the Republican to the reform eras.
Banister, Judith. Chinas Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987.
A classic study of Chinas population issues and a major contribution to the research on Chinas demographic trends, making full use of the insights of the 1982 Chinese census and critically analyzing issues of fertility.
Bramall, Chris. The Industrialization of Rural China. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
The most up-to-date and authoritative exploration of Chinas rural industrialization processes, which became a hallmark of the economic reforms after 1978. This book, critically evaluating the existing literature, brings out new perspectives and juxtaposes earlier debates. It is poised to become a core work on its topic.
Be0 ja, Jean-Philippe. A la recherche dune ombre chinoise: Le mouvement pour la de0 mocratie en Chine, 19192004 [In search of a Chinese shadow: The movement for democracy in China, 19192004]. Paris: Seuil, 2004.
An essay on the persistence of the prodemocracy movement from 1919 to 2004 and the way it has influenced political developments in the Peoples Republic, especially after 1976.
Cahill, James. The Painters Practice: How Artists Lived and Worked in Traditional China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.
Examines the working conditions of artists in historical China, analyzing social, political, and economic influences on their work since the sixteenth century. Drawing on diaries, letters, and other primary source documents, Cahill details matters of payment and patronage, revealing how artists in China earned their living and providing new perspectives on their art.
Benton, Gregor, and Edmund Terence Gomez. The Chinese in Britain, 1800Present: Economy,
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Bibliography
Chan, Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger. Chen Village under Mao and Deng. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
A classic study of a village in revolution under Mao, updated with research on the same villages experience of the reform era under Deng Xiaoping.
Eastman, Lloyd E. The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 19271937. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.
In seven thoroughly researched chapters, Eastman investigates the Guomindang during the Nanjing decade, the heyday of the ruling party. The author exposes the partys failure to inspire unity and commitment among its members.
Chen Sihe. Zhongguo dangdai wenxueshi jiaocheng [Lectures on contemporary Chinese literature]. Shanghai: Fudan Daxue Chubanshe, 2001.
Highly acclaimed as a pioneering critical work that deconstructed Chinese literary discourse informed by the ideology of the party apparatus by reexamining how the history of modern Chinese literature is studied and presented.
Eastman, Lloyd E. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 19371949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
Eastman explores a difficult period in modern Chinese history (the war against Japan and the civil war) that has generated an ongoing controversy on the reasons behind the failure of the Guomindang to succeed in creating and maintaining a new regime in China.
Coble, Parks M. Chinese Capitalists in Japans New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 19371945. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
Drawing from extensive sources in Chinese, Japanese, and English, this work is an important addition to still embryonic research on the areas of China occupied by Japan during the Anti-Japanese War (19371945). Cobles study focuses on the strategies employed by Chinas capitalists to survive Japanese occupation.
Economy, Elizabeth, and Michel Oksenberg, eds. China Joins the World: Progress and Prospects. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1999.
A good introduction to the foreign policy of the Chinese Communist Party after Maos death.
Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
Cohen scrutinizes the Boxer Rebellion of 1898 to 1900 to demonstrate how a generally accepted explanation of a historical event can be dismantled to expose the connection between the event and the resulting narrative(s) and the role of the historian in conveying an understanding of the past.
Edmonds, Richard L. Patterns of Chinas Lost Harmony: A Survey of the Countrys Environmental Degradation and Protection. London: Routledge, 1994.
In this well-written and data-rich book, a geographer specializing in China explores major environmental problems, their origins, and policy approaches to solve them. Edmonds deals in more depth than Vaclav Smil with the policy-making processes and the social dynamics of environmental issues. This work has become a classic, a must-read for those embarking on research on Chinas environment. However, due to more recent policy measures, a new understanding of environmental problems, and further developments in the economy, this book can only serve as a starting point for the study of a rapidly evolving theme.
Cohen, Paul A. Speaking to History: The Story of King Goujian in Twentieth-century China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
This work explores the connection between past and present through the study of a little-known monarch of the fifth century, King Goujian, whose story has been a source of inspiration to the Chinese throughout their recent turbulent history.
Elvin, Mark. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
In this environmental history of China, Elvin, a historian of the large and sweeping trends in Chinas past, charts millennia of interaction between nature and humans on what was to become Chinese soil, providing a long perspective on the formation of China politically, ecologically, and culturally until the end of the nineteenth century.
Cohen, Warren I. Americas Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations. 4th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
A standard reference on this topic.
Croizier, Ralph C. Traditional Medicine in Modern China: Science, Nationalism, and the Tensions of Cultural Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
A pioneering study that anticipated many of the issues of culture and nationalism taken up by later historians of China.
Evans, Harriet. Women and Sexuality in China: Female Sexuality and Gender since 1949. London: Continuum, 1997.
A key work on an important social issue that was a major concern for government in the Peoples Republic of China.
Croizier, Ralph. Art and Revolution in Modern China: The Lingnan (Cantonese) School of Painting, 19061951. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. New York: Guggenheim Museum, 1998.
Examines the twentieth century art movement initiated by Chinese painters Gao Jianfu and others during the rise of the Nationalist Party in China.
Fairbank, John K., and Denis Twitchett, eds. The Cambridge History of China. 15 vols. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
A comprehensive and scholarly history.
Faure, David. China and Capitalism: A History of Business Enterprise in Modern China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2006.
A brief interpretative history of business in China from late imperial to contemporary times.
Dittmer, Lowell. Chinas Continuous Revolution: The Postliberation Epoch, 19491981. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Examines the transition from the war years of the 1940s to the Peoples Republic of China.
Finnane, Antonia. Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation. London: Hurst, 2007.
An interpretative social history of dress in China from late imperial to contemporary times.
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Bibliography
Fitzgerald, John. Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
This original account of how Chinese revolutionaries and intellectuals awakened China during the Republican revolution provides a detailed analysis of the methods used in such an awakening, with examples in the fields of art and architecture, medicine, literature, political institutions, and popular organization. Fitzgerald also compares Communists and Nationalists, and Sun Yat-sen and Mao Zedong, in their efforts to awaken China.
Greenhalgh, Susan. Just One Child: Science and Policy in Dengs China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
Greenhalgh, an anthropologist specializing in China studies, examines Chinas birth-planning policy, which has been met with great controversy, chiefly in the United States. She analyzes the perceptions of science underpinning the policy and its implementation. This wellwritten and accessible book goes far beyond the moral debates, and is poised to become a classic that not only deals with population policy, but provides a thorough examination of the political and scientific discourse behind it.
Fong, Wen C. Between Two Cultures: Late-Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Chinese Paintings from the Robert H. Ellsworth Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001.
Analyzes Chinese paintings from the 1860s to about 1980, tracing the transformation of Chinese art from the last revival of traditionalist expression in the nineteenth century. Special attention is devoted to Xu Beihong, Fu Baoshi, Qi Baishi, Huang Binhong, and Zhang Daqian.
Grieder, Jerome B. Intellectuals and the State in Modern China: A Narrative History. New York: Free Press, 1981.
Examines the changing roles and shifting perceptions of intellectuals in relation to the state from the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 to the beginning of the Peoples Republic.
Hamilton, Gary. Commerce and Capitalism in Chinese Societies. London: Routledge, 2006.
A Weberian viewpoint informs this important collection of essays on the logic and organization of commerce and capitalism in China, past and present.
Friedman, Edward, Paul G. Pickowicz, Mark Selden, and Kay Ann Johnson. Chinese Village, Socialist State. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991. Friedman, Edward, Paul G. Pickowicz, and Mark Selden. Revolution, Resistance, and Reform in Village China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
In Chinese Village, Socialist State and its 2005 follow-up, the authors trace the history of one of Maos model villages, situated some 200 kilometers south of Beijing, whose mission was to prove that collective work surpassed, in its ethics and results, all that capitalism can achieve. This inside look exposes the hardships faced by villagers (ever-higher production standards, corruption, flooding, family feuds) versus a distant, unaware, and changing central bureaucracy.
Harrison, Henrietta. The Making of the Republican Citizen: Political Ceremonies and Symbols in China, 19111929. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Explores changes in the political mood, as much as the politics, in the transition from the imperial state to the Chinese republic.
Heberer, Thomas. China and its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1989.
A favorite starting point for students wanting to understand Chinas national-minority issues, providing an excellent overview, a thorough examination of core issues, and good pointers for further study.
Hershatter, Gail. Women in Chinas Long Twentieth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
A comprehensive introduction to the history of women in twentiethcentury China, including an extensive bibliography of Englishlanguage scholarship in the field.
Galikowski, Maria. Art and Politics in China, 19491984. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1998.
Examines the relationship between art and politics in the Peoples Republic of China, focusing on the Mao years and the start of the reform period.
Gladney, Dru C. Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. London: Hurst, 2004.
This book, by the most prolific writer in English on Chinas Muslim populations, is accessible and essayistic in style, covering a wide range of topics. The breadth of topics featured and the dynamics of the writing make it a good starting point for a critical understanding of Chinas national minorities.
Hinton, William. Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village. 1966. Reprint. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
This eyewitness account of social and economic change in a Chinese village from 1949 to 1953 remains one of the most important English-language documents on the Maoist revolution.
Gold, Thomas, Doug Guthrie, and David Wank, eds. Social Connections in China: Institutions, Culture, and the Changing Nature of Guanxi. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
A good sociological presentation of a concept that plays an important role in Chinas society, economics, and politics: personal connections or guanxi.
Hsia, C. T. (Hsia Chih-tsing). A History of Modern Chinese Fiction, 19171957. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961. Hsia, C. T. (Hsia Chih-tsing). The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968.
Two groundbreaking works in Chinese literary studies in the West, particularly in the United States. Well known for his critical insights and methodological approaches, Hsia in these two works sheds new light on Chinese literary studies, particularly on the study of modern Chinese literature. However, ideological considerations have also made his works, in particular the one on modern Chinese fiction, highly controversial.
Goldman, Merle. Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
An excellent study of the political participation of prodemocracy intellectuals in the early reform era by one of the worlds best specialists of the field.
Jacka, Tamara. Womens Work in Rural China: Change And Continuity in an Era of Reform. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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Bibliography
A study of a significant aspect of Chinas society and economy in the post-Mao era.
Kennedy, Thomas L. The Arms of Kiangnan: Modernization in the Chinese Ordnance Industry, 1860 1895. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1978.
The ordnance industry represents China first efforts at mechanization; this work studies arms production in the Self-strengthening era.
Lieberthal, Kenneth G., and Michel Oksenberg. Policy Making in China: Leaders, Structures, and Processes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
This book, which uses the energy sector as a case study, is a major contribution to the understanding of bureaucratic politics in China. This outstanding work remains an inspiration for people researching Chinas political system, as it provides strong methodological foundations for such research.
Koll, Elisabeth. From Cotton Mill to Business Empire: The Emergence of Regional Enterprises in Modern China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003.
An interesting case study that draws together changes in business and Chinese society.
Lin Manhong (Man-houng Lin). China Upside Down: Currency, Society, and Ideologies, 18081856. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006.
Analyzes the time of transition in mid-nineteenth-century China.
Kuhn, Philip A. Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990.
Explores eighteenth-century China and the workings of the imperial bureaucracy.
Liu Kwang-ching (Liu Guangjing). Anglo-American Steamship Rivalry in China, 18621874. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962.
Still the best study of business and entrepreneurial rivalry on the China coast.
Kuhn, Philip A. Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 2008.
A history of Chinese migration since the sixteenth century, tracing journeys that created diasporas all over the world.
Lu Xun (Lu Hsun). Zhongguo xiaoshuo shilue. Beijing: Beixin Press, 1925. Published as A Brief History of Chinese Fiction, trans. Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1959.
Lu Xun is widely regarded as the founder of modern Chinese literature. His Brief History of Chinese Fiction was based on lecture notes he used while teaching at Peking University and Beijing Normal University. A truly pioneering project, Lu Xuns seminal work is a systematic study of the Chinese literary tradition from antiquity to the late Qing dynasty. Lus methodology is informed by the approaches of sociological, psychological, and comparative studies, and is enhanced by an insightful historical perspective and meticulous research . A classic study of Chinese literature that was very influential in Lus time, this work remains an important source for scholars in the field.
Kwong, Luke S. K. (Kuang Zhaojiang). A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1898. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1984.
A revisionist view of the famous reforms of 1898.
Lansdowne, Helen, and Wu Guoguang, eds. China Turns to Multilateralism: Foreign Policy and Regional Security. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
A kaleidoscopic analysis of Chinas foreign relations in the twentyfirst century by American, European, and Chinese specialists.
Ma Qiusha. Non-governmental Organizations in Contemporary China: Paving the Way to Civil Society? London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
A detailed panorama of the emergence of Chinas nongovernmental organizations and a good analysis of its civil society.
Lee, Leo Ou-fan (Li Oufan). Shanghai Modern: The Flowering of a New Urban Culture in China, 19301945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
A study of cultural change in Chinas largest city in the preCommunist era.
MacFarquhar, Roderick. The Origins of the Cultural Revolution. 3 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 19741997.
In this seminal work on the history of Chinese politics, MacFarquhar analyzes politics under Mao in detail.
Leys, Simon. The Burning Forest: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1986.
A wonderful presentation of Chinese culture and politics by one of the most perspicacious sinologists of the twentieth century.
Marks, Robert B. Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt: Environment and Economy in Late Imperial South China. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Markss environmental history of Lingnan (roughly Guangdong and Guangxi) is a masterpiece of scholarship that convincingly examines how the society, economy, and politics of South China emerged in conjunction with ecological change. The very existence today of the Pearl River Delta as a motor of economic development can be traced in this remarkable book.
Li, Lillian M., Alison J. Dray-Novey, and Kong Haili. Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
An illustrated historical survey of Beijing, based on original research and recent scholarship.
Li Zhisui. The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Maos Personal Physician. Trans. Tai Hung-chao. New York: Random House, 1994.
An insight by Maos private doctor into Maos inner circle from 1949 until his death. This extraordinary account is indispensable to anyone who wants to understand the psychology of the Great Helmsman.
Murphy, Rachel. How Migrant Labor is Changing Rural China. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Murphys contribution to the large body of literature about migrant labor in China during the post-1978 reform period provides excellent case studies and insights into core social dynamics of the time. It also
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serves as an important entry point for core debates and a broader understanding of the underlying dynamics of labor migration.
Naughton, Barry. Growing Out of the Plan: Chinese Economic Reform, 19781993. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
A detailed study of the evolution of the Chinese economic system since the launch of the reform.
Rankin, Mary Backus. Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865 1911. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.
Details the decades leading up to the end of the Qing dynasty.
Rawski, Thomas G. Economic Growth in Prewar China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
A standard work on the subject.
Naughton, Barry. The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007.
An up-to-date, accessible, and comprehensive overview of Chinas reform economy, written by an economist with longstanding credentials as a major authority on this topic.
Revo Cul dans la Chine pop: Anthologie de la presse des Gardes Rouges. Paris: Union ge0 ne0 rale de0 ditions, 1974.
An impressive selection of texts published in Red Guard newspapers, including Yang Xiguangs Whither China.
Oi, Jean Chun. State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Jean Ois classic examination of rural reforms introduces an analysis of clientelism and lays the foundation for future research on the institutional frameworks of rural-urban relations during the post1978 reform period. It is a foundational work for anybody researching farmers during the reform era.
Rhoads, Edward J. M. Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 18611928. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000.
Details the relations between the Manchu court and Han reformers in the years leading up to and following the revolution of 1911 and the fall of the Qing dynasty. A groundbreaking study that traces the evolution of the Manchus from a hereditary military caste to a privileged and distinct ethnic group.
Ong, Aihwa, and Donald M. Nonini, eds. Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism. London: Routledge, 1997.
Ong and Noninis collection of papers includes historical and contemporary cases of Chinese transnationalism, exploring how the Chinese developed communities that spanned continents and maintained innovative forms of global interaction from the beginning to the end of the twentieth century.
Riskin, Carl. Chinas Political Economy: The Quest for Development since 1949. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
A classic on Chinas economic development since 1949, providing a strong understanding of the planned-economy period and the beginning of the economic reforms in China, written by a major scholar in this field.
Perry, Elizabeth J. Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993.
Considered an important contribution to scholarship on labor in China, Perrys study focuses on workers drawn together in Shanghai their backgrounds, political party affiliations, vocations, and other factors relating to the success of organized labor movements in that city.
Ruan Ming. Deng Xiaoping: Chronicle of an Empire. Trans. and ed. Nancy Liu, Peter Rand, and Lawrence R. Sullivan. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994.
An inside account of the first decade of reforms by an intellectual who worked closely with Hu Yaobang at the party school.
Perry, Elizabeth J., and Mark Selden. Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
Contrary to what many think, Chinese society is not passive, and this book shows how various social strata have resisted the initiatives of the party.
Shirk, Susan L. The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
A classic on the Chinese economic reforms, contributing innovative approaches to the analysis of Chinas political system during the reform process.
Peterson, Glen, Ruth Hayhoe, and Lu Yongling. Education, Culture, and Identity in Twentieth-century China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
A history of education in China that links developments before and after the watershed of the Communist revolution in 1949.
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An influential volume of essays, including Skinners seminal articles on urbanization in late imperial China, among which Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth-Century China is the most commonly cited. Skinners seminal works on local market systems and macroregions are crucial background reading for people doing research on Chinas geography, economy, political economy, history, and sociology. The understanding of China as regionally structured in terms of trading and production (rather than jurisdictions like provinces) is essential for understanding many dynamics today.
Polachek, James M. The Inner Opium War. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1992.
Analyzes the time of transition in mid-nineteenth-century China.
Pong, David. Shen Pao-chen and Chinas Modernization in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Examines reforms and modernization in the era of Self-strengthening by way of Shens career: his Confucian upbringing, his success in the Qing bureaucracy, and his role in Chinas first modern naval dockyard and academy. Available in Chinese as Shen Baozhen pingzhuan: Zhongguo jindaihua de changshi. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 2000.
Smil, Vaclav. Chinas Environmental Crisis: An Inquiry into the Limits of National Development. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1993.
Smils polemical yet well-written and substantial work on Chinas environment has become a classic. It has in many ways been
309
Bibliography
overtaken by events, but can serve as a good starting point for an understanding of the environmental crises facing China and the policies for dealing with them. principles of artistic creation and aesthetic appreciation. Well versed in the German philosophical and aesthetic thinking of Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich von Schiller, and particularly Immanuel Kant, Wang formulated his own theory of poetic discourse of Jingjie shuo, which has informed a growing modern Chinese aesthetic thought. The publication of this seminal work was a turning point in the history of Chinese aesthetic thought, marking the beginning of the modern Chinese aesthetic tradition.
Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China. New York: Norton, 1990.
A general and very readable textbook.
Spence, Jonathan D. Gods Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: Norton, 1997.
A detailed and engaging account of Hong Xiuquan and the Taiping Rebellion, the largest social uprising in history.
Wang Zheng. Women in the Chinese Enlightenment: Oral and Textual Histories. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
A pioneering study of women in the May Fourth era, featuring oral histories of five women born around the turn of the twentieth century.
Strand, David. Rickshaw Beijing: City People and Politics in the 1920s. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Important study of Beijing society and politics in the 1920s.
Sullivan, Michael. Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
A standard reference on twentieth-century Chinese art, by one of the leading authorities on the subject.
White, Lynn T., III. Policies of Chaos: The Organizational Causes of Violence in Chinas Cultural Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
Argues that the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution resulted mainly from reactions by masses of individuals and small groups to three specific policies: labeling groups, designating party bosses, and institutionalizing violence in political campaigns.
Wachman, Alan. Taiwan: National Identity and Democratization. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1994.
Wachmans book has become popular because it gives a thorough overview of major events and themes in Taiwans development, mainly relating to identity, state building, and democratization. This work allows readers to see the broad outlines, well documented with evidence, but spares them the excessive details of bewildering political infighting, the minutiae of electoral processes and political scandals, and the overzealous political analyses marring many works on Taiwan after 1986.
Widor, Claude. Documents on the Chinese Democratic Movements, 19781980. Vol. 1. Paris: Editions de lEcole des hautes e0 tudes en sciences sociales; Hong Kong: Observer, 19811985.
A complete collection (in Chinese) of the underground journals that appeared during the Democracy Wall movement in 1978 and 1979.
Wong, Linda. Marginalization and Social Welfare in China. London: Routledge, 1998.
Provides an overview of social welfare in China since the late Qing dynasty. Wongs work forms an important background for any examination of more recent developments, and needs to be used in conjunction with sources that allow an understanding of the huge changes that have taken place since the book was published, in particular after 2003.
Walder, Andrew G. Communist Neo-traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Examines the nature of authority, politics, and social structure in Communist China.
Waldron, Arthur. From War to Nationalism: Chinas Turning Point, 19241925. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Traces the development of radical nationalism in China, focusing on events leading up to the May Thirtieth movement in Shanghai.
Wong, Roy Bin. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.
A critical comparative history of political and economic change in China.
Wang Gungwu. China and the Chinese Overseas. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991.
Written by a prominent Chinese diasporic intellectual, this study formed a turning point in research on ethnic Chinese living outside China. In elegant and well-chosen case studies, Wang examined the roles of Chinese in the context of the countries they lived in, mapped their history, and helped synthesize their contributions. The books publication coincided with a rising global awareness of the Chinese diaspora and the trends toward a patriotic politics in China, contributing a timely reappraisal of overseas Chinese as part of greater China.
Wright, Mary Clabaugh. The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The Tung-chih Restoration, 18621874. Rev. ed. New York: Atheneum, 1965.
This pioneering work on reform in nineteenth-century China remains a standard reference.
Wright, Tim. Coal Mining in Chinas Economy and Society, 18951937. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
An insightful analysis of a key modern industry in Chinas early industrialization.
Wang Guowei. Renjian Cihua [Poetics of Ci lyrics and the human world], 1908. Neimenggu: Neimenggu Renmin Chubanshe, 2003.
As a talented and original scholar, Wang Guowei distinguished himself in a wide range of fields such as literary criticism, philosophy, aesthetics, Chinese history, and epigraphy. He was also an accomplished poet in Ci lyrics, a classical genre of Chinese poetry that flourished in the Song dynasty (9601279). Renjian Cihua, which was published in 1908, is an intellectual manifestation of Wang Guoweis insightful critique of Chinese Ci poems in terms of the
Wu Yongping. Political Explanation of Economic Growth: State Survival, Bureaucratic Politics, and Private Enterprises in the Making of Taiwans Economy, 1950 1985. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2005.
Wus well-written and accessible analysis of the Republic of China on Taiwan as a developmental state challenges many preconceived ideas at the same time that it provides a useful and reliable overview of Taiwans business history from 1949 onward.
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Yang Jisheng. Mubei [Funerary stele]. 2 vols. Hong Kong: Cosmos, 2008.
The most comprehensive study of the Great Leap Forward famine by a retired Xinhua journalist whose adoptive father died of hunger during this period.
A fascinating account of the way the Chinese leadership dealt with the 1989 prodemocracy movement.
Zhang, Heather Xiaoquan, Wu Bin, and Richard Sanders, eds. Marginalisation in China: Perspectives on Transition and Globalisation. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2007.
Provides detailed topical studies of social exclusion in China that allow an understanding of the social and economic dynamics of marginalization and of the institutional and political efforts at play in dealing with marginal groups.
Yang Xiguang and Susan McFadden. Captive Spirits: Prisoners of the Cultural Revolution. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1997.
This prison memoir of Yang Xiguang, a high school student arrested during the Cultural Revolution, takes the reader into the arcana of life in China in the 1960s and contains some wonderful biographies of dissidents Yang met while serving a ten-year prison sentence.
Yeh Wen-hsin (Ye Wenxin). Shanghai Splendor: Economic Sentiments and the Making of Modern China, 1843 1949. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
Provides a fascinating account of everyday life in Shanghai, arguably Chinas most colorful city.
Zhao Jiabi, ed. Zhongguo xinwen xuedaxi [Comprehensive anthology of modern Chinese literature]. Shanghai: Liangyou Press, 19351936.
Arguably the most authoritative and influential literary guide for the study of Chinese literature from the May Fourth movement to the 1930s, this anthology includes works by well-known literary critics and writers such as Hu Shi, Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Yu Dafu, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing, Hong Shen, and Zheng Zhenduo. The anthology consists of ten volumes, collecting more than 200 articles, 153 literary works, 202 essays, 441 poems, and eighteen plays. Each volume opens with a wellwritten preface discussing literary issues and theories; the prefaces are in a sense more important than the anthology itself.
Yue Daiyun (Yueh Tai-yun), with Carolyn Wakeman. To the Storm: The Odyssey of a Revolutionary Chinese Woman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Autobiographical memoir by Yue Daiyun detailing her personal turmoil as a young mother and intellectual during the Maoist years and the period of the Cultural Revolution in China.
Zhong Yang. Local Government and Politics in China: Challenges from Below. Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 2003.
Local politics in China is an under-researched area, and Zhongs book is probably the most comprehensive and up-to-date overview, well written and accessible in spite of the complexity of the topic.
Zarrow, Peter Gue. China in War and Revolution, 1895 1949. London: Routledge, 2005.
A history of the rise and fall of the Republic of China with a strong focus on intellectual change.
Zhou, Kate Xiao. How the Farmers Changed China: Power of the People. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996.
This controversial study argues that Chinas agrarian policy after Maos death was as much the result of peasant pressure as the decisions of Deng Xiaoping.
Zhang Liang, comp. The Tiananmen Papers. Eds. Andrew J. Nathan and Perry Link. New York: Public Affairs, 2001.
311
Conversion Tables, Chinese Romanization
Conversion Table of Chinese Romanization: Wade-Giles to Pinyin

WadeGiles a ai an ang ao cha cha chai chai chan chan chang chang chao chao che che chen chen cheng cheng chi chi chia chia chiang chiang chiao chiao chieh chieh chien chien chih chih chin chin ching ching chiu chiu chiung chiung cho cho chou chou chu chu chua chuai chuai chuan chuan chuang chuang chui chui chun chun chung chung ch ch chan chan cheh cheh WadeGiles chn chn en erh fa fan fang fei fen feng fo fou fu ha hai han hang hao hei hen heng ho hou hsi hsia hsiang hsiao hsieh hsien hsin hsing hsiu hsiung hs hsan hseh hsn hu hua huai huan huang hui hun hung huo i jan jang jao je jen jeng jih jo jou ju juan jui jun jung ka ka kai kai kan kan kang WadeGiles kang kao kao kei ken ken keng keng ko ko kou kou ku ku kua kua kuai kuai kuan kuan kuang kuang kuei kuei kun kun kung kung kuo kuo la lai lan lang lao le lei leng li liang liao lieh lien lin ling liu lo lou lu luan lun lung l lan leh ma mai man mang mao mei men meng mi miao mieh mien min WadeGiles ming miu mo mou mu na nai nan nang nao nei nen neng ni niang niao nieh nien nin ning niu no nu nuan nung n neh o ou pa pa pai pai pan pan pang pang pao pao pei pei pen pen peng peng pi pi piao piao pieh pieh pien pien pin pin ping ping po po pou pu pu sa sai san sang sao se WadeGiles sen seng sha shai shan shang shao she shen sheng shih shou shu shua shuai shuan shuang shui shun shuo so sou ssu su suan sui sun sung szu ta ta tai tai tan tan tang tang tao tao te te teng teng ti ti tiao tiao tieh tieh tien tien ting ting tiu to to tou tou tsa tsa tsai tsai tsan tsan tsang tsang tsao tsao WadeGiles tse tse tsei tsen tsen tseng tseng tso tso tsou tsou tsu tsu tsuan tsuan tsui tsui tsun tsun tsung tsung tu tu tuan tuan tui tui tun tun tung tung tzu tzu wa wai wan wang wei wen weng wo wu ya yai yang yao yeh yen yin ying yo yu yung y yan yeh yn
Pinyin a ai an ang ao zha cha zhai chai zhan chan zhang chang zhao chao zhe che zhen chen zheng cheng ji qi jia qia jiang qiang jiao qiao jie qie jian qian zhi chi jin qin jing qing jiu qiu jiong qiong zhuo chuo zhou chou zhu chu zhua zhuai chuai zhuan chuan zhuang chuang zhui chui zhun chun zhong chong ju qu juan quan jue que
Pinyin jun qun en er fa fan fang fei fen feng fo fou fu ha hai han hang hao hei hen heng he hou xi xia xiang xiao xie xian xin xing xiu xiong xu xuan xue xun hu hua huai huan huang hui hun hong huo yi ran rang rao re ren reng ri ruo rou ru ruan rui run rong ga ka gai kai gan kan gang
Pinyin kang gao kao gei gen ken geng keng ge ke gou kou gu ku gua kua guai kuai guan kuan guang kuang gui kui gun kun gong kong guo kuo la lai lan lang lao le lei leng li liang liao lie lian lin ling liu luo lou lu luan lun long l luan le ma mai man mang mao mei men meng mi miao mie mian min
Pinyin ming miu mo mou mu na nai nan nang nao nei nen neng ni niang niao nie nian nin ning niu nuo nu nuan nong n ne e ou ba pa bai pai ban pan bang pang bao pao bei pei ben pen beng peng bi pi biao piao bie pie bian pian bin pin bing ping bo po ou bu pu sa sai san sang sao se
Pinyin sen seng sha shai shan shang shao she shen sheng shi shou shu shua shuai shuan shuang shui shun shuo suo sou si su suan sui sun song si da ta dai tai dan tan dang tang dao tao de te deng teng di ti diao tiao die tie dian tian ding ting diu duo tuo dou tou za ca zai cai zan can zang cang zao cao
Pinyin ze ce zei zen cen zeng ceng zuo cuo zou cou zu cu zuan cuan zui cui zun cun zong cong du tu duan tuan dui tui dun tun dong tong zi ci wa wai wan wang wei wen weng wo wu ya yai yang yao ye yan yin ying yo you yong yu yuan yue yun
313
Conversion Tables, Chinese Romanization
Conversion Table of Chinese Romanization: Pinyin to Wade-Giles

WadeGiles a ai an ang ao pa pai pan pang pao pei pen peng pi pien piao pieh pin ping po pu tsa tsai tsan tsang tsao tse tsen tseng cha chai chan chang chao che chen cheng chih chung chou chu chuai chuan chuang chui chun cho tzu tsung tsou tsu tsuan tsui tsun tso ta tai tan tang tao te teng ti tien tiao tieh ting tiu WadeGiles tung tou tu tuan tui tun to o en erh fa fan fang fei fen feng fo fou fu ka kai kan kang kao ko kei ken keng kung kou ku kua kuai kuan kuang kuei kun kuo ha hai han hang hao ho hei hen heng hung hou hu hua huai huan huang hui hun huo chi chia chien chiang chiao chieh chin ching chiung chiu ch WadeGiles chan cheh chn ka kai kan kang kao ko ken keng kung kou ku kua kuai kuan kuang kuei kun kuo la lai lan lang lao le lei leng li lien liang liao lieh lin ling liu lung lou lu l luan lan leh lun lo ma mai man mang mao mei men meng mi mien miao mieh min ming miu mo mou mu na nai nan nang WadeGiles nao nei nen neng ni nien niang niao nieh nin ning niu nung nu n nuan neh no ou pou pa pai pan pang pao pei pen peng pi pien piao pieh pin ping po pu chi chia chien chiang chiao chieh chin ching chiung chiu ch chan cheh chn jan jang jao je jen jeng jih jung jou ju juan jui jun jo sa sai san sang WadeGiles sao se sen seng sha shai shan shang shao she shen sheng shih shou shu shua shuai shuan shuang shui shun shuo ssu szu sung sou su suan sui sun so ta tai tan tang tao te teng ti tien tiao tieh ting tung tou tu tuan tui tun to wa wai wan wang wei wen weng wo wu hsi hsia hsien hsiang hsiao hsieh hsin hsing hsiung WadeGiles hsiu hs hsan hseh hsn ya yai yen yang yao yeh i yin ying yo yung yu y yan yeh yn tsa tsai tsan tsang tsao tse tsei tsen tseng cha chai chan chang chao che chen cheng chih chung chou chu chua chuai chuan chuang chui chun cho tzu tsung tsou tsu tsuan tsui tsun tso
Pinyin a ai an ang ao ba bai ban bang bao bei ben beng bi bian biao bie bin bing bo bu ca cai can cang cao ce cen ceng cha chai chan chang chao che chen cheng chi chong chou chu chuai chuan chuang chui chun chuo ci cong cou cu cuan cui cun cuo da dai dan dang dao de deng di dian diao die ding diu
Pinyin dong dou du duan dui dun duo e en er fa fan fang fei fen feng fo fou fu ga gai gan gang gao ge gei gen geng gong gou gu gua guai guan guang gui gun guo ha hai han hang hao he hei hen heng hong hou hu hua huai huan huang hui hun huo ji jia jian jiang jiao jie jin jing jiong jiu ju
Pinyin juan jue jun ka kai kan kang kao ke ken keng kong kou ku kua kuai kuan kuang kui kun kuo la lai lan lang lao le lei leng li lian liang liao lie lin ling liu long lou lu l luan luan le lun luo ma mai man mang mao mei men meng mi mian miao mie min ming miu mo mou mu na nai nan nang
Pinyin nao nei nen neng ni nian niang niao nie nin ning niu nong nu n nuan ne nuo ou ou pa pai pan pang pao pei pen peng pi pian piao pie pin ping po pu qi qia qian qiang qiao qie qin qing qiong qiu qu quan que qun ran rang rao re ren reng ri rong rou ru ruan rui run ruo sa sai san sang
Pinyin sao se sen seng sha shai shan shang shao she shen sheng shi shou shu shua shuai shuan shuang shui shun shuo si si song sou su suan sui sun suo ta tai tan tang tao te teng ti tian tiao tie ting tong tou tu tuan tui tun tuo wa wai wan wang wei wen weng wo wu xi xia xian xiang xiao xie xin xing xiong
Pinyin xiu xu xuan xue xun ya yai yan yang yao ye yi yin ying yo yong you yu yuan yue yun za zai zan zang zao ze zei zen zeng zha zhai zhan zhang zhao zhe zhen zheng zhi zhong zhou zhu zhua zhuai zhuan zhuang zhui zhun zhuo zi zong zou zu zuan zui zun zuo
314
Glossary of Chinese Characters
A Cheng : Ah Cheng A Fei zhengzhuan (): Days of Being Wild A Ge a hong : imam A Q zhengzhuan Q (Q): The True Story of Ah Q A Ying Aba Zangzu Qiangzu Zizhizhou : Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture Aerjin Shan : Altun Mountains Aertai : Altai aha : Manchu slaves Ahei xiaoshi : The story of Ahei Ai Qing Ai Weiwei Ai Xuan () aiguo : patriotic Aiguo Tongyi Zhanxian (): Patriotic United Front aiguozhe : patriot aiguozhuyi jiaoyu jidi : patriotic educational bases Aihe : Love River Aihun Tiaoyue : Treaty of Aigun Aiqing sanbuqu : Love trilogy
Aishanlu mengying (): Dreams from a mountain lovers studio Aixinjueluo Hongli (): Qianlong emperor Aixinjueluo Minning (), later (): Daoguang emperor Aixinjueluo Putong : Aisin Gioro Putong Aixinjueluo Puyi (): Xuantong emperor Aixinjueluo Yihuan Aixinjueluo Yixin () Aixinjueluo Yizhu : Xianfeng emperor Aixinjueluo Yongyan , later : Jiaqing emperor Aixinjueluo Zaichun : Tongzhi emperor Aixinjueluo Zaitian : Guangxu emperor aizibing : AIDS Alibaba : Alibaba Alishan fengyun (): Storm on Mount Ali anban : Qing imperial resident anding tuanjie : stability and unity Ando Hiroshige Anduo : Amdo Anfu Guohui : Anfu Parliament Anhui
315
Anhui Shengli Tushuguan : Anhui Provincial Library anjuan : cases Ankang annaqizhuyi : anarchism Annaqizhuyi : On anarchism Anni Baobei Anqing Ansha 3322 3322: Assassination 3322 Anshan Anyang Anyuan ao : a long jacket Aofeng Shuyuan : Aofeng Academy Aoki Masaru Aomen : Macau Ba Ba Jin ba rong ba chi : Eight Honors and Eight Disgraces badao : despotic way bagongsheng (): senior licentiate of the first class baguwen : formal eight-part essays Bai Chongxi Bai Guang Bai Hong Bai Hua Bai hua qi fang, bai jia zheng ming , : Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend Bai Jingrui : Pai Ching-jui Bai Ri Weixin (): Hundred Days Reform Bai Shangdi Hui (): Society of God Worshippers Bai Wei Bai Xianyong Baidai changci (): Pathe0 lyrics Baidai Changpian Gongsi : Pathe0 Orient Baidi Tianwang : White Emperor Heavenly Kings Baidu : Baidu
baihua (): the vernacular language Baihua bao : Vernacular journal baihua shi : vernacular poetry baihua yundong (): colloquial-language movement Baihua Yundong (): Hundred Flowers Campaign Baijiao : bkabrgyud (Kagyu) Tibetan Vajrayna a Buddhism Bailianhui : White Lotus sect Bailianjiao Qiyi (): White Lotus Rebellion Bailu Yuan : White Deer Plain Bailudong Shuyuan : Bailudong Academy Bailudong Shuyuan jieshi : Guidelines for the Bailudong Academy Baimahu : Lake Baima Baimao nu : The White-Haired Girl Baimao nu jixingqu : The White-Haired Girl impromptu baimiao : outline technique bainian guochi : century of humiliation Baise : Bose, Poseh Baishe zhuan (): The story of the white snake baitang : offering food to the ancestors of the grooms family Baitoushan : Mt. Baitou Baiye : White Nights Baiyun Baiyunguan Baizhongren: Shangdi de jiaozi : : White people: Gods favored sons Baizu : Bai minority Bajiu Minzhu Yundong : Tiananmen Incident (1989) Bajiu Xuesheng Yundong : Tiananmen Incident (1989) Bakuning : Bakunin Balujun (): Eighth Route Army ban fengjian : semifeudal ban maoyi : ordinary trade ban zhimin di : semicolonial
316
Ban zhuren : Class teacher Banchan Lama : Panchen Lama bang (): gangs, cliques; specifically, trade coalitions, financial cliques Banpo Banqiao Da Ba : Banqiao Dam bao : a security group in the baojia community selfdefense system bao lu : protect the railways Bao Pao Bao Shichen Bao Tianxiao baochan daohu : household responsibility for production, fixing of farm output quotas for each household Baoding Baoding Junxiao : Baoding Military Academy baofang : publishing house baogan daohu : household responsibility for all baogao wenxue : reportage Baohe Dian : Preserving Harmony Hall Baohuang Hui (): Save the Emperor Society, China Reform Association Baoji baojia : mutual-responsibility system, community self-defense system, neighborhood household registration system for preventing crime Baoli Keji Youxian Gongsi : China Polytechnologies Baoliandeng : Precious lotus lantern baolu : expose0 Baoshan Gangtie Chang : Baoshan Iron and Steel Mill baoshang zhidu : security merchant system baoshuiqu : free-trade zone Baotou baoyi : booi, Manchu bondservants Baoyinghu : Lake Baoying baozhang () baozi (): covered dice Baqi : Eight Banners Baqi Jun (): Eight Banners Army, Banner forces
Bashidang wenhua : Bashidang culture Batang Bawang bie ji : Farewell My Concubine (film and play) Bawu Meishu Xinchao : 1985 Art New Wave Bawu Meishu yundong : 1985 New Wave movement Bayiwu : Confucius Dance bazhai fengshui : eight-house geomancy Bazhamiao (): Bazha temple bazi : eight-character form indicating time of birth bei : stone stele Bei Cun Bei Dao bei ti (): stele script Bei ying : The View from the Rear Bei Yuming : I. M. Pei Bei Zuyi : Pei Tsuyee Beibei Beibei nantie lun (): Northern stelae and Southern copybooks Beichuan Beidaihe Beidou : Big Dipper Beifa Zhanzheng : Northern Expedition Beifang Gongye Gongsi : China North Industries Corporation Beifang Yishu Qunti : Northern Art Group Beihai : Pakhoi Beihai Gongyuan : Beihai Park Beijiang : Bei (North) River Beijing : Peking Beijing chenbao (): Beijing morning post Beijing Daxiang Wenhua Youxian Gongsi : Beijing Universal Culture Corporation Beijing Daxue (): Peking University Beijing Daxue Huafa Yanjiu Hui : Peking University Society for the Study of Painting Methods
317
Beijing Dianying Xueyuan : Beijing Film Academy Beijing Dizhi Bowuguan : Beijing Geological Museum Beijing Dongcun : Beijing East Village Beijing Gongren Wenhuagong : Beijing Workers Cultural Center Beijing Huayuan : Beijing Painting Academy Beijing Huochezhan : Beijing Train Station Beijing Meishujia Xiehui ( ): Beijing Artists Association Beijing Nuxuejie Lianhehui : Beijing Federation of Women Students Beijing Renmin Yishu Juyuan ( ): Beijing Peoples Art Theater Beijing Shehui Jingji Kexue Yanjiusuo : Beijing Social and Economic Research Institute Beijing Shi Da Jianzhu : Ten Great Constructions of Beijing Beijing Shifan Daxue : Beijing Normal University Beijing Tiaoyue (): Beijing Conventions Beijing Wudao Xueyuan : Beijing Dance Academy Beijing Xiehe Yixueyuan ( ): Peking Union Medical College Beijing zazhong : Beijing Bastards Beijing zhi Chun : Beijing Spring Beijing Zhonggou Huaxue Yanjiu Hui : Society for Research in Chinese Painting Beijing Ziran Bowuguan : Beijing Natural History Museum Beijingren : Peking man Beijingshi Dazhong Wenyi Chuangzuo Yanjiu Hui : Beijing Municipality Masses Literature and Art Creation Research Society Beijingshi Meishujia Xiehui ( ): Beijing Municipal Artists Association beiju mei (): tragic beauty Beili Wang : Established King Beilun Beiping Beiping Guoli yishu zhuanke xuexiao : Beiping National Art College
Beiping jian pu (): Beiping Decorated Writing Paper Beiping Yanjiuyuan : Beiping Research Academy Beiqing chengshi : A City of Sadness beixue (): studies of ancient monuments Beiyang Jiandui : Beiyang Fleet Beiyang jun (): Beiyang Army Beiyang junfa : Beiyang warlords Beiyang Shifan Xuetang : Beiyang Normal School Beiyang Xi Xuetang : Tianjin University (Beiyang University) Beiyang zhengfu : Beiyang (warlord) government benbao neibu xiaoxi : this newspapers confidential news Bencao gangmu : Compendium of Materia Medica bendi : local, locals benshengren : locals Benxi Benxihu benzhu : local deity Bamo : Bhamo bi : utilitarian prose Bi nu : Emerald slave Bi Yihong Bi Zhenda Bian : The other shore Bian cheng : Border Town or The Frontier City Bian Zhilin Bian zou bian chang : Life on a String Biandan guniang : So Close to Paradise Biandi fengliu : Romances of the Landscape Biandi xiaoxiong : Rebels everywhere bianfa : reform of government Bianfa tonglun (): General theory of reform bianjing jingji hezuoqu : border economiccooperation zone bianju : unprecedented situation bianli dian : convenience store bianqu : border region
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bifu : application of law to a case by analogy biji : brush jottings Bijiang bijutsu : fine art bin (): concubine Bing mei guan ji (): A sanitarium for sick plums bingmayong : terracotta army, terracotta warriors and horses Bingxiang baogao : Health reports Bingxin Binhai Xinqu : New Coastal District Binzhou Bishu Shanzhuang : Mountain Resort for Escaping the Heat Biye ge : Graduation song bizhi zeli : currency regulations Bo Gu Bo Xilai Bo Yi Bo Yibo Bo Yun Boan xinbian (): New collection of reversed cases Bogu tulu : Illustrated collection of antiquities Bohai bu : not (Cantonese, bat) bu chi : standard Chinese foot Bu jian bu san : Be There or Be Square Bu Wancang Buchanzu Hui : Anti-footbinding Society Budala Gong : Potala Palace buge : transparently bujiankan de qingxiang : unhealthy tendencies Bujinghua chuanxisuo bujun tongling : commander of the gendarmerie bulaji : Russian platye, a frock made of figured cloth bunjin ga : literati painting Bunjinga no fukko : The revival of literati painting
bunmei shi : history of civilization bupingdeng tiaoyue : unequal treaties bushou : radicals Buyi : Cloth (band) Buyizu : Buyi minority, Bouyei buzhang : minister Buzhu Jihua : Grant-in-Aid Scheme cai : side dishes Cai Chang Cai Chusheng Cai Guoqiang : Cai Guo-Qiang Cai Hong She : Rainbow Club Cai Mingliang Cai Qian Cai Ruohong Cai Weilian Cai Yuanpei caichou wu : ribbon dance Caidamu Pengdi : Qaidam Basin Caifeng yundong : Folksong collecting movement caijing shiwu lingdao xiaozu : small group of party leaders concerned with financial and economic matters caimohua : color and ink painting caishen : god of wealth Caiyuan : Vegetable garden Caizheng Bu : Ministry of Finance caizi jiaren : scholars and beauties Can Xue Cang Jie Canglao de fuyun : Old floating cloud Canwu (): Lingering fog Cao Kun () Cao Menglan Cao Xinzhi Cao Xueqin Cao Yu caohu : standard of capacity caoliang : tribute grain caolishu (): cursive clerical script caomi : tribute grain
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caoshu (): cursive script Caoyuan Fa : Grasslands Law Cen Yuying cha yin : tea licensing chadui : inserted into a (production) team Chaguan (): Teahouse Chahaer (): Chahar chaipiao : promissory notes Chaishan : Chai Mountain chaju chake : tea tax chali (): wedding tea ceremony Chang E Chang hen ge : Song of Everlasting Sorrow: A Novel of Shanghai chang majia : long vest Chang Yu : Sanyu Changan Changan Jie : Changan Avenue, Avenue of Eternal Peace Change benyue Changbaishan : Changbai Mountains changben : songbooks changbian dang (): long-draft record Changcheng (): Great Wall Changchun () Changchun Yuan (): Changchun Garden Changdu : Qamdo changguan (): tax checkpoint, native customs Changhaixian : Changhai County Changhe : Long river Changjiang (): Yangzi River Changming yishu zhuanke xuexiao : Changming Art College changpao (): mans long gown changqiang wu : spear dance Changsha Changsha guwu wenjianji ( ): Changsha antiquities news changshi : basic knowledge Changshi ji : Experiments Changshuxian : Changshu County
changwu fuzhuxi : standing vice chairman Changxindian Changxing Changzheng (): Long March Changzheng jiaoxiangqu : Long March symphony Changzhi Changzhou changzhu niangjia hun (): delayed-transfer marriage chanhui : repentance chanye hua : marketization chaobao : court gazette chaoguan : tax checkpoint Chaoji nusheng : Super voice girls Chaoren : Superman chaoshi : supermarket Chaoxian Zhanzheng : Korean War Chaoxianzu : Korean Chinese Chaozhou : Teochiu chaxu geju : differential mode of association Chen Baichen Chen Baoyi () Chen Baozhen Chen Boda Chen Boping () Chen Cheng () Chen Chongguang Chen Chuanlin Chen Da () Chen Danqing () Chen Danxu () Chen Diexian Chen Duxiu () Chen Fushan : Luis Chan Chen Gang Chen Geng Chen Guofu () Chen Hansheng () Chen Henghe Shulin (): Chen Henghe Bookshop
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Chen Hengke (): Chen Hengque Chen Hengzhe () Chen Hongshou (15981652) () Chen Hongshou (17681822) () Chen Jiageng : Tan Kah Kee Chen Jiageng Gongsi : Tan Kah Kee & Co. Chen Jing Chen Jinhua Chen Jinshi Chen Jiongming () Chen Kunhou () Chen Li () Chen Liangyu Chen Lifu () Chen Liting Chen Muhua Chen Ping Chen Qigang Chen Qimei Chen Qiyuan Chen Quan Chen Ruoxi () Chen Sanli () Chen Sanyuan Chen Shizeng () Chen Shouqi Chen Shu Chen Shuibian () Chen Shuren Chen Tiegeng Chen Wanli Chen Xiaocui Chen Xiaodie Chen Xiaoying () Chen Xilian Chen Xin Chen Xingcan Chen Xitong Chen Xiying () Chen Yan () Chen Yanning
Chen Yanqiao Chen Yi (19011972) () Chen Yi (18831950) () Chen Yifei Chen Yiming Chen Yingning () Chen Yingshi Chen Yingzhen () Chen Yinke () Chen Yonggui Chen Yu Chen Yuan (18801971) () Chen Yuan (18961970) () Chen Yun () Chen Zaidao Chen Zhanxiang Chen Zhaomin () Chen Zhaozhi Chen Zhifo () Chen Zhili Chen Zhongshi Chen Ziming Chenbao (): Morning post Cheng Conglin Cheng Danan Cheng Fangwu Cheng Jinguan Cheng Jingyi () Cheng Long (): Jackie Chan Cheng Maoyun Cheng Shewo Cheng Shifa Cheng Yi () Cheng Zhang Chengde Chengdu Cheng-Hua Cheng Yishihui : City Council of Chengdu and Huayang chenghuang miao (): city-god temples Cheng-Kun xian : Chengdu-Kunming line Chengnan Xueyuan : Chengnan Academy
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Chengqinghu : Chengqing Lake chengshi : city Chengshi Fangdichan Guanli Fa : Law on Urban Real Estate Administration Chengshi Guanglang : Urban Spotlight Arcade Chengshi Guihua Fa : City Planning Act Chengxiang Guihua Fa : Urban and Rural Planning Act chengzhen dengji shiye : urban registered unemployment Cheng-Zhu Chengziya Chenlun : Sinking Chezhan : Bus stop chi : Chinese foot chi : beating with a light stick chi : shame chi butong zhengjian zhe : dissident chi huotou : meal rotation Chi Li Chi She : Pond Society chijiao yisheng : barefoot doctor chiku : experience bitterness Chixi Chong Ji Xueyuan (): Chung Chi College Chongjin Chongmingdao : Chongming Island Chongqing : Chungking Chongqing Sanxia Bowuguan : Chongqing Three Gorges Museum Chongqing senlin (): Chungking Express Chongzheng Dian : Hall of Eminent Administration Chou Yi Chouchu de jijie : Season of vacillation Chouren zhuan : Biographies of calendar experts and astronomers chu : division Chu Anping Chu ci : elegies of Chu Chu Ge Chu Minyi
Chuan bao : Sichuan newspaper chuandao chuangju : unprecedented situation Chuangzao She (): Creation Society Chuangzao yuekan (): Creation monthly Chuangzao zhoubao (): Creation weekly chuantong : tradition chuanye pifa shichang : special wholesale market chuban zongshu chuilian tingzheng (): listening from behind screens to reports on governmental affairs chujia : leaving the family Chujue Yishu Xiaozu : Tactile Art chukou jiagong : export processing Chun man Tulufan : Springtime in Turfan Chun qinwang : Prince Chun chun wenxue : pure literature Chun zhi sheng : Voices of spring Chuncan : Spring silkworms Chundi Huahui (): Spring Earth Painters Association Chunguang zhaxie (): Happy Together Chu -Nichi Bijutsu Kyokai : Association of Sino-Japanese Art Chunjie (): Spring Festival, Chinese lunar New Year chunlian : spring festival couplets Chunqiu : Spring and autumn annals Chunshen jun : Lord Chunshen Chunshui : Spring water Chunshui Huayuan : Spring Slumber Studio Chunu di : Virgin Soil Chunye yu feifei : Falling rain on a spring night chuzhang : section leader Chuzhou ci : ancestral alter ci : song lyric Ci Qin : The Emperor and the Assassin Cian Empress Dowager Cian cifu lieche : Maglev (magnetic levitation) train
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Cihai (): Sea of words Cishan Cishan wenhua : Cishan culture citang : ancestor hall Cixi taihou : Empress Dowager Cixi Ciyuan (): Word origins cizhang (): literary works cizi : tattooing Cong wenxue geming dao geming wenxue (): From a Literary Revolution to a Revolutionary Literature Conghua congshu (): reprint series Congwen zizhuan : Congwens autobiography Cui Jian Cui Zhiyuan Cuiheng cuju : ancient Chinese football cun : Chinese inch cun : village cunmin weiyuanhui : village committee cunshu : village school da : communication of ideas da chuan pai : grand chop da chuanlian : great networking Da Han Sichuan Jun Zhengfu : Great Han Military Government Da hong denglong gaogao gua : Raise the Red Lantern da kucha : big shorts Da Qing Huangjia Haiguan Zong Shuiwu Si (): Imperial Maritime Customs Service Da Qing huidian : Qing statutes Da Qing Luli : Qing Code, Qing penal code Da Qing Men (): Great Qing Gate Da Qing Shanglu : Qing commercial code Da Qing Xianxing Xinglu ( ): Qing current criminal code Da Shanghai wuyan xia : Under the eaves of greater Shanghai Da wanr : Big Shots Funeral Da Xingan
da xuetang : universities Da Yijin Da Youheng xiansheng : In Reply to Mr. Youheng Da yuebing : The Big Parade Da Yunhe (): Grand Canal Da Zhonghua Baihe Yingpian Gongsi (): Da Zhonghua Baihe Film Studio, Great China Lilium Pictures Da Zhonghua Huochai Gongsi : China Match Company Dacheng Dian : Great Achievement Hall Dadao xiang guizi toushang kan qu: Kang-Ri gequ zhuanji : Use the sword to cut off the heads of the foreign invader devils: A special compilation of songs of resistance against Japan Dadaocheng : Tuatiutia Dadaohui : Big Sword Society Dadukou Gangtie Chang : Dadukou Iron and Steel Works Dafengtang mingji : an illustrated catalog Dagong bao (): Dagong daily, Limpartial dagong mei : working sisters Dahai hangxing kao duoshou : Sailing the seas depends on the helmsman Dahua Baoxian Gongsi : China General Insurance Company dai hongmaozi : wearing the red hat Dai Jitao Dai Li Dai Qing Dai Toa Kyoei Ken (): Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere Dai Wangshu Dai Zhen Daibu Juliu Tiaoli : Regulations on Arrest and Detention daimyo : Japanese feudal lords Dairen daiye qingnian : young persons waiting for jobs daiyezhe : young persons waiting for jobs daiyu : hairtail Daiyun Shanmai : Daiyun mountain range
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Daizu : Dai minority dajia : great painter dajun : fronts Dakulun : Ikh Huree Dalai Lama Dali Dali Baizu Zizhi Zhou : Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture Dali Si : Court of Judicial Review Dali Yuan : Court of Judicial Review Dalian Dalini : Dalny Dalu ge : Song of the big road Dalu Shiwu Weiyuanhui : Mainland Affairs Council Dalu Yinhang : Continental Bank Daminghu : Daming Lake Damingsi : Daming Temple dan (): picul, 145 pounds dan : female role type in Peking Opera Dan jian pian (): Gall and sword dang : party, faction dang tianxia (): party empire, all under the party dangan (): personnel dossier danghua : partify, extend the partys influence into dangwai : Taiwanese opposition before 1986 Dangxiangzu : Tanguts Dangxiao : Party School Dangzi : Taipa dangzu : party group Danmin : Dan people, Tanka, boat people Danshui : Dan River, also a city on Taiwan, Tamsui danwei (): work unit, agency danxian pingtu : single-outline and flat-color technique dao : circuit Dao : the Way Dao diren houfang qu : Go to the enemys rear Dao Lang Dao ziran qu : Return to nature
Daodejing : Classic of the way and virtue Daoguang : emperor (r. 18211850) Daojiao : Daoism Daomazei : Horse Thief daoshi : ordained Daoist priest daotai (): viceroy, governor, circuit intendent Daoxue (): learning of the way Daoyuan : School of the Way Daozang : Daoist canon Daqing Daqing Yinhang : Daqing Bank Daqing Youtian : Daqing Oil Fields dasao ganjing wuzi zai qingke : cleaning up the house first before receiving guests Dasheng Shachang : Dasheng Cotton Mill Dashou () Datang Dianxin Keji Chanye Jituan : Datang Telecom Technology and Industry Group Datang Guoji Fadian Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Datang International Power Generation Co. datong : place name datong : great unity, great harmony Datong shu (): Book of great unity Datong Xuexiao : Datong School daxieyi (): greater free-hand brushwork Daxin Gongsi : Da Sun Department Store Daxue : Great Learning Daxue Jiaoyu Zizhu Weiyuanhui : University Grants Committee Daxue Xingdong Fangan : University Act Daxueyuan : Higher Education Council Dayan Ta : Big Wild Goose Pagoda dayang : dragon dollars Dayanhe : Dayan River da-Yazhouzhuyi : pan-Asianism Daye Tiekuang : Daye Iron Mines dayi (): great principles Dayi () dayuanshuai (): generalissimo Dayuejin : Great Leap Forward Dazhai
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Dazhai Shengchandui : Dazhai Production Team Dazheng Dian : Great Administration Hall dazhong caipu : recipes for the working masses dazhong jiti geyue : collective songs and music for the masses Dazhong Muke Yanjiuhui : Mass Woodcut Research Society Dazhong shenghuo : Mass life Dazhong sheying dazhong shitang caipu : canteen recipes for the working masses dazhong yinyue : music of the masses dazhonghua : popularize dazibao : big-character poster de : morality, virtue De Wang De xiansheng : Mr. Democracy Demokelaxi xiansheng : Mr. Democracy Deng Lijun : Teresa Teng Deng Shi Deng Shu Deng Tingzhen Deng Tuo Deng Xiaohua Deng Xiaoping () Deng Xiaoping nanxun : Deng Xiaopings southern tour Deng Yanda () Deng Yaping Deng Yingchao () Deng Zhongyuan Deqing Dezhou di : liaison hostel di bao : Han court gazette Di Baoxian di chao : court gazette Dajia Wenxue Jiang : Dajia Award dian : conditional land sale, a transfer of possession of immovable property with the option of either redemption or sale at an adjusted price in the future
Dianjiangti Wuli Yanjiusuo : Institute of Plasma Physics Dianshizhai huabao (): Dianshi Studio pictorial Dianying Zhipian, Faxing, Fangying Jingying Zige Zhunru Zanxing Guiding : Temporary Regulations for Permission of Film Production, Distribution, and Exhibition Dianzi Gongye Bu : Ministry of Electronics Industry diao : string of 1, 000 copper coins diaoke yinshua : xylography, woodblock printing diaolou : watchtowers Diaotonghuan Diaoyutai Diaoyutai Guobing Guan : Diaoyutai State Guest House dibao : elderly, respected person didang (): faction of the emperor diding yin : land-poll tax dier chanye : secondary sector Dier Fangmian Jun : Second Front Army Dier Paobing Budui : Second Artillery Corps Dierci Guo-Gong Hezuo ( ): second United Front dierci sixiang jiefang : second liberation of thought Diershijiujie Oulinpike Yundong Hui Zuzhi Weiyuanhui 29: Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad difang guanyuan : field administration difang shui : local taxes difang xingzheng quyu tiaozheng quan : local-administrative-region adjustment right difang zhi : local gazetteer diji : regional level diji shi : prefectural-level municipalities Dili Yanjiusuo : Institute of Geography Ding Cong () Ding En : Sir Richard Dane Ding Guangxun : K. H. Ting Ding Li Ding Ling Ding Richang
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Ding Ruchang Ding Shande Ding Song Ding Wenjiang Ding Wenwei Ding Xilin Ding Yanyong : Ting Yin-yung dinggou : purchase by order Dinghai Dingji Daxue he Yanjiu Zhongxin Xiangmu : Top Universities and Research Centers Project Dingwujun : Pacification Army Dingxian : Ding County Dingxian Pingmin Jiaoyu Yundong (): Mass Education Movement at Dingxian Dingzhuang meng (): Dreams of Ding Village dingzi (): silver ingot Dinu Hua : The flower princess Diqi Jiandui : Seventh Fleet Diqiang : ancient minority Diqiu, wo de muqin , (, ): Earth, my mother Dilikexue he Ziyuan Yanjiusuo : Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources diqu : prefecture diquji : prefectural level disan chanye : tertiary sector Disan Dang (): The Third Party disanzhong ren (): third category of men Disi Fangmian Jun : Fourth Front Army Ditan (): Temple of Earth Dixiongmen : Brothers diya : loan secured by land diyi chanye : primary sector Diyi Fangmian Jun : First Front Army diyi fuzhuxi : first vice chairman Diyici Guo-Gong Hezuo ( ): first United Front Dokuritsu Bijutsu Kyokai : Independent Art Association
Dong Biwu Dong Cunrui Dong Dayou Dong Hai : East China Sea Dong Huai Dong Jianhua : Tung Chee Hwa Dong Qichang Dong Qing Tielu (): Chinese Eastern Railway Dong Qizhang : Dung Kai Cheung Dong Xi wenhua ji qi zhexue ( ): Eastern and Western cultures and their philosophies Dong xie xi du (): Ashes of Time Dong Xiwen Dong Xun Dong Yangzi : Grace Tong Dong Zhongshu Dong Zuobin () dongba : Naxi male ritual experts Dongbei : the Northeast, Manchuria Dongbei Daxue (): Northeastern University Dongbei hua : Northeast Mandarin Dongbei ren : people from the Northeast Dongbei Tushuguan Dangan Bu (): Archives Section of the Northeastern Library Dongcun : East Village (Beijing) Dongdishi Bashiwu Guoji Guangchang 85 (85): Tuntex Sky Tower Dongfang Baidai (): Pathe0 -Orient Dongfang Binguan : Dongfang Hotel Dongfang Shandian (): Eastern Lightning Dongfang yu xiao : Dawning in the east Dongfang zazhi (): Eastern miscellany Dongfanghong yinyue wudao shishi : The East is red song and dance epic Dongfeng Qiche Gongsi : Dongfeng (automaker) Donggong xigong : East Palace, West Palace Dongguan
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Donghai Daxue (): Tunghai University Donghu Xin Jishu Kaifaqu : Donghu New Technology District Dongjiang : East River Dongjing Mei Gongsi : Hongay Coal Company Dongling () dongsansheng : three eastern provinces Dongshan dongshi : understand matters Dongtai ribao (): Dongtai daily Dongtinghu : Dongting Lake Dongwen Xueshe (): Eastern Language Institute Dongwu Daxue (): Dongwu University, Soochow University Dongwu xiongmeng : Wild beasts Dongyao : Vacillation Dongying Dongzhi : Winter Solstice Festival Dongzhuang Dongzu : Dong minority douban : multicolor printing dougong : bracket-arm set Du Fu Du Fu caotang : Du Fus thatched cottage du jing : reading the classics Du Wanxiang Du Weiming : Tu Wei-ming Du Wenxiu Du Yuesheng Duan Fang Duan Men (): Gate of Uprightness Duan Qirui duanao : short jacket, jacket-blouse Duanbishan : Brokeback Mountain Duanhong lingyan ji : The lone swan Duanmu Hongliang duanxian pingheng constraints : equilibrium under
Duizhang shuji yemao he banjiekuai de gushi : The story of the brigade chiefs secretary, the feral cat, and half a chopstick Dujiangyan dujun : military governor Dulesi (): Dule Temple Duli meishu : Independent art (journal) duli renge : independent personhood Dumen jilu (): A glimpse of the e capital gates Dunhuang Dunhuang wu : Dunhuang Dance Duoduo Duoluo tianshi (): Fallen Angels Dushu : Reading E Qie edu gongji weida lingxiu : vicious attacks on the great leader Eerduosi : Ordos Eerduosi Shamo : Ordos Desert Eguo shehui yundong shihua : On the history of Russian social movements Eqiao Shiwu Ju (): Bureau for 0 the Affairs of Russian Emigre0 s Er Ma (): Ma and Son, The Two Mas erchong zhengju fa (): the method of coalescing dual evidence erhu : a Chinese two-stringed bowed fiddle erhuang : a style of operatic singing Erhuanlu : Second Ring Road erlei shangpin : category two goods 2004 Nian Jiaoyu Xiuding Tiaoli 2004 : Education (Amendment) Ordinance 2004 Erlitou Ershinian mudu zhi guai xianzhuang (): Strange events eyewitnessed in the last twenty years Ertong Quanli Gongyue : Convention on the Rights of the Child Ertong shidai : Childhood times Erwu Jianzu : Rent Reduction Program erxian : second border Erya (): Near to correctness, an early dictionary
Duchayuan : Censorate duijing xiesheng : on-site painting or sketching from nature

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Erzi de da wanou (): The Sandwich Man Eshi jingwen (): Warning of Russian issues fabi (): legal tender faguan : elite Daoist priest Faguan Fa : Judges Law Falu Gongzuo Weiyuanhui : Legislative Work Committee falun dafa : the great way of the dharma wheel Falun Gong : discipline of the revolving dharma wheel Famensi : Famen Temple fan : rice Fan Bu Zhengdang Jingzheng Fa : Law against Unfair Competition Fan Changjiang () fan cheng feng : the atmosphere of returning to the cities Fan Dizhi Zhanzheng (): Antimonarchical War fan Jiang : opposition to Chiang Kai-shek Fan Shi Yizhuang (): Fan Clan Charitable Estate Fan Wenlan () Fan Xiaomei Fan Yanqiao Fan Zhongyan fang : lineage branch Fang Dongmei Fang Dongshu () Fang Fang Fang Junbi Fang Keli Fang Lijun Fang Rending Fang Yuping : Allen Fong Fang Zengxian Fang Zhaoling Fang Zhenzhu fangbu : rank badge Fangcun
fangdan (): document of ownership during the Qing Fangeming Baoluan : Tiananmen Incident (1989) Fangfei zhi ge : The song of flowers fanglue : general plans, achievements fangong dalu : retaking mainland China Fangqu Zhi : System of Defense Districts fangshan fanzhuang : a restaurant imitating imperial cuisine fangweipai : directions and positions school fangzhang (): branch head in a lineage fanqie : a system of indicating the pronunciation of characters fansi wenxue : reflection literature fantizi : traditional characters Fanxing : Myriad stars fanying lun (): theory of reflection fanyoupai yundong : antirightist movement fanyou yundong : antirightist campaign fatie : model writings Faxiang : a school of Buddhism fazhan guihua : development guidelines fazhan quan : right to development Fazhan Yanjiu Zhongxin : China Development Center, Development Research Center fei : surtaxes Fei Danxu fei Jidujiao yundong (): anti-Christian movement fei liang gai yuan : abolishing silver bullion and introducing the Chinese silver yuan Fei Ming () Fei Mu Fei Xiaotong () Feichang Jianzhu : Atelier Feichang Jianzhu Feidu : Abandoned capital, Ruined capital feihuang (): migratory locusts Feilengcui de yiye : A Night in Florence feiwuzhi wenhua yichan : intangible cultural heritage feixing fengshui : flying-star geomancy feixing qi (): Parcheesi
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Feixixian : Feixi County Feiyingge huabao : Feiyingge illustrated magazine Feng : Maple Feng Boheng Feng Guifen Feng Guozhang Feng Jicai () Feng Menglong Feng Wenbing Feng Xiaogang Feng Xuefeng () Feng Youlan Feng Yuanjun Feng Yuxiang () Feng Zhi Feng Zikai () Fenggui lai de ren : The Boys of Fengui Fenghua Fenghuang (): Phoenix Fenghuang Lou (): Phoenix Tower Fenghuang niepan (): Nirvana of the phoenix fengjian : feudal fengjian zhi : enfeoffment system fengjianzhuyi : feudalism fengpiao : Fengtian dollar Fengru feitun : Big Breasts and Wide Hips fengshui (): geomancy Fengtian Fengxian Fengyangxian : Fengyang County Feng-Ya-Song : a string quartet Fengyue : Temptress Moon Fengyun ernu : Children of troubled times Fengzheng piaodai : Kite streamers Fengzi : Phoenix Fenhe : Fen River fenjia : household division fenshuizhi : tax-sharing system fensi : subcommission fenzao chifan : eating from separate kitchens
Fogongsi : Fogong Temple Foguangshansi : Foguangshan Monastery Foguangsi : Foguang Temple Fojiao Xiejin Hui : Association for the Advancement of Buddhism Foshan Fotiaoqiang : Buddha jumps over the wall (restaurant) Fou Lei Foxiang Ge (): Buddha Fragrance Tower Foxue Yanjiuhui : Buddhist Research Society fu : prefecture Fu Baoshi Fu Hao Fu Mingxia Fu Sinian Fu yu zi : Fathers and Sons Fujian : Hokkien Fujian Bowuguan : Fujian Museum Fujian Shifan Daxue (): Fujian Normal University Fujishima Takeji Fukangan fukua : exaggeration Fukuda Hideko Fukuzawa Yukichi () fulao : elders Fulian : All-China Womens Federation fumu baoban : Arranged Marriage Funanhe : Funan River funu jiefang : womens liberation Funu Lianhehui : All-China Womens Fed eration, Womens Association Funu neng ding banbian tian : Women hold up half the sky fupin daikuan : poverty loan program fuqiang : wealth and power Fuqin : Father Furen Daxue (): Furen University, Fu Jen Catholic University Furong yuanyang tu : Hibiscus and Mandarin Ducks Furong zhen : A Small Town Called Hibiscus
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Furong zhen : a short story Fushun fuwu bumen : services Fuxin Fuxing Gongyuan : Fuxing Park Fuzao : Turbulence Fuzhou Fuzhou Chuanzheng Xuetang ( ): Fuzhou Naval School Fuzhou Dudufu : Fuzhou Area Military Command fuzhuxi : state vice president (literally, vice chairman) Gai Qi gaige : reform gaige kaifang : reform and opening up, economic reforms gaige shiyanqu : reform experiment zone gailiang : reformed or improved gaizupai (): reorganization clique Gajupai : bkabrgyud (Kagyu) Tibetan Vajrayna a Buddhism Gan Shaocheng Gan Yang ganbu : cadre ganbu zhifu : cadre suit gandalei : rammed dry earth Gandu Yeyu gang (): syndicates Gangdu Gang-Tai yinyue : a popular music style from Hong Kong and Taiwan ganhua : moral reform Ganjiang : Gan River Ganjingzi ganqing : feelings of affection, closeness Gansu ganying (): cosmic resonance Ganzhou Ganzi Zangzu Zizhizhou : Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Gao Gang Gao Jianfu ()
Gao Jianqun Gao Qifeng Gao Xiaohua Gao Xiaosheng () Gao Xingjian Gao Xiqing Gao Yaoji Gao Yong Gao Zhisheng gaodeng zhuanye xuetang : higher specialty college gaogan zidi : princeling gaoji ganbu : superior-ranked cadres gaokao : national college-entrance examinations Gaolaozhuang : Old Gao Village gaoliang : sorghum Gaosheng : Kowshing Gaoshi zhuan : Lives of high-minded men Gaoxi gaoxin jishu kaifaqu : high-tech development zone Gaoxing : Happiness Gaoxiong : Kaohsiung Gaoxiong Shijian : Gaoxiong Incident Gaoxiongshili Meishuguan : Kaohsiung Museum of Fine Arts Gaoyang Gaoyouhu : Lake Gaoyou ge : opaquely Ge Fei Ge Gongzhen Ge You Geermu : Golmud Gebi Shamo : Gobi Desert Gebi Tan : Gobi Desert Gechang Wuchan Jieji Wenhua Da Geming : Ode to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution Gechang zuguo : Ode to the motherland gedai hu : skipped-generation household Gedake : Gartok
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gedimu , : Muslim communities based around local mosques Gegentala Gejiu Gelaohui : Society of Elder Brothers Gelaozu : Gelao minority Gelupai : dge lugs (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism geming gequ : revolutionary songs Geming gequ xuanji : Compilation of revolutionary songs geming langmangzhuyi : revolutionary romanticism Geming minge ji : A collection of revolutionary folksongs Geming Shijian Yanjiuyuan : Revolutionary Practice Institute geming xiandai jingju (): modern revolutionary Peking Operas geming xiandai wuju : revolutionary modern ballet geming yangbanxi : revolutionary model theater Gemingdang : Revolutionary Party geminghua : revolutionize Geng Biao Geng Huichang Geng Qingguo Gengzi Peikuan (): Boxer Indemnity Genu Hongmudan (): Singsong girl Red Peony gerenhua : individualization Geti Laodongzhe Xiehui : Self-Employed Laborers Association getihu : individual household businesses, smallscale individual enterprises Geyao yanjiuhui : Folksong Research Society Geyao zhoukan : Folksong weekly Gezhouba : Gezhou Dam go : go (board game) Guoluo : Golog gong : public gong huayuan : public flower garden Gong Jin Ou : To consolidate our country (national anthem)
Gong Li Gong Liu Gong qinwang (): Prince Gong Gong Yixin (): Prince Gong Gong Zizhen () gongan : public security Gongan Bu : Ministry of Public Security gongan ju : public security bureau gongbihua (): finely detailed painting, fine line painting Gongchan Guoji (): Comintern Gongchandang (): Communist Party Gongchandang Daibiao Dahui : Communist Party Congress Gongchandang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui : Communist Party Central Committee Gongchanzhuyi Qingnian Tuan : Communist Youth League Gongchanzhuyizhe : The communist Gongche Shangshu (): a petition of metropolitan candidates opposed to the Treaty of Shimonoseki Gongchen Qiao : Gongchen Bridge Gongcheng zuofa zeli (): Construction methods gongfei sheng (): government-sponsored students gongfei yiliao baoxian : public medical insurance gongfen : work points gonggong zujie : international settlement gonghang : cohong (authorized foreign traders) gonghe : republican polity Gongheguo jiaokeshu : Republican readers Gonghui Fa : Trade Union Law Gongmin Quanli He Zhengzhi Quanli Guoji Gongyue : International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights gongmin shehui : civil society gongnongbing : worker-peasant-soldier gongpan dahui : sentencing rallies gongren : worker Gongren Tiyu Chang : Beijing Workers Stadium
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gongshe : commune gongsi : company, corporation Gongsi Fa : Company Law Gongsi Lu : Company Law Gongsi Tiaoli : 1914 Company Regulation gongsi zhili : corporate governance gongsuo : professional guild Gongtong Gangling : Common Program Gongyang zhuan (): Gongyang commentary gongye : industry Gongye he Xinxihua Bu : Ministry of Industry and Information gongyijin : public welfare funds gongyuan : park, public garden gongzaishu (): childrens picture book gongzuo danwei : work unit goujian hexie shehui : building a harmonious society Gu Cheng Gu Dexin Gu Gong Gu Heqing Gu Hua Gu Jiegang () Gu Jizhui Dongwu yu Gu Renlei Yanjiusuo : Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology Gu Linshi Gu Qingyao Gu Weijun (): Wellington Koo Gu Wenda () Gu Yanwu () Gu Yishu Baocun Hui : Society for Preserving Ancient Art Gu Yuan Gu Zhenfu : Koo Chen-fu guaizi : knucklebones guan : official, magistrate guan chi (): maritime customs foot Guan Daosheng Guan Hanqing Guan Liang ()
Guan Moye Guan Shanyue Guan Zilan () Guancha (): The observer Guanchang xianxing ji (): The bureaucrat: A revelation guanchao : internal customs duties Guandi (): Emperor Guan Guandong guandu shangban (): government supervision and merchant management Guang chi (): Guangdong foot Guang Weiran Guang yizhou shuangji (): Two oars of the boat of art, expanded Guangan Guangbo Dianshi Guanli Tiaoli : Regulatory Measures for Radio and Television Guangbo Dianying Dianshi Zongju : State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television Guangbo Yingshi Xinwen Caibian Renyuan Congye Guanli de Shishi Fangan : Implementation Plan for the Management of Radio and Audiovisual Journalists Guangchu Si (): Department of the Privy Purse Guangdong Guangdong Nongmin Jiangxi Suo : Guangdong Peasants Lecture Hall guange ti (): examination-hall style Guangfu Hui (): Restoration Society guanggao (): advertising Guangling chao : Tides of Yangzhou Guangling Shushe (): Guangling Publishing Company Guangming ribao (): Guangming daily Guangren Guangxi Guangxin Guangxu (): emperor (r. 18751908) Guangya Shuyuan : Guangya Academy Guangyin de gushi (): In Our Time
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Guangzhou : Canton Guangzhou hua : Cantonese Guangzhou Jingji Jishu Kaifaqu : Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone Guangzhou Zhongshan Daxue ( ): Zhongshan University Guangzhouwan : Guangzhou Bay guanli danwei : management unit Guanli Jiguan Yingye Guize : Regulations Governing the Brothel Business Guannian 21 Xingwei Huodong 21 : Concept 21 Action Art guannian sheying : conceptual photography guanshui : internal customs duties Guantang () Guanwu Shu (): Customs Administration guanxi : personal connections, informal social networks guanxi mafan : the bother of connections guanxiwang : connection network guanxixue : the art of social connections, the art of getting things done guanxue (): official schools guanyinhao : official money shops Guanyu lingdao fangfa de ruogan wenti (): Some questions concerning methods of leadership Guanyu Zhongguo jin yibu shishi ershiyi richeng de jianyi : Opinions for further implementation of Chinas Agenda 21 Guanyu Zujin Shijie Heping yu Hezuo de Xuanyan : Declaration on the Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation guanzhen : official handbooks Guanzhui bian : Pipe and awl collection guapimao : mans round cap guasha : to scrape for fever and pain guci : folk literary form accompanied by drum gudong , : antiquities Guduzhe (): The misanthrope gufen hehuo : limited partnerships gufen hezuo qiye : cooperative shareholding enterprise
gufen lianghe gongsi : companies with limited- and unlimited-liability shareholders gufen youxian gongsi : joint-stock limitedliability company Gugong Bowuyuan : Palace Museum guhua : antique Chinese painting guifei (): honored consort Guifei zuijiu (): An imperial concubine gets tipsy Guijin Guilai de ge : Songs of return Guiliang Guilin guimao xuezhi (): 1903 school system guiqiao (): returned overseas Chinese Guiqulai xi (): Returning guiren (): worthy lady guishushi (): teachers of the inner chambers Guixi Guiyang Huayuan (): Guiyang Painting Academy Guizhou Guizi lai le : Devils on the Doorstep Gujing Jingshe : Academy for Glossing the Classics Gulangyu Guling Guo Fucheng : Aaron Kwok Fu-Shing Guo Jin Guo Jingjing Guo Jingming Guo Kaizhen () Guo Le (): Guo Luo Guo Lin Guo Lusheng Guo Moruo Guo Pu Guo Quan : Guo Chuan Guo Shixing Guo Songdao Guo Wei Guo Wenjing
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Guobi Tiaoli : Legal Tender Act Guobie Zhanlue yu Guihua : Country Strategy and Program Guochao huazheng lu : Painting annals of the present dynasty guocui (): national essence Guocui xuebao (): National essence journal Guocui yuekan : National essence monthly Guofang Bu (): Ministry of National Defense Guofang Daxue : National Defense University Guofang Kexue Jishu Gongye Weiyuanhui : Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense guofang wenxue (): national-defense literature guofang yinyue : national-defense music Guofang Zuigao Weiyuanhui : Supreme National Defense Council Guofangbu Zong Zhengzhibu ( ): National Defense Political Warfare Department Guofu (): Father of the Nation Guo-Gong Hezuo (): Guomindang Communist Party Cooperation Guo-Gong Neizhan (): Chinese civil war Guoguo : Guo State Guoguo Mudi Bowuguan : Guo State Tomb Museum guohua (): traditional Chinese painting Guohua Jushe : Guohua Drama Society Guohua Nengyuan Touzi Youxian Gongsi : Guohua Energy Investment Co. Guohua yuekan : Chinese painting monthly guohuo (): national products Guohuo yuekan (): National products monthly guohuo yundong (): national-products movement Guoji Fa : Nationality Law Guoji Fuxing Fazhan Yinhang : International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Guoji ge : The Internationale
Guoji Jiaoliu yu Hezuo Chu : International Exchange and Cooperation Office Guoji Jiaoyu Xueyuan : School of International Education Guoji Jinrong Gongsi : International Finance Corporation Guoji Kaifa Xiehui : International Development Association Guojia Anquan Bu : Ministry of State Security Guojia Baqi Fupin Gongjian Jihua : Eight-Seven Poverty Reduction Plan Guojia Bowuguan : National Museum of China Guojia Dangan Ju (): State Archives Board Guojia Fazhan he Gaige Weiyuanhui : National Development and Reform Commission Guojia Fazhan Jihua Weiyuanhui : State Development Planning Commission guojia fuzhuxi : state vice president Guojia Gao Jishu Yanjiu Kaifa Jihua (863 Jihua) (863): State High Technology Research and Development Program (863 Program) Guojia Gongshang Guanli Zongju : National Administration of Industry and Commerce Guojia Hanyu Tuiguang Lingdao Xiaozu Bangongshi : Office of Chinese Language Council International Guojia Huanjing Baohu Zongju : State Environmental Protection Administration Guojia Jihua Weiyuanhui : State Planning Commission Guojia Jiliang Ju (): National Institute of Metrology Guojia Jingji Tizhi Gaige Weiyuanhui : Commission for the Reform of the Economic System Guojia Linye Ju : State Forestry Administration Guojia Liuxue Jijin Guanli Weiyuanhui : China Scholarship Council guojia luyou dujia qu : national holiday resort Guojia Luyou Ju : China National Tourist Office Guojia Minzu Shiwu Weiyuanhui : State Ethnic Affairs Commission
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Guojia Peichang Fa : State Compensation Law Guojia Pinggu Celue : Country Assess ment Strategy Guojia Shehui Dang (): State Socialist Party guojia shui : national taxes Guojia Tiyu Yundong Weiyuanhui : State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports guojia tongji ju : National Bureau of Statistics, State Statistical Bureau Guojia Tongyi Gangling : Guidelines for National Unification Guojia Tongyi Weiyuanhui : National Unification Council Guojia Waihui Guanli Ju : State Administration of Foreign Exchange Guojia Wenwu Ju (): State Administration of Cultural Heritage, State Bureau of Cultural Relics Guojia Youzheng Ju : State Post Bureau Guojia zhishang (): The nation above all guojia zhuquan : national sovereignty guojia zhuxi : state president Guojia Zongjiao Shiwu Ju : State Religious Affairs Bureau guojiaji fengjing mingsheng qu : national-class scenic regions guojiao (): national religion Guojun (): Nationalist Army, Nationalist armed forces Guoli Beiping Meishu Xuexiao : National Beiping College of Art, National Beiping Art School Guoli Beiping Tushuguan shanben shumu (): National Library of China rare book catalog Guoli Beiping Yanjiuyuan : Peiping Academy Guoli Dongnan Daxue : National Southeast University guoli gaodeng shifan : national higher teachers colleges Guoli Gugong Bowuyuan ( ): National Palace Museum Guoli Guofu Jinian Guan ( ): Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall
Guoli Hangzhou Xihu Yishuyuan (): National Hangzhou West Lake Art Academy Guoli Hangzhou Yishu Zhuanke Xuexiao : National Hangzhou Art College Guoli Lishi Bowuguan : National History Museum Guoli Xiju Zhuanke Xuexiao ( ): National Academy of Dramatic Arts Guoli Xinan Lianhe Daxue ( ): National Southwest Associated University Guoli Yishu Yuan (): National Academy of Art Guoli Yishu Zhuanke Xuexiao : National Art Academy Guoli Zhongshan Daxue (): National Sun Yat-sen University Guoli Zhongyang Bowuyuan ( ): National Central Museum Guoli Zhongyang Daxue : National Central University (Nanjing University) Guoli Zhongyang Zhengzhi Daxue : National Central Political University guomin : the people Guomin Canzheng Hui (): Peoples Political Council Guomin Dahui (): National Assembly guomin geming (): national revolution Guomin geming ge : National revolution song Guomin Geming Jun (): National Revolutionary Army guomin jiaoyu : citizens education Guomin Jun : Nationalist Army Guomin Zhengfu (): Nationalist Government Guomin zhengfu jianguo dagang (): Fundamentals of National Reconstruction Guomin Zhengfu Zuzhi Fa ( ): National Government Organization Law guomin zhi mu (): mothers of the nation Guomindang Kuomintang (): Nationalist Party,
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Guomindang Geming Weiyuanhui (): Revolutionary Committee of the Nationalist Party Guomindang Linshi Xingdong Weiyuanhui (): Provisional Action Committee of the Nationalist Party Guomin Jiaoyu Fazhan Huiyi : National Education Development Conference Guoqing Yanjiu Zhongxin : Center for China Studies guoshi (): state history Guoshi Guan (): History Office guoshu : martial arts Guowen bao : National news guowu weiyuan : state councillor Guowu Yuan : State Council Guowuyuan Jingji Tizhi Gaige Bangongshi : State Council Office for the Reform of the Economic System Guowuyuan Yanjiushi : State Council Research Office Guoxin Xunhu : Guoxin Paging Guoxue baocun hui : Society for the Preservation of National Learning guoxue re (): enthusiasm for Chinese studies guoying qiye : state-run enterprises guoyou qiye : state-owned enterprises guoyu (): national language, Mandarin Guoyu cidian (): Word dictionary of the national language Guoyu Luomazi (): a romanization system guoyue : national music gupai : dominoes gushi bian (): discussion of ancient history Gushi xinbian : Old tales retold guwen : classical, literary Chinese guwen (): advisor guwen jingxue (): old-text school, old-text studies guwen yundong : classical-prose movement, oldliterature movement guwu : antiquities
Guwu Chenliesuo (): Gallery of Antiquities, Government Museum guxue (): ancient learning Guyuan Haba Xueshan : Haba Snow Mountain Haerbin : Harbin Hai de meng : Dreams of the sea Hai langhua : The foam of waves Haibei Haidianqu : Haidian District Haidong Haier haiguan : customs house Haiguan Shuiwu Si (): Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs Service Haiguan Yamen (): Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs Service Haiguan Zong Shuiwu Sishu ( ): Maritime Customs General Administration Haiguo tuzhi (): An illustrated treatise on the maritime kingdoms Haihe : Hai River Haijun Hangkong Bing : Naval Aviation Force Haijun Luzhan Dui : Marine Corps Haijun Yamen (): Admiralty Haikou Haimen Hainan Haipai : Shanghai school, Shanghai style Haishang hua : Flowers of Shanghai Haishang hua liezhuan : Lives of Shanghai Singsong Girls Haishang huapai (): Shanghai school of painting Haishang molin : Ink forest of Shanghai Haishang qishu : Marvelous Writings from Shanghai Haishang Tijinguan Jinshi Shuhua Hui (): Shanghai Tijinguan Epigraphy, Calligraphy, and Painting Society Haishu Haixi
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Haixia Jiaoliu Jijinhui : Strait Exchange Foundation Haixia Liangan Guanxi Xiehui Jigou : Association for Relations across the Taiwan Strait Haiyan Haiyang Huanjing Baohu Fa : Marine Environment Protection Law Haiyuan Haizhu Haizi wang : King of the Children Hakuba Kai : White Horse Association Hami : Qumul Han : Han ethnic majority Han De : Pierre Heude Han Fuju () Han Han Han Jiaozhun : Charlie Soong Han Shantong Han Shaogong () Han Wenzhou Han Xianchu Han Xiaopeng Han Yi Han Ying Han Yu () Hanchao : Han dynasty hang : trading companies (authorized foreign traders) Hang Zhiying Hangeijutsu : The art of printmaking hangshang : chartered maritime traders Hangzhou Hangzhou Daxue (): Hangchow University Hangzhou Wan : Hangzhou Bay Hangzhou Yi Zhuan : Hangzhou Academy of Art Hanizu : Hani minority hanjian (): traitor Hanjiang : Han River Hankou () Hankow Hanlin Yuan : Hanlin Academy Hanru tongyi (): Comprehensive meanings of Han scholars
Hanshou Daxue : Open University Hanshu : History of the former Han dynasty Hanshui : Han River Han-Tang Gudian Wudao : Han-Tang Dynasty Classical Dance Hanxue (): Han learning, sinology Hanyang Hanyeping Hanyeping Gongsi : Hanyeping Company Hanyeping Meitie Changkuang Gongsi : Hanyeping Iron and Coal Company Hanyu da cidian : Chinese-language comprehensive word dictionary Hanyu da zidian : Chinese-language comprehensive character dictionary Hanyu pinyin : pinyin romanization Hanzu : Han Chinese, Han majority, Han race Hao Bocun : Hao Po-tsun Haonan Haonu : Good Men, Good Women haoxian : meltage fee He Baosen He Changling () He Dun He Duoling He Haohua He Hongshen : Stanley Ho He Houhua : Edmund Ho He Jingzhi He Jiping He Lin He Long He Luding He ni zai yiqi : Together He Qifang He Ruzhang He Shaoji He Tianjian He Xian : Ho Yin He Xiangning He Yong He Youzhi He Yuan : Hes Garden
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He Zhanhao He Zhen Hebei hebiao : canal labor troops Hechuan Hefei heian mian : somber aspects heibaihua niu : Chinese black and white cows Heibao : Black Panther (band) heihua : black painting heijin zhengzhi : black-gold politics Heilongjiang : Heilongjiang Provence, Amur River Helin Henan : Ho Nam Henan Bowuguan : Henan Museum Heng bao (): Natural equality heping fazhan : peace and development heping gongchu wuxiang yuanze : five principles of peaceful coexistence heping jueqi : peaceful rise heping tongyi : peaceful reunification Hepingge : Doves of peace hepingpai : peace advocates Heqiaozhen : Heqiao Town Heshang : River elegy Heshen hesuipian : New Years movies Hetang yuese : The lotus pond by moonlight Hetian : Khotan Hetong Fa : Contract Law, Unified Contract Law hexie shehui : harmonious society Heyuan Hezhou hezuo qiye : cooperative enterprise hezuo yiliao zhidu : cooperative medical system Hirota Koki () Hong Hong : Rainbow Hong baoshu : precious Red Book Hong Er
Hong gaoliang : Red Sorghum Hong gaoliang jiazu : Red Sorghum: A Novel of China hong guang liang : red, bright, vivid Hon Hai : Foxconn Hong Jun Hong Liangji Hong mudan (): The Red Peony Hong Rengan Hong Shen Hong Siguo Hong taiyang: Mao Zedong songge xin jiezou lianchang : : The red sun: A medley of songs praising Mao Zedong set to new rhythms Hong Xiuquan Hong Xuezhi Hong Ying Hong Zhuan : Red Bricks hongbao (): red packets containing cash hongcha (): black tea Hongdeng ji : The red lantern Hongji : Acer Hongjun (): Red Army Hongkou : Hongkou ghetto Honglou meng (): Dream of the Red Chamber Honglou meng tuyong (): Portraits of characters from Dream of the Red Chamber Honglu hongqi : sealed title deeds for land Hongqi : Red flag Hongqi geyao : Songs of the red flag Hongqi xia de dan : Eggs under the red flag Hongqiao Hongse niangzi jun : Red detachment of women Hongshan Hongshan wenhua : Hongshan culture Hongsheng Huochai Gongsi : Hong Sung Match Company Hongsou Hongweibing : Red Guards Hongxian
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Hongyi Hongzehu : Lake Hongze Hoten Koha Dendai (): Fengtian Broadcasting Station Hou Bo Hou Dejian hou menglong : post-misty hou si Wang : the later Four Wangs Hou Wenyi Hou Xiaoxian () Hou Yi houdang (): faction of the empress dowager Hougang Houguan Houmen (): Rear entrance houxinchao : postnew wave Hu : Shanghai Hu Boxiang Hu Chunhua Hu Die Hu Feng () Hu Guang zongdu : Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Hu Hanmin () Hu Jia Hu Jieqing () Hu Jinquan (): King Hu Hu Jintao Hu Linyi Hu Qiaomu Hu Qili Hu Qiuyuan Hu Ruihua () Hu She : Lake Society Hu She yuekan : Lake Society monthly Hu Shi () Hu Shicha Hu Wanchun Hu Xiaolian Hu Yanlin Hu Yaobang
Hu Yepin Hu Yichuan Hu Yuan Hu Yufen Hu Yujuan Hu Zheng Hua Guofeng Hua jingli (): Chinese representative Hua Rui Fengdian Keji Youxian Gongsi : Sinovel Wind Co. Hua Runchuan () Hua Tianyou Hua Tuo Hua yiban de zuie : Flowerlike evil Hua zhi si : Temple of flowers Huabei Daxue : Huabei University Huabei jianzhu (): Journal of the Architectural Society of Northern China Huabei jiebao (): North China herald huabu (): Chinatown huadan : coquettish-female role type in Peking Opera Huadong Meikuang Gongsi ( ): East China Coal Mining Company Huadu Huafa Yanjiuhui : Painting Methods Research Society Huafa yaozhi : Essential painting techniques Huafangzhai : Huafang Studio huagong (): Chinese unskilled labor huaguxi : flower-drum opera Huaian Huaibei Huaihai Huai-Hai Zhanyi (): Huai-Hai Campaign Huaihe : Huai River Huaijiu : Remembering Huaiju shicun : Extant poems of Huaiju Huaijun : Anhui Army Huainian lang : Remembering wolves Huamao Fandian : Cathay Hotel
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Huan Bohai Jingji Qu : Greater Bohai Economic Region Huanan Nuzi Daxue (): South China Womens University Huancheng Huaneng Guoji Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Huaneng Power International huang : crop failure Huang Banruo Huang Binhong () Huang Chunming Huang di : Yellow emperor Huang di neijing : The medical classic of the Yellow Emperor Huang Dinghua Huang Ju Huang Junbi Huang Kecheng Huang Maozhi Huang Qing jingjie (): Imperial Qing annotations on the classics Huang Rui Huang She : Huang Society Huang Tingjian () Huang tudi : Yellow Earth Huang Xiang Huang Xinbo Huang Xing () Huang Yanpei Huang Yao Huang Yongping Huang Yongyu Huang Yuan Huang Zhi Huang Zi Huang Zongxi Huang Zunxian () Huang Zuolin Huangchao jingshi wenbian ( ): Collected writings on Qing statecraft Huangchuan Huanggan : Bewilderment
Huanghai : Yellow Sea Huanghe : Yellow River Huanghe : Yellow River (the song) Huanghe dahechang : Yellow River cantata Huanghe gangqin xiezouqu : Yellow River piano concerto huanghuali : a type of rosewood Huangjiao : dge lugs (Gelug) Tibetan Buddhism Huangling Huangmei Xi (): Huangmei Opera huangmin wenxue (): literature written by Chinese in Japanese Huangnan Huangni jie : Muddy street Huangpu : Whampoa Huangpu Gongyuan : Huangpu Park Huangpu Junguan Xuexiao ( ): Whampoa Military Academy Huangpu Junxiao (): Whampoa Military Academy Huangpu Tiaoyue (): Treaty of Whampoa Huangpujiang : Huangpu River huangse yinyue : pornographic (decadent) music Huangshan : Yellow Mountains Huangshan zhi lian : Love on a Barren Mountain huangtu : loess huangyu : yellow croaker huaniao : flowers and birds Huanjing Baohu Bu : Ministry of Environmental Protection Huanjing Baohu Fa : Environmental Protection Law Huanjing Baohu Ju : Environmental Protection Bureau Huanjing Yingxiang Pingjia Fa : Environmental Impact Assessment Law Huanmie : Disillusion huapian : poster huaping : flower vases Huaqiao (): Chinese citizens living abroad, Chinese overseas Huaqiao Daxia : Overseas Chinese Building
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Huaren (): ethnic Chinese with foreign citizenship, Chinese people Huashang (): Chinese traders Huashang Liujiang Meikuang Tielu Gongsi (): Liuchang Mining Company Huashang Shanghai Shuini Gongsi (): Shanghai Portland Cement Works Company Huawei Jishu Youxian Gongsi : Huawei Technologies Huaxi Daxue (): West China Union University Huaxia luntan : Huaxia forum Huaxing Hui (): China Revival Society Huayang nianhua (): In the Mood for Love Huayi (): Chinese descendants Huayuankou Huazhong Daxue (): Central China University Huazhong Shifan Daxue (): Huazhong Normal University Hubei Hubu : Ministry of Revenue, Imperial Treasury, Board of Finance, Board of Households, Hoppo Hudie : Butterfly hufa yundong (): constitution protection movement Huguang Huhehaote : Hohhot huhun tiantu qianzhai : household, marriage, land and monetary obligations hui : association, brotherhood Hui jia lun : On destruction of the family huidian (): collected statutes huidian shili (): collected statutes with precedent cases huidian zeli (): collected statutes with model cases Huifeng Yinhang : Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation huiguan (): merchant guilds, regional guilds, native-place halls Huilan muke : Whirlpool woodcut
Huimie : The Rout Huimin Qiyi : Panthay Rebellion Huishen Gongtang (): Shanghai Mixed Court, International Mixed Court Huishen Gongxie (): Shanghai Mixed Court, International Mixed Court huishu : redeem Huizhou Huizong : Emperor Huizong Huizu : Hui minority hukou : household registration, permanent residency hukou zhidu : household registration system Hulanhe : Tales of Hulan River Huli Humen Tiaoyue (): Treaty of the Bogue Hunan Hunan hua : Xiang dialects Hunan nongmin yundong kaocha baogao : Report on an investigation of the peasant movement in Hunan Hunan ren : people from Hunan Hunan Sheng Bowuguan : Hunan Provincial Museum Hunan Shengli Diyi Shifan : Hunan First Normal School Hunyin Fa : Marriage Law huodong : movements Huo shao Hongliansi (): Red Lotus Temple on Fire Huodong bian renxing : Activities deform Huohua : Spark huoju : at-home (not living in a temple) Huoju Jihua : Torch Program Huoran kailang (): Gazing at the lake Huoshan qingxie : Revenge by the Volcano Huozhe : To Live Huqiu : Tiger Hill Husheng huaji (): Paintings to protect life hushi : tributary trade system; a system requiring foreign merchants to do business only with licensed Chinese merchants, who were obliged to pay foreign trade tax to the government
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hutong (): narrow back alleys, residential streets and alleys Huxi Yuedui : Breathing (band) Huxian : Hu County Huzhao Fa : Passport Law Huzhou huzhu : mutual aid Ichigo Sakusen : Operation Ichigo Inukai Tsuyoshi Ishiwara Kanji Ji Cheng Ji Xian Ji xiao duzhe (): Letters to young readers Ji Zheng () Jian Jia : Family jia : a tithing in the baojia community self-defense system; 2.4 acres Jia Chunwang Jia Lanpo Jia Liu Jia Pingwa Jia Qinglin Jiafang yifang : The Dream Factory jiaguwen : oracle-bone script, writing jiahao (): cangue, Chinese pillory Jiahe : Golden Harvest Studio Jiahu jiaju : furniture Jialing jiamiao (): ancestor-worship halls Jiamusi Jian Youwen Jian Zhen Jiancha Bu : Ministry of Supervision Jiancha Yuan : Procuratorate Jiancha Yuan : Supervisory Yuan Jianchuan Jianfu Gong : Palace of Established Happiness Jiang Baoling
Jiang Bibo Jiang Bingzhi Jiang Biwei Jiang Feng () Jiang Haicheng () Jiang Jieshi : Chiang Kai-shek Jiang Jingguo (): Chiang Ching-kuo Jiang Menglin Jiang Qing Jiang Renjie Jiang Tingfu Jiang Wen Jiang Wenye Jiang Xin Jiang Yanyong Jiang Zemin Jiang Zhaohe Jiang Zhiyou Jiangan Jiangbei Jiangdong Jianghe Jiangnan Jiangnan Zhizao Zongju : Jiangnan Arsenal Jiangnan Shuju (): Jiangnan Printing Office Jiangning Jiangsu Jiangsu Haiyun quanan (): Complete records on Jiangsu sea transport Jiangsusheng Bowuguan : Jiangsu Provincial Museum Jiangsusheng Jiaoyuhui Meishu Yanjiu Hui : Jiangsu Provincial Education Committee Fine Art Study Society Jiangwan Jiangxi Jiangxi Gongchanzhuyi Laodong Daxue : Jiangxi Communist Labor University Jiangzi : Gyantse Jianhu nuxia jiankang xieshi (): healthy realism
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jianrong bingbao : tolerance and inclusion of all learning jianshang : treacherous merchants jiansheng (): student of the Imperial College, a purchased degree jiantizi : simplified characters jianwu : sword dance Jianxia zhuan : Tales of knights at arms jianzhi : paper cuttings Jianzhu Kexue Yanjiuyuan : Institute of Building Science Jianzhu xinfa (): Building construction Jianzhu yuekan (): The builder jiao : teaching, sect, religion, education jiao : Daoist ritual communal offerings jiao xin yundong : giving-of-hearts campaign jiaoan : missionary case Jiaoao Jiaobinlu kangyi : Straightforward discussion from the Jiaobin Studio Jiaodian fangtan : Focus jiaohua : moral education, cultural transformation jiaohuaji : beggars chicken jiaoshi jiaoyu : teacher education Jiaotai Dian : Hall of Mutual Ease Jiaotong Yinhang : Bank of Communications Jiaoyu Bu : Ministry of Education Jiaoyu Tongchou Weiyuanhui Diqihao Baogaoshu : Education Commission Report No. 7 Jiaoyubu Liuxue Fuwu Zhongxin : Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange Jiaozhou Jiaozhouwan : Jiaozhou Bay Jiaqing (): emperor (r. 17961820) jiashu : family school jiating jiaohui : house churches jiatou (): head of a jia (tithing) in the baojia system Jiawu Zhanzheng (): Sino-Japanese War of 18941895 jiaxi zhenchang : to take pretend for real Jiaxing
jiaxun : family instructions jiazhuang : dowry Jidao Jidong Fan-Gong Zizhi Zhengfu : East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government Jidu hanleng : Frozen Jidujiao : Protestantism jie : greeting jie : constituency jiebai xiongdi : sworn brotherhoods jiedao banshichu : neighborhood committee or street office Jiefang ribao : Liberation daily Jiefang Zhanzheng (): Chinese civil war, war of liberation Jiefangjun (): Peoples Liberation Army Jiefangjun bao : Liberation Army daily Jiejue : Solution jiemei hui (): sisterhoods jiemu (): virtuous mothers Jieyan ge (): Opium-Quitting Song Jieziyuan huapu (): Mustard Seed Garden manual of painting Jigu ma Cao (): Scolding Cao Cao while beating the drum Jihai za shi (): Miscellaneous poems of 1839 jihua jihua danlie shi : single planning municipality, central economic city jihua shengyu : planned parenting jihua shengyu zhengce : one-child policy Jihuang (): Famine jihuang : famine Jijie hao : Assembly Jilin Jiliu sanbuqu : Torrents trilogy Jilong : Keelung Jimei jin : catty Jin Cheng
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Jin Fen gu jianzhu yucha jilue : A preliminary investigation of ancient architecture in Shanxi Jin Feng Keji Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Gold Wind Jin Guidi Jin He Jin Jialun : King Chia-Lun Jin Mao Daxia : Jin Mao Tower Jin Richeng : Kim Il-sung Jin Shangyi Jin Shuren Jin Yunmei Jin Zhaofeng () Jinan Jinan Daxue : Jinan University Jinan Liujia gongfuzhen pu ( ): Liu Needle Shop of Jinan jinbiaozhuyi : championism Jinbu Dang (): Progressive Party Jin-Cha-Ji huabao (): Jin-ChaJi pictorial Jinchao : Jin dynasty Jincheng Jincheng Yinhang Corporation : Kincheng Banking
Jinghua yanyun (): Moment in Peking Jingji Hetong Fa : Economic Contract Law jingji jishu kaifaqu : economic and technological development zone jingji teke : special examinations on public administration jingji tequ : special economic zone Jingji zuangu : a dictionary of the Confucian classics Jingji, Shehui, Wenhua Quanli Guoji Gongyue : International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights jingjie : realm Jingjixue zhoubao : Economics weekly Jingju : Peking Opera jingluo : vessels jingmi : japonica rice Jingming Yuan (): Jingming Garden Jingpai : Beijing school Jingshan : Scenic Hill jingshen wenming : spiritual civilization jingshen wuran : spiritual pollution Jingshi jingshi : streamline jingshi (): statecraft Jingshi Da Xuetang (): Imperial University of Beijing, Peking Imperial University, Imperial College Jingshi Fang : Office of Eunuch Affairs Jingshi Jingcha Ting : Capital Police Board Jingshi Tongwen Guan (): Peking Foreign Language School Jingshi Tushuguan : Metropolitan Library of Beijing jingshi zhixue (): statecraft learning jingwai juezhan (): offshore engagement Jingwai Zhongguo Gongmin he Jiguo Anquan Baohu Gongzuo Buji Lianxi Huiyi : Interministry Working Meeting on Protecting the Safety of PRC Citizens and Organizations Overseas Jingwu Xuetang : Police Academy Jingxi (): Peking Opera Jingxiong
Jindaishi Yanjiusuo : Institute of Modern History jindun gongcheng : golden shield jing : still Jing chi : Beijing foot Jing Xing Jingan () Jingan Gongyuan : Jingan Park Jingbao (): Beijing (Peking) gazette, Court gazette Jingbao zuo meiren (): The air raid alarmist plays the role of a go-between jingcha : police Jingdezhen Jingdian changtan : Lectures on the classics jingfang : classic formula Jinggangshan jinghu : a Chinese bowed fiddle associated with Beijing
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Jingyi Yuan (): Jingyi Garden Jingyuan Jingzheng Nuxue : Classic Uprightness Girls School Jingzhong ribao (): Warning bell daily Jingzhou Bowuguan : Jingzhou Museum jinhua : progress Jinhua Jinhui Xueyuan (): Baptist College Jining Jinji Jiang : Golden Rooster Jinjiang : Jin River Jinjibao Jinlanhui : Golden Orchid Association Jinling Jinling Daxue (): University of Nanking Jinling Kejing Chu (): Jinling Sutra Carving Society, Jinling Woodblock Sutra Institute Jinling Nuzi Daxue (): Ginling Womens College Jinling Shuju (): Jinling Printing Office Jinmen : Quemoy Jinnan Jinniushan Jinqiao Gongcheng : Golden Bridge Project Jinri shuofa : Law today Jinsha Bowuguan : Jinsha Museum Jinshajiang : Gold Sand River jinshi (): presented scholar, metropolitan graduate; also the degree jinshi : metal and stone inscriptions jinshi qi (): bronze and stone epigraphic styles, epigraphic taste jinshipai : epigraphic school jinshixue (): the study of bronzes and stone stelae, studies of epigraphy, antiquarian studies, the epigraphic movement Jintian : Today Jinwen jingxue (): New Text school; New Text, or New Script, Confucianism Jinwu Shudian : Golden House Press
Jinxiugu zhi lian : Brocade Valley jinyuan quan (): gold-pegged paper currency jinzhang pingheng : a tight equilibrium Jinzhi Kuxing He Qita Canren, Bu Rendao Huo Youru Renge Daiyu Huo Chufa Gongyue , : Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Jinzhou Jishi he xugou : Reality and fiction jishi sheying : documentary photography jishi wenxue : reportage fiction Jissen Jo Gakko : Jissen Womens School Jissen Joshi Daigaku : Jissen Womens University jiti qiye : collective enterprise jiti tiliu : collective withholding, a township and village levy Jitong Tongxin : Jitong Communications Jiu Fang Gao Jiu guo : The Republic of Wine Jiu hou (): Flushed with wine Jiu San Xueshe (): September Third Society jiu shehui : old society jiucheng gaizao : old cities overhauled Jiuduhui xiezhen : Social images of the old capital jiuer gongshi : 1992 consensus jiuguo : saving the nation Jiuguo Hui (): National Salvation Association Jiuguo Tuan : China Youth Corps Jiujiang Jiulongjiang : Jiulong River jiupai : old-style school Jiuwang jue lun : A discussion of the remedy for national collapse Jiuwen si pian : Four old essays Jiu-yiba ge : September 18 song Jiu-yiba Jinian Bei : 9-18 (Mukden) Incident Memorial Jiu-yiba Lishi Bowuguan : 9-18 (Mukden) Incident Museum
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Jiuzhaigou Jiuzhang Lu : Statutes in Nine Sections Ju Chao Ju Lian juan : volume juan cun : military village juanguan : sales of official titles juanxiang : irregular business donation Juedui xinhao : Absolute alarm jueju : quatrain Juelan She (): Storm Society juemai : land sold outright Julong : a manufacturer of telecommunications equipment jumin weiyuanhui : neighborhood committee junfa (): warlord Junji Chu (): Council of State, Grand Council Junmin jinxingqu : The soldiers advance Junshi Weiyuanhui : Military Affairs Commission Junxian ?: Centralized bureaucratic monarchical rule junzheng (): military government, military rule junzheng weiyuanhui (): militaryadministrative committees junzhu lixian : constitutional monarchy junzi juren (): recommended man, provincial graduate; also the degree Jurong Juye juyou Zhongguo tese de shehuizhuyi : socialism with Chinese characteristics juzhang : bureau leader kaideng (): lighting-the-lantern ceremony kaifang zhengce : open-door policy Kaifeng Kaiguo dadian : Founding Ceremony Kailu xianfeng : The pioneers Kailuan Kuangwu Ju (): Kailuan Mining Administration Kailuan Shoupinchu (): Kalian Sales Agency
Kai-Min Shengwang (): the sagely king who opened up Fujian Kaiping Kaiping Kuangwu Ju (): Chinese Engineering and Mining Company kaishu (): regular script, standard script kang : sleeping platform Kang Baiqing Kang Guangren () Kang Keqing kang Mei yuan Chao : war to resist U.S. aggression and Aid Korea, the Korean War Kang Sheng Kang Youwei () kangakusha : Japanese sinologists Kangba : Kham Kangda : Resistance University Kangqiao zaihui ba (): Farewell to Cambridge Kangqu : Kham Kang-Ri Jiuguo Hui (): National Anti-Japanese Salvation Association Kang-Ri jiuwang geyong yundong : Singing for resistance against Japan and the national salvation movement Kang-Ri Junzheng Daxue : Anti-Japanese Military and Political Academy Kang-Ri Zhanzheng (): Anti-Japanese War, War of Resistance against Japan Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ jingxuan : Selection of songs of the War of Resistance against Japan Kangxi : emperor (r. 16621722) Kangxi zidian : Kangxi character dictionary Kangzhan shenghuo : War of Resistance life Kangzhan wenyi (): Literature of national defense (journal) Kangzhan zhong de Balujun : Eighth Route Army in the War of Resistance Kano Naoki Kanshangqu hen mei : It looks beautiful Kanto Kao pan yu shi (): Desultory remarks on furnishing the abode of the retired scholar kaogu : examining the past, archaeology
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Kaogu tu : Illustrated study of antiquity Kaogu xuebao : Acta archaeologica sinica Kaogu Yanjiusuo : Institute of Archaeology kaoju (): evidential research kaojuxue (): evidential scholarship Kaoshi Yuan (): Examination Yuan kaozheng (): evidential research kaozhengxue (): evidential learning, evidential research, examination of evidence and documents Kashi : Kashgar Kashigeer : Kashgar Katsushika Hokusai Kawabata Ga Gakko : Kawabata Academy of Painting ke : guest ke : department Ke Qunying : Khun Eng Kuah Ke Shaomin Kejia : Hakka people and language Kejia yanjiu daolun : Introduction to Hakka studies kejijie : circles of science and technology keju (): imperial civil-service examination keting : the central guest room kexue fazhan guan : scientific theory of development Kezaisheng Nengyuan Fa : Renewable Energy Law kezhang : division leader kokuga : traditional Japanese painting kokusui hozon : preservation of the national essence kominka bungaku (): literature written by Chinese in Japanese Kong fuzi : Confucius Kong Guangsen () Kong Jiesheng Kong Luhua Kong Qiu : Confucius Kong Xiangxi : H. H. Kung Kong Yiji : a short story by Lu Xun Kong Zhongni : Confucius Kongcheng ji (): Ruse of the empty city
Kongzhong xiaojie : Air stewardess Kongzi gaizhi kao : Confucius as institutional innovator Kongzi Xueyuan : Confucius Institute Kosugi Hoan kuaiban : clappertalk, Chinese rap kuaikuai : coordinate relationships Kuanghuan de jijie : Season of ecstasy Kuangren riji (): Diary of a madman Kulian : Unrequited love Kulubaotejin : Kropotkin Kunming Kunning Gong (): Palace of Earthly Repose Kunning Men (): Gate of Earthly Repose Kunqu (): Kunqu Opera kuping (): standard of weight Kuroda Seiki Lai Caishan (): Lai Choi San Lai Changxing Lai Shengchuan laiwang : comings and goings Lan fengzheng : The Blue Kite Lan Ni Lang Ping lankou : lazy mouth Lanting xu (): Orchid Pavilion preface Lanxi Lanyi She (): Blue Shirt Society Lanzhou Lao Can youji (): The travels of Lao Can Lao Foye (): Old Buddha lao geming diqu : old revolutionary base areas Lao Gui lao jiefang qu : old liberated areas Lao She lao wei zhi : labor and defense qualification system Lao Zhang de zhexue (): The philosophy of Lao Zhang laoban jidutu : boss Christians laodong baoxian : labor insurance
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Laodong Bu : Ministry of Labor Laodong Fa : Labor Law Laodong he Shehui Baozhang Bu : Ministry of Labor and Social Security laogai (): reform through labor laogequ : old songs laojiao : reeducation through labor laojiao changsuo : sites for reform through reeducation laonian daxue : continuing education for the elderly Laonianren Quanyi Baozhang Fa : Law for the Protection of Elders Rights laosanjie : students of the three older classes Laoshao Zu : Oldsters and Youngsters laosheng : mature male role type in Peking Opera Laoyuan baitai (): The numerous guises of the gibbons, Hundred gibbons Laozi Lasa : Lhasa Lei Feng Lei Feng : a play by Jia Liu Lei Zhen Leifeng si zhao : sunset glow at Leifeng Pagoda Leiyu : Thunderstorm li : regulations li (): propriety, moral ideals, rites Li An : Ang Lee Li Bai Li Bihua Li Bin Li Boyuan Li Bozhao Li Changchun Li Ching Li Chun Li Da Li Dazhao () Li Denghui (): Lee Teng-hui Li Dongping Li Dou Li Feigan
Li Fen li gai shui : changing profit into tax Li Guoding : K. T. Li Li Guyi Li Hanqiu Li Hanxiang Li Hanzhang Li Honggang Li Hongzao Li Hongzhang () Li Hongzhi Li Hua Li Huang Li Ji () Li Jianqiang Li Jinfa () Li Jinghan Li Jinhui Li Kenong Li Keqiang Li Keran Li Lianjie (): Jet Li Li Liejun () Li Lili Li Lisan Li Ming : Leon Lai Li Minghui () Li Minwei (): Lai Man-wai Li Ning Li Peng () Li Pingshu Li Qiujun Li Rui Li Ruihuan Li Ruiqing Li Ruzhen Li Shan Li shang wanglai : Etiquette requires reciprocity Li Shanlan Li Shiming Li Shizeng ()
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Li Shizhen Li Shuang Li Shunda zaowu : Li Shunda builds a house Li Shutong Li Tieying Li Weihan Li Xianglan () Li Xiannian Li Xianting Li Xiaobin Li Xiaojiang Li Xiaolong (): Bruce Lee Li Xing : Lee Hsing Li Xiongcai Li Yaotang Li Yimin Li Yinghai Li Yishi Li Yongcun Li Youcai banhua : The rhymes of Li Youcai Li Yu Li Yuanhong Li Yunchang Li Zehou () Li Zhengdao : Tsung-Dao Lee Li Zhenguo Li Zhensheng Li Zhongsheng Li Zicheng Li Zongren Lian quanshu (): Compendium of precedent cases lian : face Lian Kafo : Lane Crawford Lianai de jijie : Season of love Lianai yu yiwu : Love and Duty Lianchitan : Lotus Lake liang (): tael, weight measure of silver, varies by touch, approx. 37.5 grams Liang Bingjun (): Leung Ping-kwan Liang Dingming
Liang Qichao () Liang Shanbo Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai : Butterfly Violin Concerto Liang Shiqiu Liang Shuming Liang Sicheng Liang Siyong Liang Xiaobin Liang Xiaosheng Liang Xihong Liang Zhou jinwenci daxi tulu kaoshi (): An illustrated and annotated compendium of bronze inscriptions from the two Zhou dynasties liangan guanxi : cross-strait relations liangdi chi : builders foot Liangge fanshi : Two whatevers Liangge jiating (): Two families liangge kouhao de lunzheng : polemic of the two slogans liangguo lun : two-states theory lianghe gongsi : limited and unlimited joint companies Liang-Huai : Huainan and Huaibei Liang-Jiang : Jiangnan and Jiangbei Liangjiang Shifan Xuetang : Liangjiang Higher Normal School Liangshan Yizu Zizhizhou : Liangshan Autonomous Prefecture liangtiaotui zoulu : walking on two legs (pursuing dual policies) Liangyou huabo : Young companion Liang-Zhu : butterfly lovers Liangzhu Liangzhu wenhua : Liangzhu culture Lianhe huabao : United pictorial Lianhe Kangzhan : United Front Lianheguo : United Nations Lianheguo Huanjing Jihua : United Nations Environmental Program Lianheguo Xianzhang : United Nations Bill of Rights
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Lianhua : United Photoplay Lianhua Yingye Gongsi : Lianhua Film Company, United China Film Company Lianhuan huabao : Comics illustrated lianhuan tuhua (): picture book or comic strip Lianhuan tuhua Sanguo zhi ( ): The comic-book history of the Three Kingdoms lianhuanhua (): picture book, serial illustrations, storytelling books liansuo dian : chain store Lianxiang : Lenovo Lianyungang Liao Bingxiong Liao Chengzhi Liao Ping Liao Zhongkai () Liaodong Liaohe Liaoning Liaoshen zhanyi (): Liaoshen campaign Liaoxi Libu (): Ministry of Rites Lienu zhuan (): Biographies of exemplary women Liexian jiupai : Immortals wine cards Lifa Fa : Legislation Law Lifa Yuan : Legislative Yuan Lifan Yuan : Court or Office of Colonial Affairs Lihun (): The Quest for Love of Lao Li Liji (): Book of Rites Lijiang-shi : Lijiang City lijiao (): ethical teachings Lijiazhuang de bianqian : The changes in Li Village lijin (): transit tax, tax on goods in transit, trade tax lilong : neighborhood lanes Lin Biao Lin Changmin Lin Fengmian () Lin Huaimin Lin Huiyin
Lin Lepei : Doming Lam Lin Puqing Lin Qiaozhi Lin Qing Lin Shengxi : Lin Shengshih Lin Shu Lin Shuangwen Lin Tianmiao Lin Wenzheng () Lin Xiling Lin Xu Lin Yifu : Justin Lin Lin Yong Lin Yutang () Lin Zexu () Lin Zhaotang Lin Zhengsheng Linan ling : administrative code Ling Fupeng ling qi luzao : setting up a new stove Ling Ruitang Ling Shiwei Neidachen (): grand minister of the Imperial Household Department concurrently controlling the Imperial Guard Ling Shuhua () Ling Yun lingchi (): death by slicing lingdao ganbu : leading cadres Linggusi : Linggu Monastery Lingnan Lingnan Daxue (): Lingnan University Lingnan huapai (): Lingnan school of painting Lingnan Huayuan : Lingnan Studio Lingnan Xueyuan (): Lingnan College lingpai (): spirit tablets Lingshan : Soul Mountain Linji Linjia da wan : big village of the Lin Family Linjia puzi : Lin family shop
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Linqing Lintong Linzhi Diqu : Nyingchi Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo ( ): Institute of History and Philology lishu (): clerical script Lishui : Li River Lisuzu : Lisu minority Litang daoting lu (): Litangs scholarly notes liu : exile Liu Bannong () Liu Binyan () Liu Bocheng Liu Boliang () Liu Buchan () Liu Changchun Liu Chunhua Liu Dabai () Liu Dehua : Andy Lau Tak-Wah Liu Dunzhen () Liu E () Liu Fenglu () Liu Fu Liu Fuzhi Liu Guangdi () Liu Guochang (): Lawrence Ah Mon Liu Guosong () Liu Haisu Liu Hongji Zhangfang : Lieu Ong Kee Accounts Office Liu Hongsheng () Liu Huan Liu Huaqing Liu Kaiqu Liu Kunyi () Liu Li Liu Meng jiangjun : General Liu Meng Liu Meng Jiangjun Miao (): General Liu Meng Temple Liu Mingchuan Liu Naou ()
Liu Qingzhu Liu Shaoqi () Liu Shifu () Liu Shipei () Liu Sifu () Liu Tianhua Liu Wang Liming Liu Wenhui Liu Xian Liu Xiang (18901938) Liu Xiang (b. 1983) Liu Xiaobo Liu Xiaoqing Liu Xie Liu Xihong Liu Xiji () Liu Xin Liu Xinwu Liu Xun Liu Yandong Liu Yang Liu Ying Liu Yizheng () Liu Yongfu Liu Yongxing Liu Yulian Liu Zhidan Liubukou liudong renkou (): floating population Liuhe Yeshi : Liuhe Night Market Liuhua Binguan : Liuhua Hotel Liuku (): Six Storehouses Liulichang liumang wenxue (): hooligan literature Liuqiu : Ryukyu Liu-Si Dongluan : Tiananmen Incident (1989) Liu-Si Shijian : Tiananmen Incident (1989), Prodemocracy Movement (1989) liutong : circulation liutong bumen : distribution sector, circulation sector
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liuxing yinyue : popular music liuxue (): study abroad liuxuesheng (): overseas students liuxuesheng wenxue : student immigrant literature Liuyang Liuyuan Liwan lixing huihua : rationalist painting Lixing yu ganxing : Sense and Sensibility lixue (): neo-Confucianism Lixue Guan : Bureau of Rites Liyuan Gongshe : Liyuan Commune Lizu : Li minority long : zoomorphic serpent spirits long de chuanren : descendants of the dragon Long Yingtai Long Yun Long Zhu Longgushan : Longgu Hill Longhushan (): Mt. Longhu Longjing Longkan shoujian (): Handy mirror of the dragon shrine Longshan wenhua : Longshan culture longtang : lane, alley Longxingsi (): Longxing Temple Longxu Gou (): Dragon Beard Ditch longyang : dragon dollars Longzhou Lou Jiwei lu : principle legal code Lu Ban jing (): Classic of Lu Ban Lu Bicheng Lu Danfeng Lu Dongbin () Lu Erkui () Lu Fusheng () Lu Guoji Lu Hao Lu Haodong
Lu Hui () Lu Ji Lu Jingren () Lu juren Haoke : Hulk Lu Kun Lu Ling Lu Muzhen () Lu Peng Lu Qinzhai : C. T. (Ching Tsai) Loo Lu Rongting Lu Shaofei () Lu Shengzhong Lu Shifu Lu Shoukun (): Lui Shou-Kwan Lu Wenfu Lu Xiaoman () Lu Xinhua Lu Xun () Lu Xun Yishu Wenxuyuan : Lun Xun Academy of Art Lu Xun Yishu Xueyuan : Lu Xun Academy of Art Lu Yanshao Lu Yanzhi () Lu Yawen (): Marina Lu Lu Yi Lu Zhengcao Lu Zhengxiang Lu Zhenyu Lu Zhiwei Lu Zune Lu Zuofu luan (): social disorder, chaos luban chi : carpenters foot lucha (): green tea Luda ludi : Green Lots ludi (): reed pipe Lugou Qiao (): Marco Polo Bridge Luguhu : Lugu Lake Luhuan : Coloanne
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Luliangshan : Luliang Mountains lun : essay Lun Renyan kewei (): On Gossip is a fearful thing Lun nuxue (): On female education Lun shibian zhi ji : A discussion of the urgent need for change Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi (): On the relation between fiction and governance of the people Lun zhengle yan kan (): On Facing Facts Lunchuan Zhaoshangju : China Merchants Steam Navigation Company Lundun Zhongguo Yishu Gouji Zhanlanhui Choubei Weiyuanhui : Chinese Organizing Committee of the International Exhibition of Chinese Art (London) Lunlixue de qiyuan he fazhan : Ethics, origin, and development Lunyu (): Analects lunzhe : people with judgment Luo Dayou Luo Ergang () Luo Fu (b. 1928) Luo Fu (18981976) Luo Gongliu Luo Guangda Luo Hongyu Luo Longji Luo Ronghuan Luo Ruiqing Luo Xianglin Luo Yonghui (): Law Wing-fai Luo Zhenyu () Luo Zhongli Luo Zhufeng () Luodi shenggen : Touch the soil and extend roots luopan : geomancy compass Luotuo xiangzi (): Rickshaw: The Novel Lo-to Hsiang Tzu Luoyang Luoye guigen : Falling leaves return to the roots
Luse Changcheng : Green Great Wall Lushan Lushan Guojia Gongyuan : Lushan National Park lushi (): regulated verse lushi (): desecration of the corpse Lushi Fa : Lawyers Law Lushun (): formerly Port Arthur Luxi Luying (): Green Standard Army m : not (Cantonese) ma : question particle Ma Bo Ma Bufang () Ma Buqing Ma Desheng Ma Feng Ma Fuxiang Ma Guiyuan Ma Hefu Ma Heng Ma Hongbin Ma Hongkui Ma Hualong Ma Jianmin Ma Ke Ma Laichi Ma Lin Ma Mingxin , Ma Qi Ma Sicong Ma Wenlu Ma Xiangbo Ma Xiangdong Ma Xiaojun (): Hsiao-Tsun Ma Ma Xulun Ma Yinchu Ma Yingbiao () Ma Yingjiu (): Ma Ying-jeou Ma Youcheng (): Yeou-Cheng Ma Ma Youyou (): Yo-Yo Ma
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Ma Yuan Ma Zhanao Ma Zhongying magua (): mans riding jacket Maguan Tiaoyue (): Treaty of Shimonoseki maiban (): comprador maiban zibenjia : comprador capitalist Maiwei Jihua : Bought Place Scheme majia (): mans vest majiang : mah-jongg Maliezhuyi Xueyuan : Marxism-Leninism Academy Man cheng jin dai huangjin jia : Curse of the Golden Flower Mancheng Mang Ke mangliu : unregistered migrants manhua (): sketched drawing, comics Manshu Eiga Kyokai (): Manchurian Film Studios Manshu koku : Manchukuo Manshu koku Kyowakai ( ): Manchukuo Cooperation Association manyue (): full-month celebration after birth Manyun : Manwyne Manzhou : Manchuria Manzhou Da Diguo : Great Empire of Manchuria Manzhouguo (): Manchukuo Manzu : Manchu Mao cheng ji (): Cat country Mao Dun Mao Dun shuxin ji : Letters of Mao Dun Mao Dun Wenxue Jiang : Mao Dun Literature Scholarship Mao Lizi Mao Xuhui Mao Yuanxin Mao Zedong () Mao Zedong Guju : Mao Zedong Museum Mao Zedong xuanji : Selected Works of Mao Zedong
Mao Zhuxi Jinian Tang : Chairman Maos Mausoleum, Mao Zedongs Mausoleum Mao zhuxi qu Anyuan : Mao Goes to Anyuan Mao zhuxi yulu : Quotations from Chairman Mao (Maos Little Red Book) Mao Zhuxi yuluge: Weiren songge yaogun lianchang : : Musical settings of quotations from Chairman Mao: A rock and roll medley of praise songs for a great man Maomaoyu : Drizzle Maotouying : The winking owl maoxianzhuyi : adventurism Matsui Iwane Matsuoka Yoshimasa Mawangdui : Mawangdui tombs Mawangdui yihao Handai gumu : Mawangdui Han tomb no. 1 Mawei Maxongshan Mazu (): the patron goddess of seafarers Mazu : Matsu Mei Guangdi Mei Lanfang () Mei Ruao Mei wan mei liao : Sorry Baby Mei Yangfang : Anita Mui Yimfong Meiguo : United States of America Meihua xishenpu (): Manual of plum-blossom likenesses Meiji Meijing Shuwu : Meijing Study Meili nanfang zhi xiari : The beautiful summer in the south Meilidao Meilidao Shijian : Meilidao Incident Meipai : Mei school of Peking Opera meiren : beauties meiren hua (): pictures of beautiful women meishu : fine art Meishu : Art Meishu congshu : Collectanea of the arts
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Meishu Diaocha Chu : Fine Arts Research Branch (Education Ministry) meishu gongyipin : arts and crafts products Meishu shenghuo : Art and life meishu sheying : fine-art photography Meishu zazhi (): Art magazine Meishujia Lianmeng : League of Left-Wing Artists Meixian (): Mei County Meiye Gongzhan : Coal Merchants Wharf Meiyou Gongchandang jiu meiyou xin Zhongguo : Without the Communist Party there would be no new China Meizhou wenxue : Weekly literature meng : league Meng Dingsheng Meng hu : Fierce tiger Meng Jiangnu Meng Jinghui Meng Ke Meng Luding Meng Sen Meng Xuenong Meng yu shi : Dreams and Poetry Menggu : Mongolia menggubao : yurt Mengguguo : Mongolia Mengguzu : Meng minority, Mongolians Mengjiang menglong shi (): misty, obscure poetry Mengmao : Maingmaw Mengzi : Mencius Mengzu : Meng minority, Mongolians menshen (): door gods Mi Gu Mian Mian Mianbao yu ziyou : The Conquest of Bread Mianzhu mianzi : face Mianzi wenti (): A problem of face mianzi xiaofei : conspicuous consumption Miaozu : Miao minority
Midi Yinyue Xuexiao : Midi School of Music Midi Yinyuejie : Midi Modern Music Festival Midian zhulin : a Qing art catalog Mifeng huaji : Bee pictorial Mifeng Huashe : Bee Painting Society mimi banghui : secret society mimi huidang : secret society mimi shehui : secret society mimi xiehui : secret society min : citizens, people Min (): ancient name of Fujian; Min language group Min bao (): Peoples journal Min sheng (): Voice of the people Minami Manshu Tetsudo Kabushiki Kaisha : South Manchurian Railway Company minban : privately managed minban xuexiao (): popularly managed schools, village schools minbing : militia minfa : civil law Minfa Tongze : General Principles of Civil Law ming : given name Ming Taizu : the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty Mingchao : Ming dynasty Mingdao Nuxue : Bright Path Girls School minge : folk song mingjia : famous painter Minglang de tian : Bright skies mingli : section on names of punishments in the Qing Code Minglu : Ming Code mingpai : famous brand minguo : citizens country, republic Minguo yuebao : National monthly Mingxing Mingxing Yingpian Gongsi : Mingxing Film Studio Mingyue Gewutuan : Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe Mingzhu Qiang : Democracy Wall
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minjian : the private sector, society minjian banhua : popular woodcuts minjian meishu : folk art minjian muke banhua : folk woodcut print minjian qudao : nongovernmental channels minjian xinyang : popular beliefs, popular faith Minjiazu : Minjia nationality Minnan hua : Southern Min (a dialect) minquan (): peoples rights (one of the three principles of the people) Minquan bao : Peoples rights (journal) Minshangshi xiguan diaocha baogaolu (): Report on investigations of civil and commercial customs minsheng : peoples livelihood (one of the three principles of the people) Minsheng Gongsi : Minsheng Shipping Company Minsheng Yinhang : Minsheng Bank Minshi Qisu Fa : Civil Procedure Law Minshisan zhi Gugong : The Forbidden City in the thirteenth year of the Republic Minxin : China Sun minyi : public opinion Minyue (): ancient kingdom Minzheng Bu : Department of Civil Affairs Minzheng Ju : Civil Affairs Bureau Minzhong Geyong Tuan : Masses Singing Assembly minzhu : democracy Minzhu Dang (): Democratic Party minzhu dangpai (): democratic parties and groups Minzhu Jinbu Dang (): Democratic Progressive Party minzhu jizhong zhi : democratic centralism Minzhu Shehui Dang (): Democratic Socialist Party Minzhu Taipingyang Lianmeng : Democratic Pacific Union minzu : nationalism, self-determination (one of the three principles of the people); people, race, nationality, ethnic minority minzu fengge : national style
minzu geming zhanzheng de dazhong wenxue (): mass literature of national revolutionary struggle minzu gewutuan : minority song and dance troupes Minzu Wenhua Gong : Ethnic Cultural Palace, Nationalities Cultural Palace minzu xiang : nationality township, ethnic township minzu xingshi : national forms minzu zibenjia : national capitalist minzu zichan jieji : national bourgeoisie minzuhua : nationalize mishu : aide Mitsui mixin : superstition Miyajima Saichiro Miyazaki Torazo Miyazaki Yazo Mizhi MK Muke Yanjiuhui MK: MK Society Mo Yan moban : stencil printing Mochouhu : Mochou Lake mofan jiaoyu : model learning Mogao Ku : Mogao Caves mogu (): boneless style Mojing Dang : Rubbing-Mirrors Party moshi : model Mosuozu : Moso minority Mou Zongsan Mozi mu : Chinese land area measure, 0.16 acre Mu Dan Mu Guiying guashuai (): Mu Guiying takes command Mu Ouchu Mu Shiying () Mu Suixin muban : woodblock edition muban nianhua : New Year pictures Mubanhua : Woodblock prints mubing zhi : voluntary recruitment system
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Muchanga Mudanjiang mufu : private secretariat, personal staff Mujiewen : Epitaph Mulan congjun (): Mulan joins the army Mulanxi : Mulan River Muli Zangzu : Muli Tibetans Muling muke yanjiuhui : Dumb Bell Woodcut Research Society Muqin Yang Mo : My mother Yang Mo Muqin : Mother muyou : staff member Na Ying nacai : an exchange of wedding gifts Nahan : Call to Arms Naito Konan Nakamura Fusetsu Nakayama Nan Shui Bei Diao Gong Cheng : SouthNorth Water Transfer Project Nanbei Jushe : South North Drama Society Nanbei shupai lun (): Northern and southern schools of calligraphy nanbeizong : southern and northern schools of painting Nanchang Nanchizi nandan : female impersonator in Peking Opera Nandian Nanfang dushi bao : Southern metropolis (newspaper) Nanfang ribao : Nanfang daily Nanfang Yishu Qunti : Southern Art Salon nanga : Japanese literati painting Nangang Nanguo Yishu Xueyuan : Acade0 mie du Midi Nanguo zaijian, nanguo , (, ): Good-bye South, Goodbye Nanguoshe : Southern Society Nanhai Nanhui
Nanjing : Nanking Nanjing Datusha (): Nanjing Massacre Nanjing Daxue (): Nanking University Nanjing Minguo Zhengfu : Republican government at Nanjing Nanjing Tiaoyue (): Treaty of Nanjing Nanjinglu : Nanjing Road Nanjo Bunyu Nanling : southern range Nanniwan Nanpi Nanputuosi : Nanaputuo Temple Nanqiao huiyi lu : Memoirs of Tan Kah Kee Nantong Nantong Bowuyuan : Nantong Museum nanxun : southern tour Nanyang Huaqiao Chouzhen Zuguo Nanmin Zonghui : South Seas Chinese Relief Fund Union Nanyang Quanye Hui : Nanyang Industrial Exposition Nanyang Xiongdi Yancao Gongsi : Nanyang Brothers Tobacco Company Natong Naxizu : Naxi minority nei : inner sphere Nei Lingding Dao : Lintin Island Nei Menggu : Inner Mongolia neibu : internal circulation Neicheng : Inner City Neijiang neiluan waihuan : internal disorder and external threats Neiting : Inner Court Neiwu Fu (): Imperial Household Department Nenjiang : Nen River Ni banshi, wo fangxin : With you in charge, I feel at ease Ni bobu meishu yijianshu : A plan to disseminate the fine arts Ni ming : The Secret Name
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Ni Tuosheng (): Watchman Nee Ni wo : You and I Ni Yide () nianhua (): Chinese New Year pictures Nianjun (): Nian Army, Nian rebels Nianjun Qiyi (): Nian Uprising niao he longzi de guanxi : like a bird in a cage (the relationship between the economy and administration) Niaochao : Birds Nest Nie Er Nie Rongzhen () Nie Ying Niehai bolan : Waves of a sea of sin Niehai hua : A flower in a sinful sea Nihon Nanga In : Japan Literati Painting Academy nihonga : Japanese-style painting niming hehuo : dormant partnerships Ningbo () Ningbo Shangye Yinhang : Ningbo Commercial and Savings Bank Ninghai ningju hexin : coagulate core Ningshou Gong (): Palace of Repose and Longevity Ningxia Ningxia Huizu Zizhiqu : Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region Nippon Hoso Kyokai : Japan Broadcasting Corporation Nisu Yi : Nosuo Yi minority Niu Tianci zhuan (): Heavensent Niuzhuang nong : rural nongcun : rural areas nongcun jishi : rural markets nongcun xinyong she : rural credit cooperatives nongmin : farmers, peasants nongmin hua : peasant paintings Nongmin Yundong Jiangxi Suo : Peasant Movement Training Institute nongye : agriculture
Nongye Bu : Ministry of Agriculture Nongye Fazhan Yinhang : Agricultural Development Bank of China Nongye xue Dazhai : In agriculture, learn from Dazhai Nongzheng quanshu (): A compendium on agricultural administration Nuerhachi (): Nurgaci, Nurhachi nugong : womanly skills Nujiang : Nu River Nu lan wuhao : Woman basketball player number five Nu ren : Women Nu shen : Goddesses Nuwa Nuzhen : Jurchens Oga Seiun Okada Asataro Okinawaken : Okinawa Prefecture Omura Seigai Osaka : Osaka Otaka Yoshiko Ouran : A chance encounter Ouyang Jian Ouyang Jingwu Pyongyang : Pyongyang Pa man qingteng de muwu : The ivycovered wooden hut pai : political group, school pai : a registration unit in the baojia community selfdefense system; playing cards paichu jigou : provincial governments delegated organ paifang : memorial archways Paifangcun paigou : purchase by state quotas paijiu : making nine (a domino game) pailou : memorial archways paitou (): head of a registration unit Paiyun Dian : Cloud Dispelling Hall paizi : trademark Pan Guangdan
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Pan Jingshu Pan Shuhua () Pan Tianshou () Pan Yuliang Pan Zuyin Pang Tao Pang Xunqin () Panghuang : Wandering Panjin Panyu Panzhihua Pei Wenzhong Peligang wenhua : Peiligang culture Peng Dehuai () Peng Pai Peng Shuzhi Peng Zemin Peng Zhen Penghu Qundao : Pescadores Islands pengtiao : cooking Pengtoushan wenhua : Pengtoushan culture Pengyou shi zanshi de, liyi shi yongheng de , : Friendship is temporary, only selfinterest is forever Pi Xirui () piaohao (): remittance business, an antecedent of private banking in China pihuang : a style of operatic singing Pingdingshan Pinghuashe Shuhua Hui (): Duckweek Blossom Society Pingjiang pingjun diquan, jiezhi ziben , ( , ): equalizing landownership, restraining capital pingmin jiaoyu : mass education Pingpuzu : Lowland Tribes pingtiao : below-market grain sales Pingxiang Pingyao pinjin : brideprice
pinli (): gifts for the bride to confirm a marital union pinpai : brand pipa : Chinese lute pizi wenxue (): hooligan literature po Sijiu : smash the Four Olds Pochan Fa : Bankruptcy Law popi : cynical realism Poyanghu : Lake Poyang Pu Jin Pu Quan Pu Xinyu Puchengxian : Pucheng County Pucun Pudong Xinqu : Pudong New Area puji : popularization pujitang : poorhouses Pukou Pulandian Pumizu : Pumi minority Putian Putonghua : Mandarin, the common language, the vernacular language Puyi () qi : banner qi (): vital force; breath, energy; vitalities; human desires Qi Baishi () qi chu : seven outs Qi Gong qi junzi : seven honorable gentlemen Qi Longwei Qi zhui ji : Collection of seven patchings Qian Binghe () Qian Huian Qian Juntao () Qian Mu () Qian Qichen Qian Shizhi Qian Shoutie Qian Songling
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Qian Songyan Qian Xiaodai () Qian Xingcun () Qian Xuantong Qian xue : Qian studies Qian Zhongshu Qian Zhongshu yanjiu : Studies on Qian Zhongshu Qianan Qiandaohu Qianfo Dong : Thousand Buddha Caves Qiang Xuehui (): Self-Strengthening Society, Society for National Strengthening, Strength Study Society qiangshou qi : Monopoly Qiangxue bao : Journal of self-strengthening studies Qiangzu : Qiang minority Qianjin fang : Essential formulas for emergencies worth a thousand pieces of gold Qianjin ge : Song of advance Qianjin Tianzhutang : Holy Rosary Cathedral Qianjinzhong de Zhongguo Qingnian Meishu Zuopin Zhanlan : Advancing Young Artists Exhibition Qianlong : emperor (r. 17361795) Qianlongwang : Dragon Net Qianmen : Qian Gate Qianqing Gong (): Palace of Heavenly Purity Qianqing Men (): Gate of Heavenly Purity Qianshou Guanyin : Thousand-Hand Guanyin Qiantangjiang : Qiantang River Qianwan bie ba wo dang ren : Please Dont Call Me Human qianwei xiaoshuo : avant-garde fiction Qianxi Manbo : Millennium Mambo qianyin : lead type (for printing) qianzhuang (): money houses, native banks, small local banks, an antecedent of private banking in China Qiao (): The Bridge qiaojuan : overseas-Chinese dependents (residing in China) qiaowu (): overseas Chinese affairs
qiaoxiang : overseas-Chinese homeland communities, migrants native areas Qidao (): Unexpected Island Qie Gewala : Che Guevara Qieyun (): a rhyming dictionary qigai : beggar qigong (): Chinese cultivation exercises, discipline of the vital force qigong re : qigong boom qigongjie : qigong world Qijin : Cijin qijuzhu : court diaries Qimeng : Enlightenment (journal) Qimeng : Strange dreams Qin Hua Rijun Nanjing Datusha Yunan Tongbao Jinian Guan : Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall Qin Hui qin liugan : avian flu Qin Shi Huangdi : First Emperor of Qin Qin Shouou Qin wang Li Shimin : Li Shimin, prince of Qin Qin Zihao Qincheng Jianyu : Qincheng Prison Qinchuan Nanyang Qinding Hubu caoyun quanshu ( ): The Board of Revenues complete book on grain transport qing : care, empathy, fondness, friendship, forgiveness, respect, sentiment Qing Bang : Green Gang Qing gong yuan : Malice of Empire Qing he yibei suyoucha : Drink a cup of buttered tea Qing Niwakou Qing qinwang : Prince Qing Qing shi : A brief classification of stories about qing Qing shi gao : Manuscript history of the Qing dynasty Qing yi bao (): Public opinion, The China discussion qing yinyue : light music
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qingcha : semifermented tea Qingchao : Qing dynasty Qingchuan Qingchun wansui : Long live youth Qingchun zhi ge : Song of Youth Qingdai tongshi : A general history of the Qing period Qingdao Qingdao Daxue : Qingdao University Qinghai Qinghongbang : Green and Red Gangs Qinghua Daxue (): Tsinghua University Qinghua Daxue Gaodeng Yanjiu Zhongxin : Institute of Advanced Studies at Tsinghua University Qingjian Qingjie Fazhan Jizhi : Clean Development Mechanism qingjie shengchan celue : cleaner produc tion strategy qingliu dang : purification clique Qingming : Spring Qingming Jie (): Chinese All Souls Day Qingming qianhou : Before and after the Qingming Festival Qingming shang he tu (): Along the River during Qingming Festival Qingnian : Youth Qingnian gangqin xiezouqu : Youth piano concerto Qingniantuan Ganbu Xunlianban : Youth Corps Cadre Training School Qingning Gong (): Pure Tranquility Palace Qingong Jianxuesheng Tuan ( ): Movement for Diligent Work and Frugal Study Qingpu Qingqidui : Light cavalry (newspaper) Qingwei Lingbao (): A lineage of elite Zhengyi Daoists qingxu touzi : make investment decisions on the basis of emotion qingyi (): moral leadership, disinterested counsel qingyi : virtuous-female role type in Peking Opera Qingyi Yuan (): Clear Ripples Garden
Qingyun Ge (): Clouds of Hope Qing-Zang Gaoyuan : Tibetan Plateau Qing-Zang Tielu : Qinghai-Tibet Railway Qinhuaihe Qinhuangdao Qinlingshan : Qinling Mountain Qinmin Dang (): People First Party Qinnan Qinqiang : Shaanxi Opera Qinshihuang Lingmu : Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor Qinshui Qiongzhou () qipao : Mandarin gown, cheongsam, traditional Chinese dress Qi-qie chengqun : Wives and concubines Qiqihaer 731 Butai 731 (731): Unit 731 Qishan Qitingqiao Qiu Fengjia Qiu Haitang Qiu Jin Qiu Ling Qiu Ti qiushen : autumn assizes qiye danwei : enterprise qiye jituan : enterprise group Qiying Qiyue qu : ward qu : aria Qu Leilei Qu Qiubai Qu Xiaosong Qu Yuan Qu Yuan : a historical play Quanguo Funu Lianhehui : All-China Womens Federation Quanguo Furu Jiuji Hui : National Womens and Childrens Salvation Society
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Quanguo Gejie Jiuguo Lianhehui (): National Anti-Japanese Salvation Association Quanguo Jingji Weiyuanhui ( ): National Economic Council Quanguo Lishi Dangan Ziliao Mulu Zhongxin : Union Finding-List Centers for Historical Archival Materials Quanguo Nongye Zhanlanguan : National Agricultural Exhibition Hall Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui : National Peoples Congress Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui Changwu Weiyuanhui : Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress Quanguo Shengtai Huanjing Baohu Gangyao : Outline on National Eco-environment Protection Quanguo Shengwu Wuzhong Ziyuan Baohu yu Liyong Guihua Gangyao : Outline on Planning for the Protection and Utilization of National Species Resources Quanguo Weiyuanhui : National Committee Quanguo Zhengxie Wenshi he Xuexi Weiyuanhui : Literature History and Study Committee quanmian xiaokang shehui : comprehensive small-welfare society quanmin jie bing : a nation under arms quanmin waijiao : peoples diplomacy Quanmin zongdongyuan (): Total mobilization quanmindang : party for all the people quanpan xihua : wholesale Westernization Quanxue pian (): Exhortation to study Quanzhen : an order of Daoist clerics Quanzhou quanzong : fond, record group in archives queguan : tax checkpoint qun : skirt Qun bao : The masses (newspaper) qunsi : third tier of state cults Qunyan : Tribune qunzhong gequ : songs for the masses qunzhong luxian : mass line
qunzhong yishu : art for the masses quyi : dramatic folk literary forms Quzhou rangwai bi xian annei : pacifying within to resist without Rao Shushi Raosanling : festival Rehe ren : benevolence Ren Bonian Ren Guang Ren shou gui : Humans, beasts, and ghosts Ren Wanding Ren Xia Ren xiaoyao : Unknown Pleasures Ren Xiong Ren Xun Ren Yi () Ren Yu Ren Zhongyi rencai qiangguo : a great power with talented people Renjian shi (): The human world Renjian Siyue tian (): April in the human world renkou pucha : census Renli Ziyuan he Shehui Baozhang Bu : Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security renmin : the people Renmin Chubanshe : Peoples Press Renmin Da Huitang : Great Hall of the People Renmin Daibiao Dahui : Peoples Congress Renmin Daxue : Peoples University of China renmin gongshe : peoples communes Renmin huabao : Peoples pictorial, China pictorial Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe : Peoples Education Press Renmin Jiefangjun (): Peoples Liberation Army Renmin Jiefangjun Haijun : Peoples Liberation Army Navy
Ren Jiyu
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Renmin Jiefangjun Kongjun : Peoples Liberation Army Air Force Renmin Meishu Chubanshe : Peoples Fine Art Publishing House Renmin Minzhu Tongyi Zhanxian : Peoples Democratic United Front renmin minzhu zhuanzheng : peoples democratic dictatorship Renmin ribao : Peoples Daily Renmin wenxue : Peoples literature Renmin Wuzhuang Jingcha Budui : Peoples Armed Police Renmin Yingxiong Jinian Bei : Monument to the Peoples Heroes Renmin yinyue : Peoples music (journal) renmin zhanzheng : peoples war Renmin Zhengzhi Huiyi ( ): Peoples Political Council Renmin Zhisheng : Voice of the People Renminbi : the currency of China renqing : feelings of reciprocal obligation, human feelings, moral propriety renquan : human rights Renshan Renshen : Pregnancy Renshi Bu : Ministry of Personnel Renshou Dian (): Bliss and Longevity Hall renxing : human nature renxu : permission Renyao zhi jian : Between man and demon Rexue : Boiling blood Ri Koran Riben : Japan Riben guozhi (): A treatise of the Japanese nation Richu : Sunrise Ri-E Zhanzheng : Russo-Japanese War Rikuchoha : Six-Dynasties school Rishengchang Piaohao : a remittance firm Rong Desheng rong er ru yu yilu : smelt together in single furnace Rong Hong (): Yung Wing
Rong Hongyuan Rong Ruixing Rong Yiren () Rong Zongjing ronghe : fusion ronghe Zhong Xi : synthesizing the Chinese and the Western Ronglu Roshiajin Jimu Kyoku : Bureau for the 0 Affairs of Russian Emigre0 s Rou Shi Ru Zhijuan Ruan Agen Ruan Fenggen Ruan Lingyu Ruan Lingyu : Center Stage (film) Ruan Yuan Ruan Yuying Ruijin Rujiao : Confucianism Rulin waishi : The Scholars runli : established profit margin rusheng : entering tone Ruwu hou : After entering the ranks Ruxue (): Confucianism ruzhui hun (): uxorilocal marriage Ryu kyu Han : Ryukyu Domain Sai Jinhua () Sai Jinhua (): a play Sai xiansheng (): Mr. Science Sai Zhenzhu : Pearl S. Buck Saidi Jituan : CCID (China Center for Information Industry Development) Group Saidi Zixun : CCID (China Center for Information Industry Development) Consulting Saishang xing : Journeys on the frontier Saiyinsi xiansheng : Mr. Science San Ba Jie ganyan : Thoughts on the March Eighth Festival san buqu : three limitations san he yi : three in one
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San ji xiao duzhe (): Still more letters to young readers San mao : Three hairs san Miao : three prehistoric Miao ethnic groups san nong wenti : three rural issues san Qin : the three parts of the Qin empire San si yi : Three, four, one san tong : three direct links san tuchu : the three prominences San ye ji (): Three leaves sanba ganbu : 1938 cadre sanbailiushi hang : the 360 trades Sanbaxiang : Sanba Township sancong (): three obediences Sandouping Sanfan Wufan yundong (): Three-Antis and Five-Antis campaigns Sang Tong Sange Daibiao : Three Represents sange jueqi : three risings Sange modeng nu xing : Three modern women Sange nanren he yige nuren : Three men and a woman sange shijie lilun : three-worlds theory sangji yutang : mulberry tree and fish pond Sanguo yanyi (): Romance of the Three Kingdoms Sanguo zhi (): History of the Three Kingdoms Sangyuanwei : Mulberry Garden Enclosure Sanhai : Three Seas sanheyuan : three-sided or u-shaped courtyard house sanhua : the three-pronged line sanjue (): three perfections (poetry, calligraphy, and painting) sanlei shangpin : category-three goods Sanliwan : a novel sanluan : arbitrary collection of fees, apportionments, and fundraising Sanmenwan Sanmenxia Sanmenxia Guoguo Mudi Bowuguan : Sanmenxia Guo State Tomb Museum
sanminzhuyi (): three principles of the people Sanminzhuyi Lixing She ( ): Three Peoples Principles Earnest Action Society Sanminzhuyi Qingnian Tuan ( ): Three Peoples Principles Youth Corps Sanminzhuyi Yanjiusuo : Institute of Three Peoples Principles Sanshan Wuyuan (): Three Hills and Five Gardens sanshi shuo (): three-age doctrine Sanshui Sanwan sanwen : miscellaneous essay writing sanwu : three lackings, i.e., lacking proof of identity, lacking work, and lacking fixed residence Sanxia Da Ba : Three Gorges Dam Sanxia Gongcheng : Three Gorges Project Sanxiasheng : Three Gorges Province sanxian : third front Sanxian Jianshe : Three Lines of Construction Sanxingdui Sanya Sanyi : Three Counties Sanzi Aiguo yundong : Three-Selfs Patriotic movement Sanzi yundong : Three-Selfs movement Satomi Katsuzo Se, jie , : Lust, Caution seikei bunri : separation of politics from economics Seikyosha : Society for Political Education sengdao : Buddhist and Taoist clerics Senggelinqin (Senggerinchin) Senlin Fa : Forest Law Senoo Masahiko sha : vital force generated by destructive directions Sha Ding Sha Fei Sha Mei Sha Yexin Shaanbei Shaanxi
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Shaanxi Lishi Bowuguan : Shaanxi History Museum Shafei nushi de riji : Miss Sophies diary Shahekou shaizi : dice Shamian Shan shang de xiao wu : The cabin in the mountains Shandong Shandong Chouzhen Hui : Shantung Relief Fund Shandong Qilu Daxue (): Shangtung Christian University shang : merchants Shang Qin Shan-Gan-Ning bianqu : Shaanxi-GansuNingxia border region shangbang : merchant groups Shangbiao Fa : Trademark Law Shangchao : Shang dynasty shangfangzhe : petitioner shangguan (): factories Shanghai Shanghai baiwan daheng (): Monopoly Shanghai bang : Shanghai gang Shanghai baobei : Shanghai baby Shanghai Baogang Jituan Gongsi : Baosteel Shanghai Baoxue She (): Shanghai Journalism Society Shanghai Bowuguan : Shanghai Museum Shanghai Dianli Gongsi : Shanghai Power Company Shanghai Diyi Tequ Difang Fayuan (): First Special District Court of Shanghai Shanghai Fa Zujie : Shanghai French Concession (La concession francaise de Changha ) Shanghai Gangtie Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Shanghai Steel Shanghai Gongbao : Shanghai Communique0
Shanghai Gongbuju : Shanghai Municipal Council Shanghai Gonggong Zujie : Shanghai International Settlement Shanghai Guangfanyan Guan ( ): Shanghai Foreign Language School Shanghai Hezuo Zuzhi : Shanghai Cooperation Organization Shanghai hua : Shanghainese Shanghai huabao : Shanghai pictorial Shanghai Huanqiu Jinrong Zhongxin : Shanghai World Financial Center Shanghai Jiaotong Daxue : Shanghai Jiaotong University Shanghai Manhua (): Shanghai sketch Shanghai Meishan Gangtie Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Meishan Steel Shanghai Meizhuan : Shanghai Art Academy Shanghai Meishu Zhuanmen Xuexiao : Shanghai Art College, Shanghai Art School Shanghai poke (): Shanghai punch Shanghai Shangye Yinhang : Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank Shanghai Shuangnian Zhan 2000 2000: Shanghai Biennale 2000 Shanghai Shuhua Hui : Shanghai Calligraphy and Painting Society Shanghai Shuhua Yanjiuhui : Shanghai Calligraphy and Painting Study Society Shanghai Tuhua Meishu Yuan : Shanghai Pictorial Art School Shanghai wenyi : Shanghai literature Shanghai wuguo : Shanghai five Shanghai Ying-Mei Yancao Gongsi ( ): British American Tobacco Company Shanghai Yinyue Xueyuan : Shanghai Conservatory Shanghai Zhongguo Huayuan : Shanghai Painting Institute Shanghai Zhongguo Shuhua Baocun Hui : Shanghai Chinese Calligraphy and Painting Preservation Society Shanghai Zhonghua Yishu Daxue : Shanghai Chinese Arts University Shanghaishi Zuojia Xiehui : Shanghai Writers Association
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shanghan : cold damage Shanghan lun : Treatise on cold damage shanghen huihua : scar painting shanghen meishu : scar art shanghen sheying : scar photography shanghen wenxue : scar literature, literature of the wounded shanghen yishu : scar art shanghui (): chambers of commerce Shangmei Tuan Guan (): Shangmei Design Studio shangpin : merchandise Shangpin Jianyan Ju : Commodity Inspection Bureau shangshan xiaxiang yundong : up to the mountains and down to the countryside movement shangshen (): merchant-gentry Shangshi (): Regret for the past Shangshu (): Classic of history Shangshu dazhuan, Yuxia zhuan : biography of Yuxia in the Book of History shangsi : first tier of state cults shangtou (): hair-styling ritual in a wedding Shangwu Bu : Ministry of Commerce Shangwuyin Shuguan (): Commercial Press shangxia zhi tong : communication between high and low Shangxin Taipingyang : Grieving over the Pacific Ocean Shangye Yinhang Fa : Commercial Bank Law shangzhan (): business warfare, commercial warfare Shangzhou Shangzhou sanji : Random notes on Shangzhou Shanhai no onna : A woman of Shanghai Shanhaiguan Shanqi shanshu : morality book shantang : charity halls Shantou : Swatow Shanxi Shanxi Bowuguan : Shanxi Museum
Shanxi Da Xuetang : Shanxi University Shanxi dangxun fukan : Shanxi party newsletter supplement Shanxiang jubian (): Great change in a mountain village shanyaodanpai : mountain yam school Shao Fei () Shao Keping Shao shi xiongdi : Shaw brothers Shao Xunmei Shao Yuanchong Shaobohu : Lake Shaobo Shaonian Gong : Childrens Palace Shaonian Kaige : the youthful Kaige Shaonian Zhongguo Xuehui : Young China Association shaoshu minzu : minorities, minority nationalities shaoshu minzu diqu : minority areas Shaoxing Shaoxing Lu Hu Tongxiang Hui : Shaoxing Compatriots Society in Shanghai Shashi Shayangnala (): Sayonara shayingzui : crime of infanticide shehui tuanti : social groups shehuidiguozhuyi : social-imperialism shehuizhuyi jiaoyu yundong : socialist education campaign shehuizhuyi xianshizhuyi : socialist realism shehuizhuyi xin shehui : new socialism shehuizhuyi xueyuan : institutes of socialism Shei zhi guo (): Whose fault is this? Sheji Tan (): Alters of Soil and Grain Shekou Gongye Qu : Shekou Industrial Zone Shen : Shanghai Shen Baozhen Shen Bochen () Shen Congwen () Shen Dehong Shen Enfu Shen Jiaben
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Shen Junru Shen Manyun () Shen Meishu Shen Pengnian Shen Shuyong Shen Xingong Shen Yanbing Shen Yinmo Shen Zengzhi Shen Zurong Shenbao (): Shun Pao, Shanghai daily Shenbaoguan : a publishing house Shenci Cunfei Biaozhun : Standards for Determining Temples and Shrines to be Destroyed or Maintained sheng : province Sheng Shicai Sheng Xuanhuai Sheng Yuehan Daxue (): St. Johns University Sheng Zongliang : Bright Sheng Sheng : Living shengchan dadui : production brigade shengchan dui : production team Shengchan Jianshe Bingtuan : Production and Construction Corps shengchan xiaodui : production team Shengchan yundong dahechang : Production movement cantata shengchanli lilun : productive-forces theory shengcun quan : right to subsistence shengguan tu (): promotions chart (a board game) Shenghuo de yishu (): The Importance of Living Shenghuo zhoubao (): Life weekly shengji : provincial level shengli : provincial pronouncements, provincial regulations Shengli Youtian : Shengli Oil Fields Shengming de tuteng : Totems of life Shengming zhi liu : Current of life (painting) Shengshan tu : Surviving Mountain
Shengsi pilao : Life and death are wearing me out shengwairen : person from outside the province Shengwu Duoyangxing Baohu Xingdong Jihua : Biodiversity Action Plan Shengyu (): Sacred Edict shengyuan (): licentiate, prefectural graduate, bachelors degree Shenji Shu : National Audit Office, National Auditing Administration shenkui : weakness of the kidney Shenmei Shuguan : Aesthetics Bookshop Shennong bencao jing : Shennongs classic of materia medica Shennu : The Goddess shenpan ting : adjudication chambers Shenquan : Spirit Boxers Shenquan : Invincible fist shenshang : gentry and merchants shenshi (): gentry Shenwu zhi ai : The shamans love shenxian : deadline for a ruling shenxiu : moral character Shenyang : Mukden Shenzhen Shenzhen Daxue : Shenzhen University Shenzhen Jingji Tequ : Shenzhen Special Economic Zone Shenzhen ren : Shenzhen people Shenzhou guoguang ji : The glories of Cathay shenzhuan : judicial review and ratification shequ : communities Shewai Jingji Hetong Fa : Foreign Economic Contract Law Shewai Wenhua Yishu Biaoyan ji Zhanlan Guanli Guiding : Regulatory Measures for Foreign-Related Cultural, Art, and Exhibition Activities Shexian : She County shexue (): community school sheying xinchao (): photographic new wave sheying yishu : art of photography
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Shezu : She minority shi : scholar-official shi : municipality Shi : Eclipse shi : poetry Shi bashou (): Eight poems Shi Dakai Shi ershiwushou : Twenty-five poems Shi Hui Shi Jinbo : Shi Kumpor Shi kan : Poetry journal Shi Liang Shi Liangcai Shi Lu Shi lun (): On poetry Shi Pingmei Shi Shaohua Shi Weiliang Shi Wu Zai : Shap-ng-tsai Shi Yi Shi yu : Words of Stone Shi yuekan : Poetry monthly Shi Zhaoji Shi Zhecun Shibao (): Eastern times, Times, China times Shibasheng dili lishi : Geography and history of the eighteen provinces Shibasui chumen yuanxing : Leaving home at eighteen shibei : steles Shida Kotaro shidafu hua : scholar-officials painting Shidai (): Modern miscellany (a pictorial) Shidai butong le, nannu dou yiyang , : The times have changed, yet men and women are the same Shidai manhua (): Time comics, Modern sketch shidai qu (): modern songs, modern Chinese pop shierzi fangzhen : twelve-words approach shifan daxue : normal university
shifan jiaoyu : normal education shifan xuexiao : normal school shifan xueyuan : normal college shifang : contemporary formula Shifenyi Hui (): Ten Percent Club Shifou : Yes or no shifu hua : scholar-officials painting shigu : stone drums shigu wen : stone-drum script Shihou : Roaring lion shihua : poetry critique Shiji (): Records of the historian shijian (): poetry paper Shijiazhuang Shijie : The World shijie geming (): revolution in poetry Shijie Renlei Ziran Yichan : World Heritage Sites Shijie Renquan Xuanyan : Universal Declaration of Human Rights Shijie ribao : World daily Shijie Shuju (): World Book Company Shijing (): Book of songs, Book of odes, Classic of poetry Shijingshan Shijingshan Gongyuan : Shijingshan Park shikumen : stonegate houses Shimen Shimenwan () Shimian maifu : House of Flying Daggers shimin shehui : civil society Shimoda Utako Shimonoseki Joyaku : Treaty of Shimonoseki shimu : Chinese land-area measure shin nanga : new literati painting Shina kaiga shi : History of Chinese painting Shina kaiga shoshi : A concise history of Chinese painting Shina no yoru : China Night Shinbu Gakko : Shinbu Military School Shinian yixunjian : Flashback: A decade of changes, 19761986
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shiping : short editorials Shiqikong Qiao (): Seventeen Arch Bridge Shiqisui de danche : Beijing Bicycle shiqu : urban district, urban core Shiqu baoji : a Qing art catalog shiquan : ten accomplishments of the Qianlong period Shiro to kuro : White and black Shisan Yamen (): Thirteen Bureaus shisanhang : hong merchants Shisanjing zhushu (): Thirteen classics with commentary shishen : scholar-gentry Shishi manhua (): a current-affairs comic shishi qiushi : seeking truth from facts Shishi xinbao (): New current affairs daily Shishido Tamaki Shisi hanwei wuchan jieji wenhua dageming : Pledge your life to defend the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution Shisihang ji : Sonnets Shitai de jijie : Season of loss Shitao () Shiwan Shiwei (): Imperial Guard Shiwu bao (): Chinese progress, Journal of current affairs Shiwu guan (): Fifteen strings of cash Shiwu Xuetang : School of Current Affairs shixiaqu : municipal districts shixue (): practical studies, concrete studies shiyan sheying : experimental photography shiyan xiaoshuo : experimental fiction shiye danwei : public institution, public sector shiyi zhiyi (): Learn from the barbarians to rein them in shiyin : lithographic texts shiyong : commercial standard of weights and measures shiyou : roommate shizhe shengcun : survival of the fittest Shizhi
Shizhuzhai jianpu (): Decorated letter paper from the Ten Bamboo Studio shizi peixun : teacher training Shizilin : Lion Grove Garden shizu : founding ancestor shoka zoshin no zu : promotions chart of accumulated karma shougongye : handicraft shouhui : hand painting on a print shouhui jiaoyu quan yundong ( ): movement for reclaiming educational sovereignty shouhui liquan : recover sovereign rights, retrieve lost economic rights Shouhuo : Harvest Shouji : Cell Phone Shouxihu : Slender West Lake Shouxun shouye : to receive training in the tradition Shu Shu Han Shu Qi () Shu Qingchun () Shu Ting Shu Xincheng Shuangbai fangzhen : Hundred Flowers campaign shuanggui : double rules Shuangjianlou shanben shumu ( ): Shuangjianlou rare book catalog shudao (): epistle school of calligraphy shuhao : registration numbers for books and periodicals shuhua (): Chinese character paintings Shui Hua Shui Wuran Fangzhi Fa : Water Pollution Prevention Law Shuihu Zhuan (): All Men Are Brothers, Outlaws of the Marsh, Water Margin shuili : water management Shuilifang : Water Cube Shuiwu Ju (): Revenue Board Shuiwu Xuetang (): Customs College Shuixia Wenwu Baohu Guanli Tiaoli (): Regulations on the
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Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics shuixiu wu : water-sleeve dance Shuizu : Shui minority Shuji Chu : Secretariat shuji zhuanhuang (): book design Shujing : Classic of history shuju (): printing office Shumu dawen : Answers and questions on book catalogs Shun Shundexian : Shunde County Shunzhi : emperor (r. 16441661) shuo : essay Shuoshuo changchang : Reciting and singing Shuowen jiezi (): Explanations of simple and compound characters shushang : book traders Shushu de gushi : Story of an uncle shuwang : book kings shuxue (): epistle school of calligraphy Shuxue bao : Journal of Sichuan learning Shuxue Hui : Society of Sichuan Learning shuyuan (): academies, Confucian academies si : death penalty si : private, privacy Si Outang Si Wang : the Four Wangs Si Wang huapai : orthodox school of the Four Wangs si zi yuanze : four selfs principle Sichou zhi Lu : Silk Road Sichou zhi Lu xiangmu : Silk Road Project Sichuan Sichuan Daxue (): Sichuan University Sichuan Jiqi Ju : Sichuan Arsenal Sichuan Wenchuan da dizhen : Sichuan earthquake of May 12, 2008 sida mingdan : the four great female impersonators in Peking Opera Sida Tianwang : Four Heavenly Kings, 1990s Canto-pop singers
side : four virtues sidian : register of sacrifices sifa weiyuanhui : committees on political and judicial matters Sifa Yuan : Judicial Yuan Sige Xiandaihua : Four Modernizations siheyuan : traditional courtyard architecture Sijiu : the Four Olds sijue : the four perfections Siku quanshu (): Complete library of the four treasuries sili : privately established Silu huayu : Silk Road flower and rain Sima Qian simiao : temples simin : four classes of people Siming Gongsuo : Ningbo Commercial Guild Siqin Gerile Sirenbang : Gang of Four Sisheng Nongye Yinhang : Four Provinces Agricultural Bank sishi tongtang : Four generations under one roof Sishu : the Four Books sishu : traditional private schools, village and community schools Sishu jizhu : Selected Commentaries on the Four Books Sishu Wujing : the Four Books and Five Classics Si-Wu Luntan : April fifth forum sixiang jiben yuanze : Four Basic Principles sixiang jiefang : emancipation of thought Siyi : the Four Counties Si-yiling Jiaoyu Gaige Shifan *: 4/10 Demonstration for Educational Reform Siyuan : A secret wish Xiziwan (): Siziwan song : sending off Song Ailing Song Boren Song Chuyu : James Soong Song Defu Song Huizong
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Song Jiaoren Song Jiaoren Jinian Ta : Song Jiaoren Memorial Song Jiashu (): Charlie Soong Song Junfu Song Meiling : Mayling Soong Song Ping Song Qingling () Song Renqiong Song Ruhai Song Shu Song xue (): Song learning Song Ziliang : T. L. Soong Song Ziwen T. V. Soong Songchao : Song dynasty Songhuajiang : Songhua River, Sungari River Songhuajiang shang : On the Songhua River Songjiang Songjiangpai : Songjiang school Songpan Songshi xuanzhu : An annotated selection of Song dynasty poetry Soshu no yoru : Suzhou Night Souhu : Sohu Su Bai Su Bingqi () Su Cong () Su Di chun xiao : spring dawn at Su Causeway Su Manshu () Su Shi () Su Tong Su Wen () Su Wonong () Su Xuelin () Su Yu Suao Subei Suhua bao (): Vernacular magazine Sui Jianguo Suichao : Sui dynasty suigan lu (): random thoughts
Suiyuan Suiyuan shidan (): Menus of Suiyuan suku : recount suffering suli : folk practice Sulian : Soviet Union, Soviet Sulian jianwen lu : Eyewitness account of the Soviet Union Sulian zhi You She yinyue xiaozu : Soviet Friends Society Sun Baoxin Sun Benwen () Sun Chuanfang () Sun Daolin Dianying Yishu Guan (): Sun Daolin Film Museum Sun Duoci Sun Ganlu Sun Jianai Sun Mei () Sun Qian Sun Qingyuan () Sun Shaozhen Sun Simiao Sun Wen (): Sun Yat-sen Sun Wenyao () Sun Wukong san da Baigujing : Monkey beats the White-Boned Demon Sun Yirang () Sun Yixian (): Sun Yat-sen Sun Yu Sun Zhigang () Sun Zhongshan (): Sun Yat-sen suona : a Chinese shawm suoyang (): genital retraction syndrome [lit., retraction of yang] Sushun () suzhi : quality suzhi jiaoyu : quality education Suzhou : in Gansu Provence Suzhou : in Jiangsu Provence Suzhou Daxue (): Suzhou University Suzhou Gongye Yuanqu : Suzhou Industrial Park
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Suzhou Xinqu : Suzhou New District Suzhou Yishu Xuexiao : Suzhou Art Training Institute Suzhou zhi ye (): Suzhou night Suzhouhe : Suzhou River (film) suzhoujue : Suzhou hairdo Taguchi Ukichi Taibei : Taipei Taibei Dangdai Yishuguan ( ): Museum of Contemporary Art, Taipei Taibei Shili Meishuguan ( ): Taipei Fine Arts Museum Taibei Shizhengfu Dushi Fazhan Ju (): Taibei Bureau of Urban Development Taierzhuang Taierzhuang Huizhan (): Battle of Taierzhuang Taihai guanxi : cross-strait relations Taihangshan : Taihang Mountains Taihe Dian : Hall of Great Harmony, Hall of Supreme Harmony Taihu : Lake Tai Taiji : tai chi, Chinese martial exercises Taiping Tianguo (): Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping Rebellion) Taiping Tianguo Qiyi (): Taiping Uprising, Taiping Rebellion Taiping Zhongwangfu : a nineteenth-century palace Taipingyang bao (): Pacific times Taishan : a coastal city in Guangdong Province Taishan : Mt. Tai Taiwan () Taiwan Dushi Jihua Ling ( ): Taiwan Urban Planning Ordinance Taiwan Gaodeng Jiaoyu Pinggu he Jianding Weiyuanhui ( ): Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan Taiwan Guanxi Fa : Taiwan Relations Act Taiwan Jiti Dianlu Gongsi ( ): Taiwan Semiconductor Corporation
Taiwan Minnanyu Yinbiao Xitong (): Taiwanese Southern Min Spelling System Taiwan Minzhu Jijin Hui ( ): Taiwan Foundation for Democracy Taiwan Minzhu Zizhi Tongmeng ( ): Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League Taiwan Suliao Gongsi (): Formosa Plastics Corporation Taiwan Tuanjie Lianmeng ( ): Taiwan Solidarity Union Taiwan wuqu : Taiwan dance, an orchestral piece Taiwan yingzaojie (): Journal of the Taiwan building industry Taiwanshi Yanjiusuo (): Institute of Taiwan History Taixu Taiyang he ren : Sun and man Taiyang She (): Sun Society Taiyang zhao zai Sangganhe shang : The sun shines over the Sanggan River Taiyuan Taiyuan Huizhan (): Battle of Taiyuan Taizhong : Taichung Taizhou taizi : princeling (ordinary meaning: crown prince) Takehisa Yumeji Takelamagan Shamo : Taklamakan Desert Takeuchi Seiho Talimu Pendi : Tarim Basin tan (): Daoist family altar Tan Dun Tan pai (): Tan school Tan Shichang Xintuo Jijin : Asia Pacific Carbon Fund Tan Sitong () Tan Xiaolin Tan Yankai () Tan yi lu : On the art of poetics Tan Zheng Tan Zhenlin Tan Zhonglin
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Tang Caichang Tang Guangzhao Tang hua : Tang speech Tang Hualong () Tang Jingxing : Tong King-Sing Tang Jiyao Tang Junyi Tang Kunhua Tang Qunying Tang Shaoyi Tang Xiangming Tang Xiong Tangan Dongzu Shengtai Bowuguan : Tangan Dong Ecological Museum tangbao : court gazette Tangchao : Tang dynasty; also Tang Dynasty (band) tangfei : additional tuition charged by schools to build up their contingency funds Tangren : men of Tang Tangren jie : Chinatown Tangrenjie jiating : Chinatown Family Tangshan Tansuo : Exploration Tanxu Tao Menghe Tao Xingzhi Tao Xisheng Tao Yuanqing () Tao Zhiyue Tao Zhu Taohua qixue ji : Peach Blossom Weeps Tears of Blood Taohuajiang : Peach Blossom River Taoli chunfeng () Taose de yun (): Peach-Colored Cloud taoyin banhua : polychromatic woodcut Taoyuanxian : Taoyuan County tebieshi : special municipalities teji mofan jiaoshi : superior model teachers Teng Baiye Teng Geer
Teng Gu Teng Haiqing Tengyue : Momein Ti xiao jie fei : Between Tears and Laughter Tian Fengshan Tian Han Tian Heng wubaishi : Tian Heng and his five hundred retainers Tian Xiaoqing Tiananmen (): Gate of Heavenly Peace Tiananmen Guangchang : Tiananmen Square Tiananmen Shijian : Prodemocracy Movement (1989), Tiananmen Incident (1989) Tiandihui Tianfeng Lou : Heavenly Wind Pavilion tianfu : heavens storehouse tianfu zhengshi (): direct grain acquisition Tiangou : Heavenly dog Tianhe Tianhe Tiyu Zhongxin : Tianhe Sports Complex Tianjin Tianjin Bowuguan : Tianjin Museum Tianjin Gang Baoshuiqu : Tianjin Port Free-Trade Zone Tianjin Tiaoyue (): Treaty of Tianjin Tianmahui : Heavenly Horse Society, Pegasus Society Tianshan Tiantan (): Temple of Heaven Tiantang suantai zhi ge : The Garlic Ballads Tiantang yu wuyue : Paradise and May tianxia : all under heaven, the empire, Confucian ecumene Tianxia wu zei : A World without Thieves Tianyan lun (): Evolution and ethics, On evolution Tianyi bao (): Heavens justice Tianyi Yingpian Gongsi : Tianyi Film Studio Tianyunshan chuanqi : Tianyun mountain legend tianzai renhuo : natural disaster and human calamity
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tianze : natural selection Tianze Jingji Yanjiusuo : Unirule Institute of Economics Tianzhai : Land and house Tianzhujiao : Catholicism Tianzhujiao : Heavenly Bamboo movement tianzu : natural feet Tianzu Hui (): Natural Foot Society tiaokuai : lines and blocks (sectoral administrative hierarchies and regional units) tiaoli (): selected imperial edicts and notices from central government ministries directed at the governor of a province tiaotiao : vertical authority ticao : gymnastics and militaristic calisthenics tidu jiumen : commander of the nine gates tie : calligraphic model tie fanwan : iron rice bowl (job security) Tie Guniang : Iron Girls tie langtou : iron hammer Tiedao Bing : Railway Construction Corps Tieliang Tiema banhua : Steel Horse prints Tiema Banhua She : Steel Horse Woodcut Society Tieshan gongzhu (): Princess Iron Fan tiexue (): studies on calligraphic models, copybook script tigao : raising of standards ting : subprefecture tingyi : court conference Tingyun Shuhua She : Unmoving Clouds Calligraphy and Painting Society tiqian : to advance, advanced Tixi Tixiao yinyuan : Fate in Tears and Laughter tiyan shenghuo : observing and learning from real life tiyong (): Chinese essence, Western utility; Chinese learning for fundamental structure and Western learning for practical use tiyu : physical education, physical culture Tiyu Fa : Law of Sports
Tiyu huanghou : Queen of SportsTiyu zhi yanjiu : A study of physical education tizhi : the system and institutions of society tizhi gaige : structural reform Tokyo : Tokyo Tokyo Bijutsu Gakko : Tokyo School of Fine Arts Tong Luo Tong yinyuegongzuozhe de tanhua : Talk to music workers Tong Zhonggui Tonganxian : Tongan County Tongcheng Tongchengpai : Tongcheng school tongchou fei : unified planning fee, a township and village levy tonggou : purchase under state monopoly tonggou tongxiao : unified purchasing and sales system Tongguang ti : Tongguang style Tongguang Tongzhi Zhanglao Jiaohui (): Tong-Kwang Light House Presbyterian Church tongsheng : apprentice candidates Tongji Daxue : Tongji University Tongji Kexue Yanjiusuo Keti Zu (): Study Team of the Statistical Science Research Institute Tongmeng Hui (): Revolutionary Alliance, United League tongqian (): cash, copper or bronze coins tongru yuan : graduate schools (in the 1904 educational system) Tongshan She : Fellowship of Goodness tongshan tang : united welfare agencies tongshi : linguist tongshu (): a Chinese almanac tongsu yinyue : popular music Tongwen Guan (): Interpreters College, Interpreters School tongxiang : fellow local; natives from the same village, town, or province Tongxiang
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tongxiang hui : hometown associations, nativeplace associations Tongxin : in Ningxia tongxin : friend, someone who shares my heart tongxue : classmate tongyangxi (): little daughter-in-law Tongyi Dang (): Unification Party Tongyi Jianguo Tongzhi Hui ( ): United National Reconstruction Comrades Association Tongyi Zhanxian : United Front Tongyi Zhanxian Gongzuo Bu ( ): United Front Work Department Tongyi Zhanxian Gongzuobu Zongjiao Shiwuju ( ): Religious Affairs Bureau of the United Front Department tongyi Zhongguo : reuniting China tongzhi : comrade, friend, someone who shares my life goal Tongzhi : emperor (r. 18621874) Tongzhi Weixin : Tongzhi Restoration Tongzhi Zhongxing : Tongzhi Restoration tongzhong : single race Tongzhou Tou shaoya (): Stealing the Roast Duck Toufa luan le : Dirt Touji fenzi : Opportunists Touming de hongluobo : The transparent carrot Tousheng : Ignominy touzi : dice To yo bijutsu sho shi : A concise history of Eastern art Toyo shi : Asian history Triads Zeng Youhe : Tseng Yuho tu : penal servitude Tuanjie bao : Unity tuanlian (): militia, irregular militias tuanti geju : organizational mode of association Tudi Gaige : Land Reform Tudi Gaige Fa : Land Reform Law
Tudi Geming Zhanzheng ( ): Agrarian Revolutionary War Tudi Guanli Fa : Land Administration Law Tudi Shen : Earth God Tudi Weiyuanhui : National Land Commission tuhua : drawing and painting Tuhua zhoukan (): Pictures weekly tui chen chu xin : weed through the old to bring forth the new Tuibian (): Metamorphosis Tuishou : Pushing Hands Tujiazu : Tujia minority tuli : local practice tulou : fortified communal earth dwellings, found in Fujian Provence Tulufan : Turfan Tumen : Earth gate Tumote : Tumed tunken shubian : clear the land and protect the frontier Tuo Delin Tuo Ming Tuoluocijizhuyi (): Trotskyism Tushanwan tuwen guanggao (): display advertisement Uchiyama Kakitsu Uchiyama Kanzo ukiyo-e Umehara Ryu zaburo Wafangdian wai : outer, outer world Waichao : Outer Court Waicheng : Outer City waihuo (): foreign products wailai zhengquan (): foreign power Waishang Touzi Tequan Xiangmu Zanxing Guiding : Provisional Regulations on Foreign-Investment Build-Operate-Transfer Projects waishengren : outsiders Waitan : Bund Waiwu Bu (): Ministry of Foreign Affairs waizi qiye : wholly foreign-owned enterprise
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Wan (): a monk Wan Jiabao () Wan Li () Wan Ren () Wan Yanhai Wang Anshi Wang Anyi Wang Canzhi Wang Chaowen Wang Chonghui Wang Daohan Wang Dongxing Wang Enmao Wang Fangyu Wang Fei : Faye Wong Wang Fuzhi Wang Guangqi Wang Guangyi Wang Guowei () Wang Hongwen Wang Hui (b. 1959) Wang Hui (16321717) Wang Huning Wang Jian Wang Jiawei (): Wong Kar-wai Wang Jiaxiang Wang Jie Wang Jinsong Wang Jingwei () Wang Jingwei zhuyi (): Wang Jingwei doctrine Wang Jiqian Wang Jiyuan Wang Juntao Wang Kangnian Wang Keping Wang Lequan Wang Li () Wang Lun Wang Luobin Wang Mang
Wang Meng (b. 1934) Wang Meng xiaoshuo baogao wenxue xuan : Selected novellas, stories, and reportage of Wang Meng Wang Ming Wang Ruoshui Wang Shaoao Wang Shaoguang Wang Shen Wang Shimin Wang Shiwei () Wang Shouren Wang Shuo Wang Shusheng Wang Sidao Wang Tao () Wang Tingjun Wang Tongzhao Wang Wenjuan Wang Wenxing () Wang Wuya : Wucius Wong Wang Xia Wang Xiang Wang Xianqian Wang xiansheng : Mr. Wang Wang Xianzhi () Wang Xiaoni Wang Xizhe Wang Xizhi Wang Yang Wang Yangming () Wang Yinzhi Wang Yirong Wang Yiting Wang Yongjiang Wang Yuande Wang Yuanlu Wang Yuanqi Wang Zhaoguo Wang Zhaojun : The Consort of Peace Wang Zhaoqing
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Wang Zhen Wang Zhengting Wang Zhenhe () Wang Zhiping wangdao : kingly way Wangfujing Wang-Gu huitan : Wang-Koo meeting Wangjiao kamen (): As Tears Go By Wanguo gongbao (): Chinese global magazine, Review of the times Wanguo gongfa (): Elements of International Law Wangxia Tiaoyue (): Treaty of Wangxia Wanlong Huiyi : Bandung Conference Wanmu Caotang (): academy established by Kang Youwei Wanquanhe : Wanquan River Wanr de jiu shi xin tiao : Playing for Thrills Wanshi liufang : Eternity Wanshi shibiao : Model teacher for ten thousand generations wanshixieshizhuyi : cynical realism Wanshoushan (): Longevity Hill, Wanshou Mountain Wanxi Junfa : Anhui Clique wei : guard station Wei Daoming Wei Ershen Wei gong, nong, bing fuwu : To serve the workers, peasants, and soldiers Wei Hui () Wei Jiangong Wei Jingshan Wei Jingsheng Wei Juxian wei lishi : false history Wei Yuan wei zengquan (): puppet government Wei Zhongguo wenhua jinggao shijie renshi xuanyan ( ): Chinese culture manifesto
weianfu : comfort women weiansuo : comfort station Weichang () Weichao : Wei dynasty Weicheng : Fortress besieged weida duoshou : great helmsman weida lingxiu : great leader Weifang Weihaiwei () Weihe : Wei River weijing fafa : laws covering criminal offenses Weiming muke xuan : Unnamed woodcuts weiqi (): go (board game) weiquan yundong : rights-protection movement, defense of rights movement Weisheng Bu (): Ministry of Health Weisheng Ju (): Sanitary Bureau weishi : consciousness only Weiting weiwu bianzheng lun : dialectical materialism weiwu lishi lun : historical materialism Weiwuer : Uygur Weiyijun : Valiant Army weiyuanhui zhuren : commission chairpersons wen : literary prose, the civil, writing, literature, culture, civilization wen bai yi du (): literary and colloquial readings of characters Wen Jiabao Wen Lou : Van Lau Wen Yiduo () wenbing : febrile diseases Wenchang Wenchuan wenda : literarily accomplished Weng Tonghe Weng Wenhao wenhua : culture Wenhua Bu : Ministry of Culture Wenhua Geming : Cultural Revolution wenhua jidutu : cultural Christians
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wenhua re (): culture fever wenjian : documents Wenjin Ge : Literary Ford Pavilion wenke : humanities and social sciences Wenmeizhai baihua shijianpu ( ): Hundred flowers poetry-writing paper from the Wenmei Studio wenming : civility, civilization wenming xi (): civilized drama, enlightened drama wenren hua (): literati painting Wenrenhua zhi jiazhi (): The value of literati painting Wensu Ge : Imperial Library wentan : literary scene wenwu : relics Wenwu Baohu Fa (): Cultural Relics Protection Law Wenxian Guan : Bureau of Documents Wenxiang Wenxin diaolong : The literary mind and the carving of dragons, a classic in literary criticism Wenxing Tiaoli (): a secondary code of the Ming dynasty Wenxuan : Selections Wenxuanpai : Wenxuan school wenxue (): literature Wenxue congbao (): Literary gazette Wenxue gailiang chuyi ( ): A modest proposal for literary reform wenxue shetuan (): literary societies Wenxue xunkan : Literature thrice monthly Wenxue Yanjiuhui (): Literary Research Association, Literary Association Wenxue zhoubao (): Literature Weekly wenyan : classical Chinese Wenyi bao : Literary gazette, Literature and arts magazine wenyi jiemu : literary and art program Wenyijia xiehui : Association of Chinese Literary Artists Wenzhou Wenzhou hua : Wenzhou dialect
Wenzhou moshi : Wenzhou model wenzi yishu : language art Wo ai weida de zuguo : I love the great homeland Wo Cha Wo de jiaoyu : My education Wo de qiansui han : My millennium Wo de xiongdi jiemei : Roots and Branches Wo de zizhuan : Memoirs of a Revolutionist Wo hu cang long : Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Wo neng bi ya : I Can Compete Wo shi ni baba : Im your father Wo zai Xia Cun de shihou : When I was in Xia Village Wo zheyi beizi (): In my lifetime Wo zouguo de lu : The road I walked Wolong Guojiaji Ziran Baohuqu : Wolong Wildlife Conservation Area Woren Wu : ancient state, dialect wu : the military Wu Bangguo () Wu Boxiong () Wu Changshi () Wu Changshuo () Wu Chuanyu Wu Dacheng () Wu Guanzhong Wu guo yu wu min (): My Country and My People Wu Hongxun Wu Hufan () Wu Huiming Wu Jiayou () wu ke woniu yundong (): shell-less snail movement Wu Kedu () Wu Liande (): Wu Lien-teh Wu Man Wu Meichun Wu Men (): Meridian Gate Wu Mi
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Wu Peifu () Wu qi gonghe ge : Five-colored-flag republic song Wu Shanzhuan Wu Shengli Wu Shiguang Wu Shujuan Wu Tingfang Wu Tong Wu Wan () Wu Wenying () Wu Woyao () Wu Xingfen Wu Yi Wu Yifang () Wu Youru () Wu Yuru () Wu Yusen (): John Woo Wu Yuzong (): Y. T. Wu Wu Zetian zhuan (): Lady Wu Wu Zhihui () Wu Zhongxin Wu Zijia wubao : five guarantees wubao : five treasures Wubei Xuetang : [Tianjin] Military Academy Wuchan Jieji Wenhua Da Geming : Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution Wuchang wuchanjieji zhuanzheng xia jixu geming : continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat wudan : military-female role type in Peking Opera Wuhan Wuhan Jingji Jishu Kaifaqu : Wuhan Economic and Technology Development District Wuhouci : Wuhou Temple Wuhu Wuji : The Promise Wujiashan Taishang Touziqu : Wujiashan Taiwan Investment District Wujing (): the Five Classics
wuju : Chinese dance-drama Wulanbatuo : Ulaanbaatar Wulanfu : Ulanhu wulitou (): moleitau screwball farce (Hong Kong humor) Wulong Yuan (): Black Dragon Compound Wulumuqi : Urumqi wulun : the five cardinal relationships, the five cardinal dyadic ties Wumenpai : Suzhou school Wuneng de liliang : Power of the powerless wu-qi ganxiao : May 7 cadre schools Wuquan Fa : Property Rights Law wusheng : martial-male role type in Peking Opera Wushou sumiao : Five sketches for piano wushu : martial arts Wushui shang de feizao paomo : Soap bubbles in the dirty water Wu-si jinian aiguo ge : Patriotic song commemorating May Fourth Wu-si jinian ge : May Fourth commemoration song Wu-Si yundong (): May Fourth movement Wusong Wusong Tielu : Wusong Railway Wusulijiang : Wusuli River Wutai jiemei : Two stage sisters Wutaishan : Mt. Wutai Wuwei youjun : Right Division of the Military Defense Army Wuwei zuojun : Left Division of the Military Defense Army Wuweijun : Military Defense Army wuwo (): without a self Wuxi wuxia : martial-arts genre of literature wuxian gongsi : unlimited companies wuxing : five punishments wuxing : five phases, five elements Wuxing Wuxu
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Wuxu Bianfa (): Hundred Days Reform Wuxu Liu Junzi : Six Gentlemen Wuxu zhengbian (): Coup of 1898 Wuya yu maque : Crows and sparrows Wuye Lan : Midnight Blue Wuyi Shanmai : Wuyi mountain range Wuying Dian : Hall of Martial Valor Wuyishan : Wuyi Mountains Wuyue : Five Sacred Mountains Wuyue Huahui (): Fifth Moon Group wuzei : cuttlefish wuzhi wenming : material civilization Wuzhishan : Mt. Wuzhi Wuzhou Wuzhuang Jingcha : Armed Police wuzi : commodities Xianshi Renshou Baoxian Gongsi (): Sincere Life Insurance Company Xi Jinping () Xi Rong Xi wang Changan (): Looking toward Changan Xi wo hou : Awaiting the deliverer Xi Xi Xi Zhongxun Xia Nai Xia Yan Xia Zengyou Xiachao : Xia dynasty xiafang : send down, downward transfer, demotion to manual labor xiagang : laid-off workers who remained affiliated with their company, unemployed Xiaguan () Xiamen (): Amoy Xiamen Dada : art group Xiamen Daxue : Xiamen University Xiamen Huaqiao Bowuguan : Xiamen Overseas Chinese Museum Xian
Xian Beilin Bowuguan : Xian Tablets Museum Xian Gao Xin Jishu Chanye Kaifaqu : Xian High-Tech Industry Development Zone Xian Jingji Kaifaqu : Xian Economic Development Zone Xian Shibian (): Xian Incident xian (): county xian : free time, leisure Xian furen : Madam Xian xian qi liang mu (): virtuous wife and good mother Xian Xinghai Xian Zuzhi Fa : County Organization Law Xiandai (): Les contemporaines Xiandai banhua : Modern prints Xiandai Banhua Hui : Modern Prints Society Xiandai meishu (): Modern art xiandai minjian huihua : modern folk painting xiandai nuxing : modern woman Xiandai shijie minghua ji : Master paintings of the modern world (book series) Xiandai xiaoshuo jiqiao chutan : A preliminary examination of modern fictional techniques xiandai Zhongguo Xiandai Zhongguo huaji : Modern Chinese painting pictorial Xianfa (): the Constitution Xianfeng (): emperor (r. 18511861) xianfeng wenxue (): avant-garde literature xianfeng xiaoshuo : avant-garde fiction xiang : administrative village, township, rural township Xiang Jingyu Xiang Jun : Hunan Army Xiang Nanjinglu shang hao Balian xuexi : Emulating the good Eighth Company of Nanjing Road (a campaign) Xiang xing san ji : Recollections of West Hunan Xiang Ying () Xiang Zhongfa Xiangdao zhoubao (): Guide weekly
380
Xianggang : Hong Kong Xianggang Daxue : University of Hong Kong Xianggang Huaren Xiyi Shuyuan : Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese Xianggang Jinhui Daxue (): Hong Kong Baptist University Xianggang Keji Daxue : Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Xianggang Nu Tongmeng : Womens Coali tion of Hong Kong Xianggang Zhongwen Daxue ( ): Chinese University of Hong Kong xianggui (): folk usage xiangji : township-level Xiangjiaba Shuidian Zhan : Xiangjiaba Hydropower Station Xiangjiang : Xiang River Xiangjiang pinglun : Xiang River review xiangjianpai (): rural reconstructionists Xianglian : Nostalgia, Longing for home Xiangpi ren : Rubber man Xiangpu xiangqi : Chinese chess Xiangrikui Yuehui : Sunflower Group Xiangshan Xiangshan : Fragrance Hill Xiangshan Fandian : Xiangshan Hotel xiangsu (): folk usage Xiangtan xiangtu : native-soil, regionalist, rural, homeland xiangtu sheying (): native-soil photography xiangtu xieshi (): rustic realism xiangtu ziranzhuyi huihua : nativesoil painting Xiangxi : West Hunan xiangxia : home village xiangyan paizi (): cigarette card Xiang-Yu xian : Xiangfan-Chongqing line xiangzhen qiye : township and village enterprises xianji : county-level xianjishi : county-level municipalities xianmi : indica rice
xianmu : worthy mother Xiannong Tan (): Altar of Agriculture Xianshi Baihuo Gongsi (): Sincere Department Stores Xianshi Baoxian Zhiye Gongsi ( ): Sincere Insurance and Investment Company Xianshi yizhong : A kind of reality Xianshi Youxian Gongsi : Sincere Company Limited Xianxiang tu (): a satirical painting Xianyang Xianyang Jichang : Xianyang Airport xianzheng (): constitutional government, constitutional rule xiao : filial piety Xiao Baozhuang : Baotown Xiao Ben Guanli Zixun Wenjian : School-Based Management Consultative Document Xiao cheng zhi lian : Love in a Small Town Xiao Douer : Sprout Xiao Erhei jiehun : Xiao Erhei gets married Xiao Fengxia : Helen Siu Xiao ger lia (): Little brothers xiao gongzhu : little empresses Xiao Haichun Xiao Hong () xiao huangti : little emperors Xiao Jingguang Xiao Jiuhua Si : Xiao Jiuhua Temple Xiao Jun () Xiao Le : C. D. Siu Xiao Ling Tong : a mobile-telecommunications service provider Xiao Lu Xiao Penglai Shuhua Hui : Xiao Penglai Calligraphy and Painting Society Xiao Qian () Xiao Shan xiao si Wang : the minor Four Wangs Xiao wanyi : Little Toys Xiao Wu Xiao Yishan ()
381
Xiao Youmei Xiao : Smiles xiaobao : tabloid newspaper Xiaochu dui Funu Yiqie Xingshi Qishi Gongyue : Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Xiaochu Yiqie Xingshi Zhongzu Qishi Guoji Gongyue : Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Xiaodaohui Qiyi (): Small Swords Uprising Xiaofangniu : Boys herding cattle, a traditional folk dance-drama xiaogang shengchandui : small production team Xiaojing : Classic of filial piety xiaokang : small welfare xiaokang shehui : small-welfare society xiaopin wen : little prose pieces xiaorenshu (): childrens book xiaoshou (): display of the decapitated head Xiaoshuo yuebao (): Fiction monthly, Short story magazine Xiaotun Xiaoxue jiaoshi zhi qi : The wife of a primary school teacher Xiaozhai : Little stockade Xiaozhen () xiaozu : party cells Xiaxiang ji : Going down to the countryside xiaxiang qingnian : youth sent to the countryside xiaxiang zhiqing : rusticated youth Xibei Huangtu Gaoyuan : Northwest Loess Plateau xibeifeng : northwest wind, a music style based on folk music of northwest China Xibu da kaifa : great western development scheme Xibu kaifa : development of the West Xidan Xidan minzhuqiang : Xidan democracy wall Xidanlu : Xidan Road xie : heterodox Xie Bingying
Xie Dongmin () Xie Fuzhi Xie Jin Xie Mian Xie Wanying () Xie Xuehong Xie zai rensheng bian shang : Marginalia of life Xie Zhiguang Xie Zhiliu () xiedou (): interlineage battles Xiehe Yixueyuan (): Union Medical College xiejiao : evil cults xieyi (): expressionistic brushwork, idea writing xieyihua : spontaneous style painting Xifanghua : Westernization Xigang Xihu : West Lake Xihu Guoli Yishuyuan ( ): West Lake National Art Academy xihua (): Western-style painting Xijiang : West River, Xi River Xikang Xikun Xiling Yinshe : Xiling Seal Society, Xiling Association of Seal Carvers Xiluodu Shuidian Zhan : Xiluodu Hydropower Station Ximeng rensheng (): Puppetmaster xin : trust; faithfulness to the original text xin : heart xin bihua : new murals Xin Changzhezng lushang de yaogun : Rock and roll on the new Long March Xin Dang (): New Party xin ganjuepai (): new sensationists xin geju : new music theater xin gelushi (): new regulated poetry Xin Gongsi Fa : 1946 New Company Law Xin Gudian Wutuan : Neo-Classic Dance Company
382
xin guohua : new national painting Xin Hua Chouzhen Hui : Singapore Chinese Relief Fund xin huapai : new-style painting Xin Hunan bao : New Hunan daily Xin meishu : New art, New fine arts Xin Meiti Xi : New Media Art Department xin minzhuzhuyi (): new democracy Xin minzhuzhuyi de zhengzhi yu xin minzhuzhuyi de wenhua : Politics and culture of the new democracy xin minzhuzhuyi geming : new democratic revolution Xin minzhuzhuyi lun : On new democracy Xin minzhuzhuyi shiqi de renmin minzhu tongyizhanxian : Peoples Democratic United Front for the New Democratic Era Xin nu xing : The New Woman xin nuxing : new woman Xin qingnian : La jeunesse, New youth Xin renkou lun : New population theory xin Ruxue (): new Confucianism xin shehuizhuyi nongcun : new socialist countryside Xin Shenghuo yundong (): New Life movement Xin shiji : New century Xin Shiji Tongyi Zhanxian : New Century United Front xin shiji wenxue : fiction of the new age Xin Shiqi Tongyi Zhanxian : New Era United Front Xin shixue (): New historiography xin shixue de kaishan (): pioneering modern historiography xin shuimo : new Chinese ink painting xin shuimohua yundong : new ink-painting movement Xin Si Jun (): New Fourth Army Xin Taiwanren : New Taiwanese Xin weishi lun : A new treatise on consciousnessonly Xin Wenhua yundong (): New Culture movement
xin wenrenhua : new literati painting xin wenxue (): new literature Xin Wenxue shiliao : New Literature materials xin xian zhi (): new county system xin xiaoshuo (): new fiction xin yimin : new emigrants Xin Yuan shi : New Yuan History Xin Zhui : Lady Xin Zhui xin zuopai : new left Xinan Lianhe Daxue : Southwest United University xinchao : new wave xinchao xiaoshuo : new-wave fiction Xincheng Yinhang : Xincheng Bank Xinchun Huazhan (): New Spring Art Exhibition xinfang ju : complaint offices xing : the nature of something Xing she, xing zi? , ? Is it socialist or capitalist? Xing Zhong Hui (): Revive China Society xingan huilan (): conspectus of criminal cases Xinganling : Xingan Mountains Xingbu : Ministry of Justice xingcunzai : sexuality xingfa : criminal law Xingfen laoren Xingfen nushi Xinghuo liaoyuan : A single spark can start a prairie fire Xingjiang Bayi Gangtie Youxian Gongsi : BaYi Steel xingling (): character Xinglongwa wenhua : Xinglongwa culture xinglu : laws relating to the Board of Punishment xinglu caoan : draft of the criminal code xingming muyou : private legal secretaries Xingshe : Star Society Xingshi Minshi Susongfa Caoan : Draft Code of Criminal and Civil Procedure Xingshi Susong Fa : Criminal Procedure Law xingshipai : forces and features school
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xingshu (): semicursive script, running script xingxiang : sexuality Xingxing : Stars Xingxing Huahui (): Stars Painting Group Xingxing Meizhan : Stars Exhibition Xingxing yundong : Stars movement Xingyi xingyishi : sexuality Xingzheng Chengxu Fa : Administrative Procedure Law Xingzheng Chufa Fa : Administrative Punishment Law xingzheng cun : administrative rural area Xingzheng Fagui Zhiding Chengxu Zanxing Tiaoli : Tentative Regulations on the Procedure for Enacting Administrative Laws and Regulations Xingzheng Jiancha Fa : Administrative Supervision Law xingzheng jigou zhiquan tiaozheng quan : administrative-organization adjustment right Xingzheng Susong Fa : Administrative Litigation Law Xingzheng Yuan : Executive Yuan Xinhai Geming : 1911 Revolution, Xinhai Revolution Xinhua : New China Xinhua ribao : New China daily Xinhua She : New China News Agency Xinhua Shudian : New China Publishing House Xinhua Yinhang : Sin-hua Trust and Savings Bank Xinhua Yishu Zhuanke Xuexiao : Xinhua Art College Xinhua zidian (): New China character dictionary Xining xinjian (): letter paper Xinjian Lujun : Newly Created Army Xinjiang Xinjiang Shengchan Jianshe Bingtuan : Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps xinjiao ziyou : freedom of religious belief
Xinjiapo Fujian Hui : Singapore Fujian Association Xinjiapo Zhonghua Zongshang Hui : Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce Xinjiekou Xinjing Xinjun (): New Army, New Armies Xinkedu Xiaozu : New Measurement Group Xinlang : Sina, Sina.com xinmin : new citizen Xinmin congbao (): New citizen journal Xinning xinpai : new-style school xinren : new man xinsheng dai : newborn generation Xinsheng Zhaodai Suo : New Life Institute xinshi (): new poetry Xinsijun Shibian (): New Fourth Army Incident Xintiandi Xinwen Chuban Zongshu : General Administration of Press and Publication Xinwen Chubanshu : State Press and Publication Administration Xinwen diaocha : News probe xinwen sheying : journalistic photography Xinwenbao : Newspaper Xinwenju : Government Information Office xinwenzhi (): leaflets about things heard recently Xinxi Chanye Bu : Ministry of Information Industry Xinxihua Gongzuo Lingdao Xiaozu : National Information Infrastructure Steering Committee xinxihua tiaojianxia jubu zhanzheng : local wars under conditions of informationization Xinxin Baihuo Gongsi (): Sun Sun Department Store, Xinxin Company xinxue (): new learning Xinxue weijing kao (): Inquiry into the forged classics of the Xin period, Liu Xins falsification of classics Xinyang
384
Xinyue : Crescent moon Xinyue She : Crescent Moon Society Xinyue Shudian : Crescent Moon Press xinzheng : new policy, new deal [for the masses] Xiong Bingkun Xiong Shili Xiong Xiling Xiongdi : Brothers xipi : a style of operatic singing Xishan : Tay Son xishi : trivial cases Xishi jian : A mirror to analyze the world Xishuangbanna Guojiaji Ziran Baohu Qu : Xishuangbanna Wildlife Conservation Area xisi : sycee (literally, pure silk), silver ingot xiucai : cultivated talent, prefectural graduate; the degree xiuding falu dachen : commissioner of law revision Xiuding Falu Guan (): Bureau for the Revision of Laws xiuxian : leisure xiuxian chanye : leisure industry xiuxian wenhua : leisure culture xiuzheng xinglu caoan : revised draft of the criminal code Xiwang : Hope Xixia Xiyan : Wedding Banquet Xiyin Shuyuan : Xiyin Academy Xiyou Manji (): Journey to the West Xiyouji (): Journey to the West Xiyuan : West Garden (in Suzhou) Xiyuan : Imperial Western Garden Xiyucheng Yanliao zhuang : Xiyucheng Dye Company Xizang : Tibet Xizang Zizhiqu : Tibetan Autonomous Region Xu Beihong () Xu Bing Xu Changhui
Xu Dazhang Xu Deheng Xu Dishan Xu Guangda Xu Guangping () Xu Guanjie (): Sam Hui Xu Guansan Xu Guanwen (): Michael Hui Xu Haidong Xu Jingya Xu Ke : Tsui Hark Xu Lai () Xu Lei Xu Maoyong Xu Naiji () Xu Sangeng Xu Sanguan mai xue ji : Chronicle of a blood merchant Xu Shen () Xu shi xiongdi (): Hui brothers Xu Shichang Xu Tong Xu Xiangqian Xu Xiaobing Xu Xilin Xu Xing Xu Xingzhi Xu Yabao : Chu-apoo Xu Yongqing Xu Yongyue Xu Zhenya Xu Zhijing Xu Zhimo Xu Zhongshu Xu Zhuodai Xuanchuan Bu : Department of Propaganda xuanchuan sheying (): propaganda photography xuangou : selective purchases Xuannan Xuanqing
385
Xuantong : emperor (r. 19091911), Puyi Xuanwuhu : Xuanwu Lake Xuanzang Xue luo zai Zhongguo de tudi shang : Snow is falling on the land of China Xue qing : Clearing after the snow Xue Rengui dongzheng (): Xue Rengui goes on an eastern expedition Xue Wu Xue Yue Xuebu (): Board of Education xuebu : academic division Xuehai Tang (): Sea of Learning Academy, Xuehai Academy xuehengpai : critical review group Xuesheng zazhi : The student magazine xueshu (): moral learning in Wei Yuans Essays on Qing Imperial Statecraft xuetang ge : school songs xuetang yuege : school songs Xuexiao Guanli Xin Cuoshi : School Management Initiative xueyuanpai : academist, academist painting Xugu Xujiahui Bowuguan : Siccawei Museum xujun gonghe : titular monarchical republic xun : Chinese ocarina Xun Kuang xungen : seeking roots xungen re : roots fever xungen wenxue (): root-searching literature, roots fiction Xunhua xunhuan piao (): return ticket Xunhuan ribao (): Daily circulator, Universal daily (Hong Kong newspaper) xunyan yushi (): salt censor xunzheng (): political tutelage, tutelage of governance, party tutelage Xunzheng Gangling (): Charter of Political Tutelage Xunzheng shiqi : period of political tutelage Xunzi
Xuzhou ya : literary elegance Ya Xian Yadong : Yatung Ya-Fei Huiyi : Asian-African Conference yahang : government-licensed brokers Yalujiang : Yalu River Yaluo Zhanzheng (): Arrow War Yamaguchi Yoshiko yamen : official quarters Yan di : Yan emperor, Shennong Yan Fu () Yan Haiping Yan Han Yan Hui Yan Jiaqi Yan Lei Yan Li () Yan Lianke () Yan Wenliang Yan Wenming Yan Xishan () Yan Yangchu : Y. C. James Yen Yan Yuan Yan Zhenqing () Yanan Yanan Nuzi Daxue : Yanan Womens College Yanan Wenyi Zuotanhui ( ): Yanan Forum on Literature and Art Yanan Zhengfeng yundong : Yanan Rectification campaign Yanbian yanda : strike-hard campaign yang (): active principle Yang Chengye Yang Chongyi Yang Dechang (): Edward Yang Yang Dezhi Yang Fudong Yang Hansheng
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Yang Hucheng () yang huiban (): foreign inspector Yang Jiang Yang Keyang Yang Lian Yang Lufang Yang Mingzhai Yang Mo () Yang Naiwu Yang Rui : Yang Rae Yang Sen Yang Shangkun () Yang Shanshen : Yang Shen-Sum Yang Shenxiu () Yang Shoujing () Yang Tingbao () Yang Wenhui () Yang Xiguang Yang Xiuqiong Yang Xueyao Yang Yang Yang Yanping () Yang Yiping () Yang Yunsong Yang Zengxin Yang Zhenning (): Chen Ning Franklin Yang Yang Zhuanguang : C. K. Yang yangban xi (): model operas, model theater yangge : rice-seedlings folk song and dance form Yangguang canlan de rizi : In the Heat of the Sun yanghang : trading companies (authorized foreign traders) Yangjingbang she guan (): official installed north of the Yangjing Creek yanglao di : land for nurturing the old Yangliuqing Yangmen nu jiang (): Women warriors of the Yang family yangping liang : yangping tael, local weight measure of silver used in Fujian province
Yangpu Yangshan shenshui gang : Yangshan deepwater port Yangshao yanguan : speaking official, censor yangwu : foreign affairs yangwu yundong (): foreign-affairs movement, Self-Strengthening movement, Westernization movement Yangxin Dian (): Cultivating the Mind Hall Yangzhou Yangzhou Baguai : the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou Yangzhou huafang lu : Record of the painted boats of Yangzhou Yangzhou huapai (): Yangzhou school of painting Yangzhou xuepai : Yangzhou school of learning Yangzijiang (): Yangzi River Yanji Yanjing Daxue (): Yenching University Yanjing Jushe : Yenching Drama Society Yanjingshe : Cobra (band) yanke : salt tax Yanke Tiju Si (): Salt Tax Supervisorate yanlu : avenue of words, road of speech yanpiao (): salt tickets yanqing xiaoshuo : erotic fiction yanrong : karst yanshang : licensed salt merchant Yanshi Yanshousi : Prolonging Life Monastery yanshui : gabelle, salt tax Yantai Yantai Tiaoyue : Zhifu (Chefoo) Convention Yanwu Jihe Zongsuo (): [Sino-foreign] Salt Inspectorate Yanye Yinhang : Yien Yieh Commercial Bank yanyin (): salt tickets, salt licensing yanyun shi (): salt distribution commissioner yanyun si (): salt distribution commission yanzheng (): salt administration
387
Yanzhi : Rouge Yanzhou Yao () Yao Hua Yao Ke Yao Ming Yao Wenyuan Yao (): Medicine yaogun yinyue : rock music Yaozu : Yao minority Yapian Zhanzheng (): Opium Wars Yasui Sotaro Yayin Xiaoji : Yayin Opera Ensemble Yazhou Kaifa Yinhang : Asian Development Bank Yazhou Minzhuhua Shijie Luntan : World Forum for Democratization in Asia yazu : rental deposit Ye Chengzhong Ye de yan : Eyes of the night Ye Dehui Ye Gongchuo () Ye Jianying () Ye Mingchen Ye Qiangwei : Wild Rose Ye Qianyu () Ye Shengtao () Ye Shi Ye Ting Ye yan : The Banquet Yebaihehua : Wild lilies Yecao : Wild Grass Yelaixiang : Tuberose Yesheng Dongwu Baohu Fa : Wild Animals Protection Law Yesheng Zhiwu Baohu Tiaoli : Wild Plants Protection Regulations Yeshi ji : Also so collection Yesui She : Wild Grain Society yezi xi (): card games yi (): righteousness; obligation Yi : Change (concerto series)
Yi ban shi huoyan, yi ban shi haishui , : Half flame, half sea water Yi Bingshou yi fa zhi guo : rule the country by law yi gong dai gan : replacements of cadres with workers yi gong dai zhen : food for work yi ren wei ben : people-centered development yi shendao shejiao : instructing the people through the worship of the Gods Yi sheng tan xi : A Sigh yi wen hui you : making friends through literature Yi yao chifan, er yao jianshe , : Food first, construction second Yiba yi she (): Eighteen Arts Society yibian dao : leaning to one side yibian yiguo : one country on each side of the Taiwan Strait yibihua : spontaneous-style painting yichan : heritage Yichang Yichang fengbo : A crisis Yidairen : A generation yidui fufu zhi sheng yige haizi zhengce : one-child policy Yi-erba jinian ge : January 28 commemoration song yifu yiqi : monogamy yige guojia, liangge zhidu : one country, two systems Yige he bage : One and Eight Yige ren de shengjing : One mans bible yige Zhongguo, ge zi biaoshu , oneChina policy, to be interpreted according to each partys perspective yige Zhongguo yuanze : one-China principle yigou : negotiated purchases Yiguan : Arts overview, Art view Yiguandao (): Persistent Way, Way of Penetrating Unity yiguo liangzhi : one country, two systems Yihang : First line Yihe Yuan (): Summer Palace, Garden of Sustenance in Peace
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Yihequan : Boxers Yihetuan (): Boxers Yihetuan zhi Luan (): Boxer Uprising Yihexuan Jielibu : Ee Hoe Hean Club Yijing : Book of changes 1985 Xin Kongjian 1985: New Space Exhibition yijue (): breaking the bond yikou tongshang : Canton System yilang : court gentleman for consultation yilei shangpin : category-one goods yili (): ethics and metaphysics Yili Ili yimin : righteous people, Boxers yin : illicit, lascivious, immoral yin (): latent principle Yin Chengzong Yin Guangzhong Yin Rugeng Yin Xiuzhen Yin Zhongrong Yinbingshi shihua (): Poetry talk from the ice drinkers studio Yinchang Yinchao : Yin dynasty, Shang dynasty Yinchuan Yingguo Yazhou Wenhui Bei Zhongguo Zhihui : North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Yinghe Yinghua zhi ge : The song of blossoms yingji min : British subject yingming lingxiu : clairvoyant leader Yinguang Yingxiong : Hero yingyang (): Mexican-minted silver coins yingyu (): quota surplus yingzao : construction, builders standard of length Yingzao fashi (): Building methods, Building standards yinhang : bank Yinshi nannu : Eat Drink Man Woman
yinshuiren : pilots yin-yang (): latent and active states yinyuan (): silver coins imported from Spanish America Yinyue Jiangxi Hui : Music Discussion Society Yinzhou yipian sansha : loose sheet of sand Yishi bao (): Yishi daily yishihui : local council yishu pantu : traitor to art yishu sheying : art photography Yitaixing Matou : Nee Tai Shing Wharves Yitaixing Meihao : Nee Tai Shing Coal Merchant yitian liangzhu (): one field, two owners; dual land ownership yitiaobian (): single-whip method Yitong zhi : National gazetteer Yiwu suoyou : Have nothing yiwu yi : compulsory military service yixi zhi di : an important seat Yixingxian : Yixing County yixue (): charity school Yiyongjun jinxingqu : March of the volunteers, national anthem of the Peoples Republic of China yiyuan : parliament yizheng wang (): prince counselor Yizhou shuangji (): Two oars of the boat of art Yizu : Yi minority yoga : Western painting, Western-style painting Yokohama Shokin Ginko : Yokohama Specie Bank Yokoyama Taikan yong bu jia fu : to never increase the tax Yong shi wo ai : Lost My Love Yongan Baihuo Gongsi (): Wing On Department Stores Yongding Men (): Gate of Eternal Settlement Yongdinghe : Yongding River Yonghegong : a Tibetan Buddhist temple in Beijing
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Yongjia shigong xuepai : Yongjia utilitarian school of thought Yongjiang : Yong River Yongsheng Shangdian : Yongsheng Company yongying : mercenary armies Yongzheng : emperor (r. 17231735) you di shen ru : lure the enemy in deep You Dian Bu : Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications you hong you zhuan : both red and professional, red and expert you jihua de shangpin jingji : planned market economy You sheng yu wu : Being itself is a product of nonbeing you wo : have a self Youchai : Postman youeryuan : kindergarten youji shifan xuetang : advanced teachers colleges Youlian Yingpian Gongsi ( ): Youlian Film Studio Youling youmin : floating population Youxi bao : Entertainment youxian gongsi : limited liability company youxian guangbo : line broadcasting youyi (): postal service youyi diyi, bisai dier , : friendship first, competition second Youyi Ouzhou Shangcheng : Continental Emporium Youzheng ChujinYinhang : Postal Remittances and Savings Bank Youzheng Shuju (): Youzheng Publishing House, Youzheng Book Company youzhiyuan : kindergarten yu : desire Yu Yu Bingnan Yu Dafu () Yu Feian Yu Feng
Yu Guangyuan Yu Hua () Yu Jianhua Yu Kun Yu Lianyuan Yu Luoke yu mi zhi xiang : land of rice and fish Yu Pingbo Yu Rizhang : David Yui Yu Weichao Yu Xiwei Yu Youhan Yu Yue Yu Zhengsheng Yu Zhengxie Yu Zhong Yu, shashasha , : Gentle rain Yunan yuan : garden yuan : unit of Chinese currency Yuan Changying Yuan Dahua Yuan Dexing Yuan Heping : Yuen Woo-ping Yuan Longping Yuan Mei Yuan shi : Yuan history Yuan Shikai () yuan xushi : metanarrative yuanbao (): silver ingot Yuanchao : Yuan dynasty Yuanchao : Yamen courrier yuandong bingfu : sickman of the Far East Yuanjiang : Yuan River yuanlou : circular structures Yuanming Yuan (): Old Summer Palace, Garden of Perfect Brightness Yuanmingyuan Huajia Cun : Yuanmingyuan Artists Village Yuanqiang : On strengthening Yuanshan Fandian (): Grand Hotel
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yuanshi : academician, honorary member yuanyang hudie pai : mandarin duck and butterfly school yuanyang hudie xiaoshuo ( ): mandarin ducks and butterflies fiction Yuanye : The Wilderness Yuanye : The craft of gardens yuanzuo (): collective responsibility Yuchanyan Yuchi Yudai Qiao (): Jade Belt Bridge Yudaxiang : a company Yuejing : Classic of music Yue : Yue (Cantonese) language group Yue Fei yuefenpai hua (): calendar poster Yuehua Shuyuan (): Yuehua Academy Yueju (): Cantonese Opera Yuelu Shuyuan : Yuelu Academy Yuexia xiaojing : Under moonlight Yuexiu Yueyar (): Crescent Moon Yueye ting qin : Listening to a Chinese lute on a moonlit night Yuezun Yugu Yuhaixian : Yuhai County Yujun yuke : preparatory program Yuli hun : Jade pearl spirit Yulin yulu ge : musical settings of the quotations of Mao Zedong yumai (): prepurchase Yumen Youtian : Yumen Oilfield Yun Shouping Yungang yundong : campaigns, movements Yunmen Wuji : Cloud Gate Theatre Ballet Troupe Yunnan yunpan (): second assistant salt controller Yunyou (): Wandering among the clouds
Yuquan Shan : Jade Spring Hill Yushan Yushima Shengtang : Yushima Temple Yushu Yusi (): Tattler Yusuan Gongzuo Weiyuanhui : Budgetary Work Committee yusuanwai shouru : extrabudgetary revenues Yuwai huihua liuru zhongtu kao : Research on the introduction of Western painting in China Yuxiang Yuyao Yuye Fa : Fishery Law yuyi (): imperial physicians Yuyuan Shuhua Shanhui ( ): Yu Garden Charitable Association of Calligraphy and Paintings Yuyue xianxian zhuan : Portraits and Biographies of Illustrious Forebears from Yuyue Yuzhou feng (): Cosmic wind Zai bie Kangqiao (): A second farewell to Cambridge Zai ji xiao duzhe (): More letters to young readers Zai jiulou shang (): Upstairs in the tavern Zai na yaoyuan de difang : In that faraway place Zai Yanan Wenyi Zuotanhui shang de jianghua : Talks at the Yanan Forum on Literature and Art zaihuang : natural disaster Zaili Jiao : teaching of the abiding principle zang xiang : visceral manifestation zangfu : organs Zangshu : Book of burial Zanxing xin xinglu buchong tiaoli : Provisional supplementary new laws and regulations Zao yangfan shu (): Treatise on the preparation of Western meals Zaojun : Stove God, Kitchen God Zaoshen : Stove God, Kitchen God Zatan Sulian : Talks on the Soviet Union
391
zawen (): satiric miscellaneous-style essay, feuilleton Ze ou ji : Choosing a wife zeli (): model cases (collections of edicts and regulations extracted from precedent cases) Zeng Guofan () Zeng Liansong Zeng Ming Zeng Peiyan Zeng Pu () Zeng Qi Zeng Qinghong () Zeng Xi Zeng Yefa (): Tseng Yip-fat Zeng Youzhen Zeng Zhuangxiang () Zengcheng zhaijidi : residential-housing land Zhan Tianyou Zhan Wang zhang : beating with the heavy stick Zhang Ailing (): Eileen Chang Zhang Aiping Zhang Bao () Zhang Binglin Zhang Bojun () Zhang Cha Zhang Chonghe Zhang Chongren Zhang Chunqiao Zhang Daqian () Zhang Dejiang Zhang Fengyi Zhang Geng Zhang Guangren () Zhang Guangtian Zhang Guangyu () Zhang Guangzhi : Chang Kwang-chih, K. C. Chang Zhang Guorong : Leslie Cheung Zhang Guotao () Zhang Hanhui
Zhang Heng () Zhang Henshui Zhang Hongbao Zhang Huimei (): Gulilai Amit Zhang Huiyan Zhang Jian Zhang Jiluan () Zhang Jingjiang () Zhang Junli Zhang Junmai (): Carsun Chang Zhang Kebiao Zhang Kesha () Zhang Leping () Zhang Liangying : Jane Zhang Zhang Lunying () Zhang Luoxing () Zhang Mojun () Zhang Peili Zhang Ping Zhang Qun Zhang Shangpu Zhang Shanzi () Zhang Shicheng Zhang Shu Zhang Taiyan Zhang tianshi (): Zhang heavenly master Zhang Tianyi () Zhang Wang Zhang Wenkang Zhang Wentian () Zhang Xiangyu Zhang Xiaogang Zhang Xinsheng () Zhang Xiong () Zhang Xueliang () Zhang Xueyou : Jacky Cheung Hok-Yau Zhang Xun () Zhang Yimou Zhang Yin Zhang Yingxu () Zhang Yinhuan
392
Zhang Yonghe (): Yung Ho Chang Zhang Youyi () Zhang Yuan (b. 1963) Zhang Yuan (18991983) () Zhang Yuguang () Zhang Yunyi Zhang Zai Zhang Zeduan () Zhang Zhengquan () Zhang Zhidong () Zhang Zhizhong Zhang Zhong () Zhang Zhongjing Zhang Zhongxing Zhang Zhunli () Zhang Zizhong (): a play by Lao She Zhang Zongchang Zhang Zongyu () Zhang Zuolin () zhangcao : archaistic forms of semicursive script Zhanggeer (): Jehangir Zhanghua Maorong Fangzhi Gongsi (): China Wool Manufacturing Company zhanghui xiaoshuo : episodic novel Zhangjiakou Zhangwu zhi (): Treatise on superfluous things Zhangzhou Zhangzhuang : Longbow village Zhanjiang Zhantai : Platform zhanyou : army comrade zhanzhang : felt tents Zhao Erfeng Zhao Erxun Zhao Hongben () Zhao Lian : moustache Zhao Zhao Lisheng Zhao Mengfu Zhao Shaoang ()
Zhao Shiyan () Zhao Shou () Zhao Shuli () Zhao Wuji () Zhao Xingdao Zhao Yannian Zhao Yuanren : Yuen Ren Chao Zhao Zhiqian () Zhao Zichen (): T. C. Chao Zhao Ziyang Zhao Ziyue (): a novel by Lao She zhaojia : supplementary payments zhaotie : difference between lands original price and current value Zhaozhuang Zhedong : eastern Zhejiang Zhejiang Zhejiang Daxue (): Zhejiang University Zhejiang Diyi Shifan Xuexiao : Zhejiang First Normal School Zhejiang Meishu Xueyuan : Zhejiang Academy of Fine Arts, Zhejiang Art Academy Zhejiang Shiye Yinhang : Zhejiang Industrial Bank Zhejiang Shuju (): Zhejiang Printing Office Zhejiang Yunda Fengli Fadian Gongcheng Youxian Gongsi : Zhejiang Windey [sic.] Wind Generating Engineering Co. zhen : town, market town, nonadministrative town, urban township Zhen ge dai dan : The Vigil of a Nation Zhen xianshi lun : The true realism Zhenbaodao : Zhenbao Island Zhendan Daxue : Zhendan University zheng : orthodox Zheng Chang Zheng Chenggong () Zheng Chouyu () zheng fengsu : reforming the customs Zheng Guanying () Zheng He () Zheng Jin
393
Zheng Junli () Zheng Kai () Zheng Mantuo () Zheng Shan Zheng Wanlong Zheng Wuchang Zheng Xuan Zheng Yi (): a pirate Zheng Yi (b. 1947) Zheng Yi sao () Zheng Yuxiu () Zheng Zhenduo () Zheng Zhengqiu zhenge : nonnegotiable tax Zhengfa Weiyuanhui : Commission in Charge of Politics and Law, Political and Legal Commission zhengfeng yundong (): rectification movement Zhenghong qi xia (): Under the plain red banner zhengli guogu (): ordering the national heritage zhengqi fenli : separation of government and enterprises, separation of political and business functions Zhengquan Fa : Securities Law zhengshi yuangong : formal employee zhengshu (): standard script Zhengwu Yuan : Administrative Affairs Council, Government Administrative Council Zhengyang Men (): Due South Gate, Zhengyang Gate Zhengyi : Orthodox Unity order of Daoist clerics Zhengzai xiang : Just now thinking Zhengzhi guanbao zhangcheng ( ): Regulations for Official Political Newspapers zhengzhi popu : political pop zhengzhi renwu : political tasks zhengzhi shiti : political entity Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi (): Political Consultative Conference Zhengzhou Zhenhai Zhenjiang
zhenjie (): chastity zhenjiu : acupuncture Zhenwu Xuexiao : Shinbu Military School Zhenxiang huabao : True record (art magazine) Zhenzhen Zhepai : the Zhejiang school Zhexi : western Zhejiang zhi : treatise zhi : wisdom Zhi li wei gong : Exert strength in the public interest Zhian Guanli Chufa Tiaoli : Regulations on Security Administration and Punishment Zhibao : Zhili times zhiduwai shouru : off-budgetary revenues Zhifen shichang (): Rouge and powder market zhifu : prefect Zhifu : Chefoo zhigong daibiao hui : workers congresses Zhigong Dang (): Public Interest Party, Zhigong Party zhigong renyuan : [urban] staff and workers Zhigong Tang : Chinese Freemasons Society, Chee Kong Tong Zhiheng Jingshe : Zhiheng Monastery Zhihuang quanfa : Complete methods to control locusts Zhijiaopai (): Vocational Education Society zhijie touzi : foreign direct investment Zhijie Zizhu Jihua : Direct Subsidy Scheme Zhili zhili zhou : autonomous department Zhimo de shi (): Zhimos poems Zhina Nei Xueyuan : Chinese Inner Studies Academy Zhina zhi ye : China Night zhiqian : mint coins Zhiqu Weihushan : Taking Tiger Mountain by strategy zhishi fenzi : intellectuals, knowledgeable elements zhishi qingnian : educated youth zhiti (): administrative fundamentals
394
zhiwai faquan (): extraterritoriality Zhiwu Yanjiusuo : Institute of Botany zhixian (): county magistrate zhixiashi : municipalities under the jurisdiction of the central government, independent municipalities zhiyin : friend, someone who knows my sounds zhizao ju (): imperial silk factories Zhong Yao () Zhongcai Fa : Arbitration Law Zhongchangqi Kexue Jishu Fazhan Gangyao : Medium to Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology zhongdian : key zhongdian renkou : targeted persons Zhongdian Zangzu : Gyalthang Tibetans Zhong-Fa Zhanzheng (): Sino-French War Zhonggong Zhongyang Xuanchuan Bu : Central Propaganda Department zhonggu lou : bell and drum towers Zhongguancun Zhongguancun Keji Yuanqu : Zhongguancun Science Park Zhongguo : China Zhongguo binwei dongwu hongpishu : China red book on endangered faunas Zhongguo Chukou Shangpin Jiaoyi Zhongxin : Chinese Export Commodities Fair Center Zhongguo da baike quanshu : Comprehensive encyclopedia sinica Zhongguo Dangan Xuehui : Chinese Organization of Archivists Zhongguo de xibei jiao (): The northwest corner of China Zhongguo Dier Lishi Dangan Guan : Number Two Archives Zhongguo Dianli Touzi Jituan Gongsi : China Power Investment Corporation Zhongguo Dianxin : China Telecom Zhongguo Dianzi Xinxi Chanye Fazhan Yanjiuyuan : China Center for Information Industry Development
Zhongguo Diaoban Yinshua Bowuguan (): China Block Printing Museum Zhongguo Diyi Lishi Dangan Guan : Number One Archives Zhongguo Ertong Fazhan Gangyao : National Plans of Action for Children Zhongguo Fazhan Yinhang : Development Bank of China Zhongguo Fojiao Hui : Chinese Buddhist Association (Taiwan) Zhongguo Fojiao Xiehui : Buddhist Association of China, Chinese Buddhist Association Zhongguo Fuli Hui : China Welfare Institute Zhongguo Gaige Fazhan Yanjiuyuan : China Institute of Reform and Development Zhongguo Geming Bowuguan : Museum of Chinese Revolution Zhongguo Gongchandang (): Chinese Communist Party Zhongguo Gongchanzhuyi Qingniantuan : Chinese Communist Youth League Zhongguo Gongmin Churujing Guanli Fa : Law on the Administration of the Exit and Entry of Citizens Zhongguo Gongshang Yinhang : Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Zhongguo gudai fushi yanjiu : Researches into ancient Chinese costume Zhongguo gudai jianzhu shi : A history of traditional Chinese architecture Zhongguo gudai shehui yanjiu ( ): A study of ancient Chinese society Zhongguo Guji Yizhi Baohu Xiehui : International Council on Monuments and Sites, China Zhongguo Guodian Jituan Gongsi : National Power Group, China Guodian Corporation Zhongguo Guoji Jingji Jishu Jiaoliu Zhongxin : China International Center for Economic and Technical Exchanges Zhongguo Guoji Jingji Maoyi Zhongcai Weiyuanhui : China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission Zhongguo Guojia Chubanju : China National Publishing Administration
395
Zhongguo Haiguan Zong Shuimu Si (): Inspector General of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service Zhongguo Haiguan Zong Shuimu Sishu (): Office of the Inspector General of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service Zhongguo Haishi Zhongcai Weiyuanhui : China Maritime Arbitration Commission Zhongguo Haiyang Daxue : Chinese Ocean University Zhongguo Hegongye Jituan Gongsi : China National Nuclear Corporation Zhongguo hua : Chinese painting Zhongguo Hua Hui (): Chinese Painting Society Zhongguo huaxue quanshi : Complete history of Chinese painting Zhongguo Huaxue Yanjiuhui ( ): Society for the Study of Chinese Painting, Chinese Painting Research Society Zhongguo huihua shi (): A history of Chinese painting Zhongguo Huihua Yanjiusuo : Chinese Painting Research Center Zhongguo Hulian Wangluo Xinxi Zhongxin : China National Network Information Center Zhongguo Jiankang Jiaoyu Yanjiusuo : China Health Education Research Institute Zhongguo jianshe : China reconstructs (magazine) Zhongguo Jianshe Yin Gongsi : China Development Finance Corporation Zhongguo Jianshe Yinhang : China Construction Bank Zhongguo jianzhu (): Chinese architect Zhongguo Jianzhu Gongcheng Zong Gongsi : China State Construction Engineering Corporation Zhongguo jianzhu shi (): A history of Chinese architecture Zhongguo Jianzhushi Xuehui ( ): Chinese Society of Architects Zhongguo Jiaoyu Yanjiu Wang : China Education and Research Network
Zhongguo Jibing Yufang Kongzhi Zhongxin : Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention Zhongguo Jinchukou Yinhang : ExportImport Bank of China Zhongguo Jidujiao Sanzi Aiguo Yundong Weiyuanhui : National Committee of the Three-Selfs Patriotic Movement of the Protestant Churches in China Zhongguo Jingji Yanjiu Zhongxin : China Center for Economic Research Zhongguo Jingju Yuan : China Peking Opera Institute Zhongguo Jinshi Shuhua Yiguan Xuehui : Chinese Epigraphy, Calligraphy, and Painting Study Society Zhongguo Junshi Kexue Yanjiuyuan : Chinese Academy of Military Sciences Zhongguo Keji Daxue : University of Science and Technology Zhongguo Kexue Guanli Xiehui : China Institute of Scientific Management Zhongguo Kexue Jishu Guan : Museum of Chinese Science and Technology Zhongguo Kexue Jishu Xiehui : China Association for Science and Technology Zhongguo Kexue Yuan : Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhongguo keyi shuobu : China can say no Zhongguo Lianhe Zhipian Gufen Gongsi (): China United Productions Zhongguo Liantong : China Unicom Zhongguo Lishi Bowuguan : National Museum of Chinese History, Museum of Chinese History Zhongguo lishi yanjiu fa ( ): Methods for the study of Chinese history Zhongguo Luxing Jutuan ( ): China Traveling Drama Troupe, China Traveling Dramatic Company Zhongguo Meishu Guan : National Art Museum of China, China Art Gallery Zhongguo meishu xiaoshi : A concise history of Chinese art Zhongguo Meishu Xueyuan : China Academy of Art
396
Zhongguo Meishujia Xiehui : Chinese Artists Association, National Artists Society Zhongguo Minbing : Peoples Militia Zhongguo minghua ji : Famous Chinese paintings Zhongguo Minquan Baozhang Tongmeng : China League for Civil Rights Zhongguo minshi xiguan daquan ( ): Corpus of civil customs of China Zhongguo Minzhu Cujin Hui ( ): China Association for Promoting Democracy Zhongguo Minzhu Dang : China Democracy Party Zhongguo Minzhu Jianguo Hui ( ): China Democratic National Construction Association Zhongguo Minzhu Tongmeng ( ): China Democratic League, Democratic League of China Zhongguo Minzu Jiefang Xingdong Weiyuanhui (): China Liberation Action Committee Zhongguo naner : Man of China Zhongguo Nanyang Yinhang : China and South Sea Bank Zhongguo Nonggong Minzhu Dang (): Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party Zhongguo Nonggongye Yinhang : Agricultural and Industrial Bank of China Zhongguo Nongye Kexue Yuan : Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Zhongguo Nongye Yinhang : Agricultural Bank of China Zhongguo Nu Xuetang (): Chi nese Womens School Zhongguo nu bao : Chinese womens monthly Zhongguo Nuzi Shuhua Hui ( ): Chinese Womens Calligraphy and Painting Society Zhongguo pengren : Chinese cuisine Zhongguo Qigong Kexue Yanjiuhui : China Qigong Scientific Research Association Zhongguo qingnian bao (): China youth, Chinese youth Zhongguo Qingnian Dang (): China Youth Party
Zhongguo Qingnian Xinwen Jizhe Xuehui (): Chinese Young Journalists Society Zhongguo Qiye Yinhang : China Development Bank Zhongguo Renmin Geming Junshi Bowuguan : Military Museum of the Chinese Peoples Revolution, Museum of Chinese Revolution, Chinese Peoples Military Museum Zhongguo Renmin Yinhang : Peoples Bank of China Zhongguo Renmin Yinhang Fa : Peoples Bank of China Law Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi (): Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference Zhongguo ribao : China Daily Zhongguo Shangye Feiji Gongsi : Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Yuan : Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Zhongguo Shehuizhuyi Qingnian Tuan : Chinese Socialist Youth League Zhongguo sheying : Chinese photography Zhongguo sheying sishi nian : Forty years of Chinese photography Zhongguo Sheying Xuehui : Chinese Association for Photography Zhongguo Shiyou Huagong Gufen Youxian Gongsi : Sinopec, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation Zhongguo Shudian (): Cathay Bookshop Zhongguo tese shehuizhuyi : Socialism with Chinese Characteristics Zhongguo Tianzhujiao Aiguo Hui : Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association Zhongguo Tongshang Yinhang : National Commercial Bank, Imperial Bank of China Zhongguo Touzi Youxian Zeren Gongsi : China Investment Corporation Zhongguo Wangtong : China Netcom Zhongguo wenhua : Chinese culture Zhongguo wenwu guji baohu zhunze : Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China Zhongguo wenxue : Chinese literature
397
Zhongguo Wenxue Yishu Jie Lianhehui (): China Federation of Literary and Art Circles Zhongguo wenyi gongzuozhe xuanyan : Manifesto of Chinese literature and art workers Zhongguo Xiandai Yishu Zhan : China Avant-Garde, Chinese Modern Art Exhibition Zhongguo Xiaofeizhe Xiehui : Chinese Consumers Association Zhongguo xiaoshuo shilu ( e ): A Brief History of Chinese Fiction Zhongguo Xinwenshe : China News Service Zhongguo yaogun yinyue : Chinese rock music Zhongguo Yingzao Xueshe ( ): Institute for Research in Chinese Architecture, Society for the Study of Chinese Architecture Zhongguo Yinhang : Bank of China Zhongguo Yinhangye Jiandu Guanli Weiyuanhui : China Banking Regulatory Commission Zhongguo Yinyue Dianshi : China Music Television Zhongguo Youzheng : China Post Zhongguo Zhanlue yu Guanli Yanjiuhui : China Institute of Strategy and Management Zhongguo Zhengzhi yu Xingzheng Kexue Yanjiusuo : Chinese Institute of Politics and Public Administration Zhongguo zhexueshi dagang : Outline of the history of Chinese philosophy Zhongguo Zhongxin Jituan Gongsi : CITIC Group, China International Trust and Investment Corporation Zhongguo Zuojia Xiehui ( ): China Writers Association Zhongguoren : Chinese people Zhongguoren : The Chinese Zhongguo-Xinjiapo Suzhou Gongye Yuan - : China-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park Zhonghe Dian : Central Harmony Hall Zhonghua da zidian (): Comprhensive Chinese character dictionary Zhonghua Dianying Xuexiao ( ): China Film School
Zhonghua Fuxing She (): Chinese Renaissance Society Zhonghua Geming Dang (): Chinese Revolutionary Party Zhonghua Jiaoyu Wenhua Jijin Hui (): China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture Zhonghua Matou Gongsi : Chung Hwa Wharf Company Zhonghua Meiqiu Gongsi : China Coal Briquette Company Zhonghua Duli Meishu Xiehui ( ): Chinese Independent Art Association Zhonghua Minguo (): Republic of China Zhonghua Minguo Guojun : Nationalist Army Zhonghua Minguo Minfa ( ): Civil code of the Republic of China Zhonghua Minguo Nongye Yanjiusuo : National Agricultural Research Bureau Zhonghua Minguo Xianfa ( ): Constitution of the Republic of China Zhonghua Minguo Xingfa ( ): Republican Criminal Code Zhonghua Minguo Zanxing Xin Xinglu (): Provisional New Criminal Code of the Republic of China Zhonghua minzu : Chinese nation, Chinese race Zhonghua Nongmin Yinhang ( ): Farmers Bank of China Zhonghua Pingmin Jiaoyu Cujin Hui : National Association of Mass Education Movements Zhonghua Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui : All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce Zhonghua Quanguo Guiguo Huaqiao Lianhehui : All-China Federation of Returned Overseas Chinese Zhonghua Quanguo Lushi Xiehui : China Lawyers Association Zhonghua Quanguo Mukejie Kangdi Xiehui : The National Woodcut Society for Anti-Japanese War Zhonghua Quanguo Tiyu Xiejinhui : Chinese National Amateur Athletic Federation
398
Zhonghua Quanguo Tiyu Zonghui : All-China Athletic Committee Zhonghua Quanguo Wenxue Yishu Gongzuozhe Daibiao Dahui : All-China National Congress of Literary and Art Workers, Chinese Congress of Literary and Art Workers Zhonghua Quanguo Wenxue Yishu Jie Lianhehui : Chinese Federation of Literary and Art Circles Zhonghua Quanguo Wenyijie Kangdi Xiehui (): AllChina Resistance Association of Writers and Artists Zhonghua Quanguo Zong Gonghui : All-China Federation of Trade Unions Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo : Peoples Republic of China Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo dianxin tiaoli : Telecommunications Regulations of the Peoples Republic of China Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo yu Yazhou Kaifa Yinhang Fupin Hezuo Xieyi : Agreement on a Poverty Reduction Partnership between the Peoples Republic of China and the Asia Development Bank Zhonghua Shuju (): China Publishing House, Zhonghua Book Co. Zhonghua Suweiai Gongheguo ( ): Soviet Republic of China, Chinese Soviet Republic Zhonghua Tiyu Xiejinhui : China National Amateur Athletic Federation Zhonghua Wenhua Fuxing yundong (): Chinese Cultural Renaissance movement Zhonghua xiongli yuzhoujian : China stands strong in the universe Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyu She : China Vocational Educational Society Zhonghuamen Zhongli Shijian : Zhongli Incident zhongqing : cases of a grave nature Zhongqu yishao : Scooping out the thoroughfare Zhong-Ri Jiawu Zhanzheng ( ): First Sino-Japanese War Zhong-Ri Meishu Xiehui (): Sino-Japanese Art Society, Association of Sino-Japanese Art
Zhong-Ri meishu yuebao : Sino-Japanese art monthly Zhong-Ri Zhanzheng : Second Sino-Japanese War Zhongshan Zhongshan : Bell Mountain Zhongshan Gongyuan : Zhongshan Park Zhongshan Ling : Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum Zhongshanxian (): Zhongshan County Zhongshan zhuang (): Sun Yat-sen (Mao) suit Zhongshanlu : Zhongshan Road zhongsi : second tier of state cults Zhong-Su Hu Bu Jinfan Tiaoyue (): Sino-Soviet Nonaggression Pact Zhong-Su Yinyue Xuehui : music group of the Soviet Friends Society Zhongwai gongbao (): Chinese and foreign news, Domestic and foreign information Zhongwai hezi jingying qiye : joint venture Zhongwen da cidian (): Chinese language encyclopedic dictionary zhongxiao qiye : small- and medium-scale enterprise Zhongxing : restoration Zhongxing Dianxin Shebei : Zhongxing Telecommunication Equipment Zhongxing Meikuang Gongsi : Zhongxing Coal Mining Company Zhongxue wei ti, Xixue wei yong , (, ): Chinese learning for essence, Western learning for practical utility; Chinese learning for values, Western for use Zhongyang Dangan Guan : Central Archives Zhongyang Dianying Gongsi ( ): Central Motion Pictures Company Zhongyang Diaocha Ju : Central Investigation Department Zhongyang Gaizao Weiyuan : Central Reorganization Commission Zhongyang Gongyi Meiyuan ( ): Central Academy of Arts and Crafts Zhongyang Gongyuan : Central Park
399
Zhongyang Guangbo Dianshi Daxue : Central Radio and TV University Zhongyang Guangbo Diantai : Central Radio Zhongyang Guji Baoguan Weiyuanhui (): Central Committee for the Protection of Monuments Zhongyang Huaqiao Shiwu Weiyuanhui : Central Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission Zhongyang Huijin Touzi Youxian Zeren Gongsi : Central Huijin Investment Corporation Zhongyang jilu Jiancha Weiyuanhui : Central Discipline Inspection Commission Zhongyang Junshi Weiyuanhui : Central Military Commission Zhongyang Junshi Weiyuanhui Waishiju : Central Military Commission Foreign Affairs Bureau Zhongyang Meishu Xueyuan ( ): Central Academy of Fine Arts Zhongyang Renmin Zhengfu Weiyuanhui : Central Peoples Government Council Zhongyang ribao : Central daily news Zhongyang Shehui Bu : Central Social Affairs Department Zhongyang Shuyuan : Central School Zhongyang Tongxun She : Central News Agency Zhongyang Xiju Xueyuan (): Central Academy of Drama, Central Drama Academy Zhongyang Xuanchuan Bu : Central Propaganda Division Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan : Academia Sinica Zhongyang Yihao Wenjian : No. 1 Central Document Zhongyang Yinhang : Central Bank of China Zhongyang Zhengzhiju Changwu Weiyuanhui : Politburo Standing Committee Zhongyi Paiwei Jizhi : Secondary School Place Allocation Scheme Zhong-Ying Gengkuan Dongshihui (): Board of Trustees for the Administration of the Indemnity Funds Remitted by the British Government zhongyuan : central plains
Zhongyuan Daxue (): Chung Yuan Christian University Zhongzhou : central prefecture, ancient name for Henan Zhonyang Zhengzhi Xuexiao ( ): Central Political Institute zhou : prefecture Zhou Bichang Zhou Changgu Zhou Chunya Zhou Enlai () Zhou Jielun : Jay Chou Zhou li (): Rites of Zhou Zhou Lianxia Zhou Libo Zhou Luyun (): Irene Chou Zhou Muqiao Zhou Qiang Zhou Runfa (): Chow Yun-fat Zhou Shaozheng Zhou Shoujuan Zhou Shuqiao Zhou Shuren () Lu Xun Zhou Sicong Zhou Wenzhong Zhou Xian () Zhou Xiang Zhou Xingchi (): Stephen Chow Zhou Xuan Zhou Yang () Zhou Yongkang Zhou Yunfang Zhou Zhangshou () Zhou Zuoren zhouchang : soup kitchen Zhouchao : Zhou dynasty Zhoukoudian Zhoumo qingren : Weekend Lover Zhu Cheng Zhu Da Zhu De
400
Zhu Dequn Zhu Jia Zhu Jiahua () Zhu Kezhen Zhu Lao Zong Zhu Lian () Zhu Mao Zhu Qiqian () Zhu Qizhan Zhu Rongji Zhu Runzai () Zhu Shilin Zhu Tianwen Zhu Tianxin Zhu Xi Zhu Xiong Zhu Yingtai Zhu Yuanchu Zhu Yuanzhang Zhu Zhixin Zhu Zihua Zhu Ziqing Zhua da fang xiao : Keep control of the big ones, let the small ones go Zhua geming, cu shengchan : Grasp revolution, promote production zhuan bao : biographic packet zhuan falun : the revolving dharma wheel zhuanan jigou : organs in charge of special affairs Zhuang Cunyu () zhuang fen : sprinkled powder zhuang shui : splashed water Zhuang Zedong zhuangbao : court gazette Zhuanghe zhuanghuang : decoration, graphic zhuangyuan : top scorers in the civil-service examination, scholar role (in opera) zhuangyuan chou (): tallies for first on the list (a dice game) Zhuangzi ()
Zhuangzi shi qi (): Zhuangzi tests his wife Zhuangzu : Zhuang minority Zhuanli Fa : Patent Law zhuanshu (): seal script zhufang zhidu gaige : housing-system reform Zhufu : New Years sacrifice Zhuge Wuhou Si : Shrine of Zhuge Liang zhuguan zhandou jingshen ( ): subjective fighting spirit zhuguanzhuyi (): subjectivism Zhuhai Zhuiqiu : Pursuit Zhujiang : Pearl River Zhujiang Xin Cheng : Zhujiang New Town Zhungaer Pendi : Dzungar Basin zhuo : awkward Zhuo Wenjun Zhuoni : Choni zhuxi : state president (literally, chairman) Zhuyin Fuhao (): phonetic symbols zhuzi (): hundred schools of thought Zhuzuoquan Fa : Copyright Law zi : courtesy name, style Zi jian Nanzi (): Confucius Saw Nancy ziban tielu : self-built railways zibenzhuyi mengya : sprouts of an indigenous Chinese capitalism zichan guanli gongsi : asset management company zichou zijin, ziyou zuhe, zifuyingkui, zizhu jingying , , , : self-financing, self-chosen partnership, self-responsibility for gains and losses, self-operation zifei sheng (): self-sponsored students Zigong Zigong Konglong Bowuguan : Zigong Dinosaur Museum Zijiang : Zi River Zijincheng : Forbidden City Zijinshan Zikai manhua (): comics by Zikai
401
zili gengsheng : self-reliance Zilin xibao : North-China daily news Zimei hua : Twin Sisters Ziqiang yundong (): Self-Strengthening movement Ziqiangjun : Self-Strengthening Army ziran : nature Ziran Baohuqu Tiaoli : Nature Reserves Regulations ziran cun : village composed of residents who live together Ziran Ziyuan Zonghe Kaocha Weiyuanhui : Commission for Integrated Survey of Natural Resources zishu : self-combed Zishui : Zi River zitan : a type of sandalwood zixin : self-renewal Zixun Fenxi Huodong : Analytical and Advisory Activities Ziye : Midnight ziyiju : consultative bureau, provincial assembly ziyou ren : free man Ziyou tan : Free talk Ziyou Zhongguo (): Free China zizhen : stir itself up zizhengyuan : national assembly zizhi : self-government zizhi yanjiusuo : self-government school zizhiqi : autonomous banner zizhiqu : autonomous region zizhixian : autonomous county zizhizhou : autonomous prefecture Zong Zhengzhi Zuozhan Ju ( ): General Political Warfare Department Zong Zhuangbei Bu : General Armament Department zongcai (): supreme leader (referring to Chiang Kai-shek) zongdu (): governor general Zongguan Neiwufu Dachen ( ): ministers of the Imperial Household Department
Zonghe Dangan Guan : Comprehensive Archives Zonghe Kaifa Yanjiuyuan : China Development Institute zongjiao : religion zongli (): premier, head of government and party, supreme leader (referring to Sun Yat-sen) Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen ( ): Office for the General Management of Foreign Affairs Zongli Yamen (): Abbreviated form of Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen [see above] zongpai : lineage Zongshan Daxue : Sun Yat-Sen University zongzi : rice ball wrapped in a bamboo leaf zongzu : lineage Zou An Zou Rong Zou Taofen () zougou : running dogs Zoumalou Zoupingxian : Zouping County zudakang : underground brothels Zuguo ge : Song of the homeland Zui baogui de : The most precious thing Zuidi Shenghuo Baozhang Zhidu : Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System Zuigao Guowu Huiyi : Supreme State Conference Zuigao Renmin Fayuan : Supreme Peoples Court Zuigao Renmin Jiancha Yuan : Supreme Peoples Procuratorate Zuihao de shiguang : Three Times Zuihou de guizu : The last aristocrat Zuihou yige Xiongnu : The last Xiongnu Zuixin guowen jiaokeshu : China national readers Zuixin zhongxue Zhongguo lishi jiaokeshu (): Newest middle school textbook of Chinese history Zunyi Huiyi (): Zunyi Conference Zuo Shunsheng
402
Zuo Zhuan (): Zuo commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals Zuo Zongtang zuobang dianying : left-wing film Zuojia Xiehui (): Writers Union Zuojiang : Zuo River zuoren : be fully human Zuoyi Meishujia Lianmeng ( ): League of Leftist Artists Zuoyi Zuojia Lianmeng ( ): League of Left-Wing Writers
Zuoying () zuoyuezi : recuperate for a month after childbirth zupu : lineage genealogy zutang : ancestral trust zuxue : clan school zuzhang (): lineage head Zuzhi Bu : Organization Department Zuzhibu laile ge nianqingren : The young newcomer in the Organization Department zuzong geming : ancestor revolution
403
Index
Page numbers are referenced according to volume number followed by a colon and the page number(s) on which that subject appears in the volume. Boldface page numbers refer to the main entry on the subject; italic page numbers refer to illustrations. A page number followed by the letter t indicates that a table appears on that page; f indicates a figure.
A
A Cheng, 2:506 A Ge, 4:92 A Ying, 3:134 Aalst, J. A. van, 2:639 Abe Shinzo, 1:39, 2:374 Abel Remusat, Jean-Pierre, 3:409 Aboriginal studies, 1:2 Abortion family planning policy, 2:477 laws, 2:441 one-child policy, 2:13 Academia Sinica, 1:12 formation, 1:3 politics of archaeology, 1:5455 social sciences, 3:438, 439 Academies, 1:24 libraries, 2:474 political culture, 3:147 Access denial military strategy, 3:97 Access to medical care poverty, 2:572 problems in, 2:580 rural areas, 2:571 rural cooperative medical systems, 3:294
Accidents, coal mine, 1:516 Accomodationism, 3:15 Accounting, 2:516, 3:354 Accumulation and industrial development, 2:303 Acid rain, 1:527 Action Scheme for Invigorating Education Toward the Twenty-First Century, 3:560 Active defense policy, 1:74 Activism. See Student organizations and activism Actors and actresses Hu Die, 2:254 Li Xianglan, 2:466 Ruan Lingyu, 3:291292 Sun Daolin, 3:509 Zhao Dan, 4:152153 Zhou Xuan, 4:165 Acupuncture, 1:45, 2:576, 577 Administrative detention. See Detention Administrative law, 1:302303, 2:443 Administrative prices, 3:175176 Administrative Punishment Law, 2:445 Administrative reform Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:457 Hundred Days Reform, 2:275276 Shen Baozhen, 3:389 Yuan Shikai, 2:137138 Administrative towns, 4:1516 Adoption, 1:58, 7 Buck, Pearl S., activism of, 1:153 transsexuals, 3:610
Adult education elderly, 2:456 literacy, 2:287 Taiwan, 3:546 types and utilization, 1:489491 Advancing Young Artists exhibition, 3:34 Advertising and marketing, 1:312 brands, 1:148 commercial art, 1:311312 Hordern, Anthony, 4:77 stereotypes of Chinese immigrants, 1:259 tea, 3:558 Western images, 4:74 women, depiction of, 4:85 Advisers Feng Guifen, 2:3031 Gordon, Charles, 2:127128 Soviet, 2:217 Wei Yuan, 4:6667 Aesthetic theory Kang Youwei, 1:8586 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 Afforestation, 1:23 Afghanistan, 3:6768 African Americans, 2:323 African states, 1:812 Afro-Asian Conference, 4:163164 Bandung Conference, 2:356 development, 2:359 international development aid, 2:331 Maoist propaganda, influence of, 2:323 treaties, 2:361
405
Index
Afro-Asian Conference, 4:163164 Afterlife, 2:483 Age Chinese Communist Party leadership, 3:158, 159 family, 2:4 marriage, 2:562, 562t, 565 Agency bonds, 2:75 Agenda 21. See Chinas Agenda 21 Agents, labor migration, 2:421, 423 Aglen, Francis, 1:219 Agrarian policy Agrarian Land Reform Law, 2:425426 Agrarian Reform Law, 3:300301 Fifth National Congress, 1:323324 labor and agrarian to industrial transition, 2:409410 peasantry, 3:79, 80 Yanan, 4:123 See also Agricultural policy Agreed Framework (Korean relations), 2:405 Agreement on a Poverty Reduction Partnership, 2:336 Agreement on Cooperation for Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, 3:285 Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, 2:421 Agreement on the Demarcation of Waters, Exclusive Economic Zones, and Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Tonkin, 4:35 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 2:442 Agri-food industry, 2:64 Agricultural Bank of China, 1:130, 133134, 2:584, 3:313314 Agricultural census, 2:430 Agricultural colleges, 2:428 Agricultural Development Bank, 1:131, 3:314 Agricultural policy central planning, 1:179 commercialization, 4:15 dual-track pricing, 1:457458 gradualism, 1:459 Great Leap Forward, 3:305306 household responsibility system, 1:453 peasants, 3:83 reform era, 3:312313 rice production, 1:18 rural development, 3:296300 rural enterprises, 3:181 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155 See also Agrarian policy; Agriculture
Agricultural production, 1:1225 Dazhai Production Team, 3:296 Food and Agriculture Organization, 2:337338 grain, 1:13t opium, 3:58 peasantry, 3:79 peasants, 3:83 population policy, 3:168 reform era, 3:309310 Agriculture, 2:429 arable lands, 3:24 banking, 2:624 domestic trade, 1:424 family management, 3:178, 309 famine, 2:18 farm sizes, 3:172t feminization, 4:8586 festivals, 2:35 Fujian, 2:94 grassland degradation and desertification, 1:294295 Hainan, 2:169 Hebei, 2:193 history, 2:219 household responsibility system, 2:248249 housing, 2:250 Huizhou, 2:267 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272274 irrigation and water resources management, 2:367369 Jiangsu, 2:385 Jiangxi, 2:390 labor, 2:410 land use, 2:428430 locust plagues, 2:523 Manchuria, 2:547 Pearl River Delta, 3:284 peasantry, 3:7678, 79 Sichuan, 3:397 social welfare, 3:441 standard of living, 3:486, 488 Taiwan, 3:534 taxation, 3:556 tea cultivation, 3:559 Xinjiang, 4:113 Zhao Ziyang, 4:154 Zhejiang, 4:157 See also Agrarian policy; Agricultural policy Ah Mon, Lawrence, 2:49 Aha, 2:288 Ai Qing, 1:2526, 3:139 Ai Weiwei Beijing Olympics, 3:55 Democracy Wall, 1:395 furniture, 2:100 installation art, 1:91 Stars painting group, 3:490 Ai Xuan, 3:50, 325
Aided-school sector, 2:239240 AIDS. See HIV/AIDS Aigo, 1:149 Air Force, 3:100101 Air quality, 1:528 Agenda 21, 1:216217 coal burning, 1:516517 electricity generation, 1:522 motor vehicle emissions, 1:518 trends, 1:526527 Xian, 4:106 Air transport infrastructure, 3:606607 service sector, 3:356 Airport International Logistics Zone, 4:25 Airports Beijing, 1:67 Fuzhou, 2:102 Xian, 4:106 Aixinjueluo Putong, 3:6 Akira Muto, 4:56 Aku Wuwu, 2:612 Alai, 2:612 Alcock, Rutherford, 3:379, 4:43 Alcock Conventions, 2:182 Alekseev, V. M., 3:410 Alexander, William, 2:316 Alienation, 1:288 All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce, 1:401402 All-China Federation of Literary and Art Circles. See Federation of Literary and Art Circles All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) government-organized nongovernmental organizations, 2:142 International Labour Organization, 2:411 social welfare, 3:441442 strikes, 3:503 trade unions, 2:413414 All-China National Congresses of Literary and Art Workers, 1:115116, 2:28 All-China Resistance Association of Writers and Artists, 2:433 All-China Returned Overseas Chinese Association, 1:261 All-China Womens Federation, 1:2628 domestic violence, 1:431, 432 government-organized nongovernmental organizations, 2:142 laws protecting women and children, 2:440
406
Index
Song Qingling, 3:463 Spring Bud Project, 1:475 womens status, 4:8486 Allan, Young, 2:398 Alliance for Human Rights, 1:395 Allocation domestic trade, 1:428429 dual-track pricing, 1:457458 Almaty Declaration, 2:370371 Ambans, 3:574, 575 Ambassadors Hu Shi, 2:259260 American Institute in Taiwan (AIT), 4:9 American Volunteer Group (AVG). See Flying Tigers Amherst, William Pitt, 1:505, 2:348, 633 Amnesty International death penalty, 1:390 Sudan, 1:10 Amoy. See Xiamen An Dehai, 1:275 The Analects (periodical), 3:388 An Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society (Mao), 1:225 Anarchism, 1:2829 Ba Jin, 1:127128 communist thought, 1:334 Mao Zedong, 1:222 socialism, influence of, 3:454 Ancestor worship ancestral trusts, 2:493 death and funerals, 2:483, 486 festivals, 2:35 filial piety, 2:37 Fujian, 2:9596 rituals, 2:7 social rituals, 3:437 villages, 4:36 Ancestral trusts, 2:424, 492495 Ancient China art, 4:143 Shaanxi, 3:369 Suzhou, 3:515 Wang Guowei, 4:48 Xian, 4:105 See also Archaeology Anderson, Rufus, 3:567 Andersson, Johan Gunnar, 1:40, 45, 4647 Ando Hiroshige, 2:32 Andreu, Paul, 1:67 Androgyny fashion, 2:24 gender relations, 2:116 model theater, 2:618619 Anfu Parliament, 1:504 Ang Lee. See Lee, Ang
Angola, 1:910 Anhui, 1:3034, 31, 2:248 Anhui Army, 1:391, 2:460461, 462 Animal husbandry, 1:1921 Annals-biographic historiography, 2:221 Annam. See Vietnam Annan, Kofi, 2:540 Anni Baobei, 3:224 Another Discussion of One Party Autocracy, 4:283284 Anshan, 1:267 Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci (Deng), 4:272276 Antarctic research, 3:343 Anthems. See National flags and anthems Anthologies, 3:293 Anti-American boycott brands, 1:149 Chinese exclusion laws, as reaction to, 1:258 commercial elite, 1:321 National Products movement, 3:9 nationalism, 2:352 Anti-Beijing riots, 2:257 Anti-capitalist movement, 1:149, 335 Anti-Chinese laws, 1:235, 255257 Anti-Christian/anti-missionary movements, 1:3436, 35, 147 Boxer Uprising, 1:146148, 2:210, 616 Catholicism, 1:170 international relations, 2:352 Letters of a Chinaman to English Readers (Foote), 4:197202 missionary cases, 2:615 Protestantism, 3:201202 Qing restoration, 3:235 Shanxi, 3:385 Tianjin massacre, 4:141 Anti-Communism Chang, Eileen, 1:194 film, 2:51 Nationalist government, 3:14 Nationalist Party, 3:19 poetry, 3:138 Anti-Confucianism, 1:348 Anti-Daoism, 1:387388 Anti-drug campaigns, 1:435, 1:435436 Anti-Falun Gong campaign, 3:230231 Anti-footbinding activism, 2:6567, 510 Anti-foreign sentiment A Boxer Doggerel, 4:204205 A Boxer Edict, Issued by the Lord of Wealth and Happiness, 4:205 boycotts, 3:405 Changsha, 1:196
fashion, 2:2223 imperialism as reason for, 2:295 national goods movement, 2:22 Pakistan, relations with, 3:66 Protestantism, 3:202 Sino-French War, 3:406 See also Anti-Christian/antimissionary movements Anti-four pests campaign, 1:533 Anti-imperialism Bandung Conference, 2:356 Chinas Destiny (Chiang), 4:218220 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 1:3536 Chinese revolutionary movement, 1:335 Hong Kong, 2:235, 236 May Fourth movement, 2:213 Middle Eastern states, relations with, 2:585 missionaries, 2:616 National Products movement, 3:9 nationalism, 2:352, 3:11, 18 pan-Asianism, 3:7273 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:643 student activism, 3:505 Vietnam, 4:33 Anti-Japanese movements boycotts, 1:149, 3:1112 Communist Party-Nationalist Party reconciliation, 3:1516 labor unrest, 4:98 treaty ports, 3:613 Anti-Japanese War, 1:3640, 38 Ai Qing, 1:25 Anhui, 1:33 army and politics, 1:78, 79 Chengdu, 1:205 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:210 Chinatowns, 1:248 Chinese Communist Party, 1:325 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:219 Chongqing, 1:265 clothing, 1:300 Deng Xiaoping, 1:407408 documentary photography, 3:122 education, 1:466 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 film, 2:39 foreign trade, 2:86 Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, 2:224 Guangxi, 2:157 Guizhou, 2:162 Guo Moruo, 2:165 higher education, 1:481, 482 history of, 2:215, 4:6465 international relations, 2:353
407
Index
Anti-Japanese War, continued Japan, relations with, 2:373374 Lin Biao, 2:486 Manchukuo, 2:547 Mao Zedong thought, 1:221 Marco Polo Bridge incident, 2:559560 migration, 2:329 military, 2:596 military culture and tradition, 2:600 music, 2:644 Nanjing Massacre, 3:45 nationalism, 3:1112 Nationalist government, 3:1617 New Fourth Army, 3:103 New Print movement, 3:3233 pictorial magazines, 3:130 popular music, 2:640 propaganda photography, 3:125126 Rectification Movement, 1:331 Red Army, 3:104 Song Qingling, 3:463 Zhang Junmai, 4:147 Zhou Enlai, 4:162 Anti-Manchu sentiment intellectual debate, 1:285 Nian Uprising, 3:4041 Qiu Jin, 3:241 Anti-opium movement, 1:279 Anti-rightist campaign Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 Chu Anping, 1:266 Democratic League of China, 1:404 democratic parties, 1:401 Deng Xiaoping, participation of, 1:408 dissidents, 1:421 film directors, 2:40 Great Leap Forward, 3:304 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:277278 liberalism experiment, 2:217 Mao Zedong, 2:557 mass movements, 1:231 music, 2:649 Pang Xunqin, 3:74 united front work, 4:5 xiafang, 4:107 Anti-Secession Law, 4:7, 300301 Anti-superstition campaign, 3:160, 259 Anticlericalism, 3:262 Anticolonialism. See Anti-imperialism Anticorruption campaigns, 1:363, 365 Antiestablishment movements, 2:323 Antifeudalism, 1:287 Antiheroes, 4:53
Antiquarianism calligraphy, 1:100 heritage protection, 2:199 publishing, 4:9596 Qing dynasty, 1:42 Song dynasty, 1:41 Antiquities art market, 1:92, 93 collections and collecting, 1:306308 Forbidden City, 2:68 Guo Moruo, 2:165 Red Guards destruction of, 3:246 Antiquity Preservation Law, 1:46 Antitraditionalism, 1:285286 Anyang, 1:48, 5456 Anyuan coal mine, 2:393 Aoki Masaru, 4:47 Apartments, 2:252 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1:25 Apologies February 28 Incident, 3:539 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Approved Destination Status (ADS) agreements, 3:589 April Fifth movement, 1:393, 3:124, 333 Arab-Israeli conflict, 2:585, 587 Arable land, 2:428, 430, 3:24 Arbitration, 2:443444 Archaeology, 1:4041, 51 ancient Chinese history, 2:223 art exhibitions, 1:80, 81, 82 art history, 1:88 calligraphy, 1:100 collections and collecting, 1:306, 307308 furniture, 2:97 Fuzhou, 2:101 heritage protection, 2:200201 sinology, 3:411 Archaeology, history of, 1:4154 Archaeology, politics of, 1:5457 Architects Lin Huiyin, 2:489 Pei, I. M., 3:8385 Architectural historians Liang Sicheng, 2:469 Lin Huiyin, 2:489 Architecture, 1:61 Beijing, 1:140142 Beijing Olympics, 2:175 Chinese influence abroad, 2:316 engineering, 3:266 foreign concessions, settlements and territories, 2:72 Fujian, 2:97 Huizhou, 2:268
imperial palace, 2:289290 Mao era, 4:19 monuments, 2:628 Peoples Heroes Monument, 3:346 reform period, 4:20 residential, 2:249251 Shanghai, 3:376 summer palaces, 2:291 Taibei, 3:518, 520 Architecture, historiography of, 1:5759, 61 Architecture, history of, 1:5969 Archives, public, 1:6973, 2:70 Archways, memorial, 2:628 Arctic air mass, 1:289 Armaments, 1:7377, 75t76t industry, 3:112113 Qing dynasty, 4:61 smuggling, 3:415 Taiwan military, 3:547 Armed services. See Military Arms embargoes espionage, 3:143 Europe, 1:538 European Union, 4:7 France, relations with, 2:9293 prodemocracy movement, 2:82 smuggling, 3:415 Arms sales France and Taiwan, 2:91 Joint Communique on Arms Sales to Taiwan, 4:279280 to the Middle East, 2:585586 Pakistan, 3:6869 Taiwan, 4:9 Army and politics, 1:7780 Arranged marriages, 2:479481, 562, 563 Arrest and detention, 2:445 Arrow (ship), 3:62 Arrow War, 1:73 Arsenals industrialization, 2:311 Li Hongzhang, 2:461 Shenyang, 3:392 Art collections, 1:306308 connoisseurship, 1:351 cultural policy, 1:369371 epigraphic school, 1:535536 ethnic minorities, 2:611 exports, 2:316318, 317318 folk art, 2:5860 furniture, 2:100 heritage protection, 2:199200 Lingnan school, 2:496498 literati painting, 2:500502 Maoism, 2:320322, 321 New Print movement, 3:3132 New Wave movement, 3:3336
408
Index
oil painting, 3:4750 party-state control over, 2:216 political pop and cynical realism, 3:153155 rustic realism, 3:324327 scar art, 3:333335 sculpture and public art, 3:345348 Shanghai school of painting, 3:382384, 383 Stars painting group, 3:489491 Yangzhou painting school, 4:127 Zhang Daqian, collection of, 4:142, 143 See also Commercial art; Propaganda art; Socialist realism Art, history of, 1:99111 Art, Japanese influence on, 1:111113 art training, 3:47 bunjinga painting, 2:318320 calligraphy, 1:86 exhibitions, 1:80, 83 Feng Zikai, 2:32 Liu Haisu, 2:513514 National Essence movement, 1:114 Western style, 1:104 Art, National Essence Movement in, 1:113115 art societies, 1:103 epigraphic school of art as response to, 1:536 Art, Soviet influence on, 1:117118 Art exhibitions, 1:8384 art in new media, 1:9091 art market, 1:93 art museums, 1:9496 China Avant-Garde exhibition, 1:108 Chinese Artists Association, 1:116 collections and collecting, 1:307, 308 comics, 1:314 documentary photography, 3:124 Japanese bunjinga painting, 2:319 modernist art, 2:620621 National Essence movement, 1:114 New Print movement, 3:32 New Wave movement, 3:3336 Pang Xunqin, 3:74 peasant paintings, 3:195196 scar art, 3:334 Stars group, 1:107, 3:489491 Art exhibitions abroad, 1:8083, 84 Art film, 2:51 Art galleries. See Art market Art history and historiography, 1:8589, 3:391 Art in new media, 1:8992, 90, 94 Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:161162 Chinese characters, use of, 1:108 Gu Wenda, 2:151152
Art market, 1:9293, 9394 folk art, 2:60 Maoism, influence of, 2:320321 peasant paintings, 3:196 political pop and cynical realism, 3:155 rise in Chinese influence, 1:108109 Shanghai, 1:100 Shanghai school of painting, 3:382 Taiwan, 1:110 Art museums, 1:9496, 95, 110 Art photography, 3:118121, 3:120 Art policy, 1:115117 Art schools and colleges, 1:9698 Li Keran, 2:464 Liu Haisu, 2:513 Luo Gongliu, 2:536 modernist art, 2:619 peasant painting, 3:194 policy, 1:116 sculpture, 1:105, 3:345 Western art, 1:104, 113 Art societies, 1:9899 art history, 1:100101 art market, 1:92 bunjinga painting, 2:319 Chinese painting, 1:262, 263 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829 Hong Kong, 1:110 Japanese influence, 1:111112 modernism, 2:619 National Essence movement, 1:103, 113115 New Print movement, 3:32 New Wave movement, 3:35 Reform era, 1:107 Art Workers Association, 3:192 Artillery troops, 3:101102 Artistic expression, freedom of, 3:490 Artists Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:161162 Democracy Wall, 1:393, 395 Feng Zikai, 2:3233 Gu Wenda, 2:151152 Huang Binhong, 2:265267 Li Hua, 2:463464 Li Keran, 2:464465 Lin Fengmian, 2:487489 Ling Shuhua, 2:495496 Liu Guosong, 2:512513 Liu Haisu, 2:513514 Luo Gongliu, 2:536537 Pan Tianshou, 3:71 Pan Yuliang, 3:72 Pang Xunqin, 3:7374 Ren Xiong, 3:262263 Ren Yi, 3:264265 Wang Zhen, 4:5355
Wu Changshi, 4:9899 Wu Hufan, 4:99100 Wu Shujuan, 4:100101 Xu Beihong, 4:114117 Xu Bing, 4:117118 Zhang Daqian, 4:142144 Artists Association, 1:8485 Arts Beijing, 1:142 ethnic minorities, 2:611612 hairstyles, 2:171 Huizhou, 2:267268 magazines, 2:645 ASEAN, 1:118120 Europe, 1:538 free trade agreements, 2:89 Treaty of Amity, 3:466 See also Southeast Asian states ASEAN+3, 1:119 Asian Development Bank, 2:335337, 336t, 4:137 Asian Development Fund, 2:337 Asian financial crisis ASEAN, 1:119 banking, 1:135 Big Four banks, 1:134 Hong Kong, 2:245, 246, 4:7 housing policy, 4:22 International Monetary Fund, 2:339 real estate management, 4:26 Aso Taro, 2:374 Assemblies, 1:503504 Chinese Communist Party, 1:329 constitutionalism, 1:352 late Qing government administration, 2:132 provincial, 2:133 Assembly, freedom of, 2:270 Assessors, 3:379 Asset management companies, 1:134, 135 Assimilation language policy, 2:433 Mao Zedongs ethnic policies, 3:207 Taiwan, 3:541 Xinjiang, 4:113 Association, freedom of, 2:411 Association for Relations across the Taiwan Strait (ARATS), 3:544 Association for the Advancement of Buddhism, 1:154 Association of Art Museums Directors, 1:308 Association of Chinese Literary Artists, 2:502 Association of Chinese Photographers, 3:119, 121
409
Index
Association of Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia, 1:488 Association of Southeast Asian Nations. See ASEAN Astrophysicists Fang Lizhi, 2:2021 Athletes. See Sports figures Atkins, Humphrey, 3:473 Atlanta Olympics, 3:54 Au Yeung Sha Fei, 2:41 Auction houses, 1:93, 108 Audience system, 2:129 Audit. See Inspection and audit Auditing Administration, 2:327 Austerity policies, 1:443444 Australia, 1:120121 Chinese exclusion laws, 1:256, 258 development aid, 2:335 An Australian in China (Morrison), 2:631 Austria-Hungary, 1:543 Authority and political culture, 3:149 Autobiographical fiction, 3:596 Automobile industry, 1:121123, 122 Automobiles consumption and consumer culture, 1:357 fuel-efficiency standards, 1:518 Jiangsu, 2:388 Jilin, 2:394, 395 manufacturing, 2:189190 smuggling, 3:415, 416 Autonomous associations, 3:420 Autonomous counties, 3:210 Autonomous regions, 3:207t government, 3:206209 granting of, 2:605 local government, 3:204205 Autonomy civil society, 1:270271 Tibet, 3:578 Autonomy Law, 2:606 Autumn Harvest Uprising, 1:324, 2:261 Avant-garde art art in new media, 1:8991 art photography, 3:121 art policy, 1:116117 Chinese characters, use of, 1:108 Japanese influence, 1:111 modernist art, 2:619621 New Wave movement, 3:34, 35 Storm Society, 1:104 Avant-garde fiction, 1:123125 Can Xue, 1:166 Gao Xingjian, 2:110 literature, 2:506 plays, 3:135 Yu Hua, 4:131132 Avian influenza, 1:125126, 126, 1:534
B
Ba Jin, 1:127129, 2:505 anarchism, 1:29 Association of Chinese Literary Artists, 2:502 domestic violence in literature, 1:430 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 Gao Xingjian compared to, 2:110 New Culture movement, 2:566 romantic love and literature, 2:529 Shanghai, 2:72 Soviet Union, visit to the, 4:126 Bachelor ghettos, 3:363 Backhouse, Edmund, 2:366 Backwardness, 1:222 Bacteriological warfare, 2:545 Bada Shanren, 1:82 Baghdadi Jews, 2:376377, 3:75 Bai, 2:284, 612 Bai Chongxi, 1:407, 2:157 Bai Guang, 2:640 Bai Hong, 2:640 Bai Hua, 1:129 Bai Jingrui, 2:50 Bai Juyi, 4:45 Bai Wei, 1:283, 3:133 Bai Xianyong, 3:392 Baidu baike encyclopedia, 1:512 Baihua movement. See Vernacular literature Bakunin, Mikhail, 1:128 Balfour, George, 3:379 Balkan states. See East Central European states Ballet, 1:384 See also Model operas and ballets Ballroom dance, 1:385 Baluchistan, 3:70 Balzac, Honore de, 3:597 Bamo Qubumo, 2:612 Ban Ki-Moon, 2:540 Bandung Conference African states, relations with, 1:8 anti-imperialism, 2:296 Chinese overseas, 1:239 history, 2:356 Bangkok Declaration, 2:270 Bank of China, 1:133134, 2:623624 Bank of China Tower, 3:84 Bank of Communications, 1:133, 2:623624 Banking, 1:129136, 1:131f, 2:621624, 3:219 agricultural, 3:313314
Asian Development Bank, 2:335337 build-operate-transfer contracts, 1:157 China Investment Corporation, 2:76 financial markets, 2:5253, 54 financial regulation, 2:5556 Hungarian influence, 1:440 Nationalist government, 3:15 Ningbo, 3:42, 4:158 public finance, 3:220 Shanxi, 3:384 Wing On Bank, 4:79 Banner forces, 1:390, 2:591, 597, 4:28 Banqiao Dam, 1:520 Banquets, 3:436437 Bao Pao, 3:490 Bao Shichen art history, 1:86 beixue theory, 1:535 calligraphy, 1:165, 536 statecraft, 3:248 Wei Yuan, association with, 4:67 Bao Tianxiao, 2:551, 552 Baohuang hui. See China Reform Association Baojia system, 1:136137, 2:302 Baoshan, 1:434 Baosteel, 2:189 Baotown (Wang), 4:46 Barefoot doctors, 2:571 elderly patients, 3:447 medical care, 2:569571 peasantry, 3:80 Peoples Communes, 3:304 sex education, 3:361 social welfare, 3:442 traditional medicine, 2:574 Western medicine, 2:580 Barrett, David D., 1:212 Bartok, Bela, 2:647 Bashidang culture, 1:49 Basic education adults, 1:490 Cultural Revolution, 1:469470 literacy, 2:287288 Basic Law of Hong Kong Article 23, 2:245 drafting of, 2:238 nationality issues, 2:242 politics, 2:244 special administrative regions, 3:474 United Kingdom, relations with, 4:6 Basketball, 3:484 Battle of Port Arthur, 3:408
410
Index
Bawang bei ji. See Farewell My Concubine (film) Beauty brands, 1:150 female athletes, 3:482 hairstyles, 2:171 Westernization, 4:75 Beauvoir, Simone de, 2:321 Bee Painting Society, 1:115 Beef production, 1:21 Beer, 2:63 Beggars, 1:137139, 138 Bei Cun, 1:124 Bei Dao, 1:393, 3:138 Beibei mantie lun (Ruan), 1:100 Beidou Global Positioning System, 3:471 Beijing, 1:139143, 140, 141 architecture, 1:65 central control, 3:210211 China Central Television headquarters, 1:66, 1:67 Crescent Moon Society, 2:499 employment, by industry, 4:31f Forbidden City, 2:6771 Fourth World Conference on Women, 1:27 furniture, 2:98100 gardens and parks, 2:112 handicrafts, 2:174 heritage protection, 2:201 Hong Kong, relations with, 2:238 hutongs, 2:278280 industrial workers, 4:97 Luo Gongliu, 2:537 migration, 2:329 opera, 3:8687 police, 3:140, 141 as political center of China, 2:118 reform period, 4:20 restaurants, 2:6263 sculpture, 3:346 severe acute respiratory syndrome, 3:359360 Shanghai, competition with, 3:377 shops, 3:396 student organizations and activism, 3:505 Ten Great Constructions, 1:63 warlord period, 2:138 Beijing Art Academy, 2:488 Beijing Bicycle (film), 2:46, 47 Beijing Consensus, 2:436 Beijing Convention, 1:218, 3:524 Beijing Film Academy Fifth generation filmmakers, 2:43 Fourth generation filmmakers, 2:42 Beijing Forbidden City Film Company, 3:36
Beijing Jeep, 1:122 Beijing man, 1:48, 53 Beijing Municipal Artists Association, 3:490 Beijing Olympics, 3:5457, 55, 56, 4:148 Agenda 21, 1:216217 architecture, 1:6667, 69 boycott, call for, 1:10 Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:162 competition for hosting, 3:50 Cui Jian, 1:368 engineering, 3:266 Forbidden City, 2:71 international relations, 2:359 municipalities under central control, 3:211 popular music, 2:641 preparation for, 1:141142 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:646 sports, 3:482 sports figures, 3:483 Structure (sculpture), 3:348 Tan Dun, 3:550 Tibetan protests, 1:381 tourism, 3:581, 588 United States, relations with, 4:11 Zhang Jigang, 1:384 Zhang Yimou, 2:45, 4:149 Beijing Opera. See Peking Opera Beijing Spring, 3:138 Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Area Development Plan, 1:268 Beijing University, 1:479, 480 Beixue. See Stele script Beiyang Army establishment, 2:598, 4:63 warlords, 2:594 Yuan Shikai, 4:133 Beiyang clique, 1:143144 Beiyang fleet, 1:391392 Beiyang government, 3:6 Beiyang Military Academy, 4:60 Beiyang University, 1:479 Belden, Jack, 2:366 Belgrade episode, 4:10 Bell, Julian, 2:496 Bell, Moberley, 2:631 Benedict XV, Pope, 1:171 Benedict XVI, Pope, 1:172 Benoist, Michel, 2:291 Benxihu mine, 2:604 Benzene leak, 2:180, 190, 195 Berlin Olympics, 3:7, 51, 480 Berlioz, Hector, 2:638 Bernstein, Leonard, 2:539 Bernstein, Richard, 2:367
Best sellers, 3:224 Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 3:66 Bian Zhilin, 3:137 Bias Bay piracies, 3:132 Bible translation, 2:633, 634 Big bourgeoisie, 3:29 A Big Family (Zhang), 3:154 Big Four banks, 1:131, 133134, 2:5253, 55, 4:71 Big Nine banks, 2:623 Bigamy prohibition, 2:562 Billboards, 1:311, 316 Bingma yong. See Terracotta army Bingxin, 1:144146, 2:553 Biodiversity, 1:512, 514, 3:25 Biographies, 4:45 Biological warfare, 2:179180 Biomedicine, 2:184185 Bird-and-flower painting, 1:262, 3:383 Bird-cage theory, 1:203 Birds Nest (Olympic venue), 1:67, 2:71, 3:55 Birth-planning policy, 3:169 autonomous regions, 3:208 childbirth, effect on, 2:477 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 marriage laws, 2:564565 Birth rates, 3:165f, 166, 170 Birth rituals, 2:78 Black, Davidson, 1:46 Black channel publishing, 3:222, 224 Black Flag Army, 3:406, 526 Black gold politics, 3:21 Black market, 4:26 Black Panthers, 2:323, 641 Black Sect Tantric Buddhism, 2:34 Blair, Tony, 4:7 Bland, J. O. P., 2:366 Blood donation, 2:228, 230 Blooming and contending, 2:277278 Blue Shirt Society, 2:21, 473 Blue-water navy, 1:74 Bo Gu, 1:407 Bo Xilai, 1:382, 2:472, 3:211 Bo Yibo, 1:408, 2:381 Bo Yun, 3:490, 491 Board games, 2:104, 105106 Board of Education. See Ministry of Education Board of Punishment, 2:450 Body art, 1:91 Bohai Gulf, 3:371 Boji Hospital, 2:579 Bolshevism, 1:334 Bolshoi Ballet Company, 1:384 Bolt, Usain, 3:57
411
Index
Bonans, 2:369 Bondservants, 3:358 Bonnard, Pierre, 4:91 Booi, 2:288 Book bans, 3:223224 Book collections, 4:9394 Book covers, 1:316, 2:32 Book design, 1:317 Book from the Sky (installation art), 1:91 Book of Burial, 2:33 Bookkeeping, 2:516 Border disputes. See Territorial disputes Borges, Jorge Luis, 1:166, 511 Borodin, Mikhail, 1:310, 336, 3:19, 512 Bose, Nandalal, 2:320 Bosideng, 1:152 Boss Christians, 3:203 Boucher, Jean, 3:346 Bourgeois liberalization, 1:328 Bourgeoisie Cultural Revolution, 1:226 New Democracy, 3:29 two-stage theory of revolution, 1:336 Bower manuscript, 1:40 A Boxer Doggerel, 4:204205 A Boxer Edict, Issued by the Lord of Wealth and Happiness, 4:205 Boxer Protocol, 1:218, 2:182, 360 Boxer Uprising, 1:35, 146148 abolition of slavery as punishment, 3:359 Anti-Christian/anti-missionary sentiment, 1:34 anti-imperialism, 2:295 Catholicism, 1:170 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275 education reform, 1:465 effects of, 4:63 foreign loans, 2:80, 81 Harbin, 2:178 missionaries, 2:616 nationalism, 2:352 Protestantism, 3:202 Qing dynasty, 2:210 White Lotus rebellion, compared to the, 3:256 Zaitian, 1:509 Boycotts anti-American and anti-Japanese boycotts, 1:149 anti-imperialism, 2:295 Beijing Olympics, 1:10 Sincere Department Store, 3:405 student organizations and activism, 3:504 Brain drain, 2:303, 3:508, 4:106 Brands, 1:148152 Braudel, Fernand, 1:298
Brazil, relations with, 2:436 Breathing, 2:641 Breweries, 2:63 Brezhnev, Leonid, 1:186, 2:358 Brezhnev Doctrine, 3:413 Bribery, 2:471 Bride-prices, 4:85 Bridges Jiangsu, 2:388 Nanjing, 3:2, 3:3 Wuhan, 4:102 Brigade clinics, 2:569570 Brightman, Sarah, 3:56 British colonialism banks, 2:622 broker politics, 2:242244 coolie trade, 1:243244 extraterritoriality, 1:543 Hong Kong, 2:234238 India, 2:299 nationality issues in Hong Kong, 2:241242 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:378382 Tan Kah Kee, 1:242 British East India Company. See East India Company British indemnity, 1:506 British Museum, 1:42, 308 British Nationality Act, 2:241242 British West Indies, 1:246 Britten, Benjamin, 2:651 Broad Corporation, 1:150 Broker politics, 2:242244, 3:421, 422423 Bronze Age Anyang, 1:48 archaeological discoveries, 1:49, 52 inscriptions, 2:165 Su Bingqi, 1:53 Brook from Sky (Xu), 4:117 Brothels. See Prostitution Brothers (Yu), 4:132 Browne, Horace, 2:560 Brundage, Avery, 3:52, 53 Brynner, Yul, 3:324 Bu Wancang, 3:291 Buck, Pearl S., 1:152154, 2:366, 490 Buddhism, 1:154156, 155, 3:255 archaeology, 1:53 celibacy, 3:261 Dalai Lama, 1:379381 death, 2:483 Feng Zikai, 2:32 Mongolia, 2:628 organization, 3:256 religious organizations, 3:254 sinology, 3:410 Tibetan people, 2:609
villages, 4:36 Wang Zhen, 4:55 White Lotus, 4:76 Buddhist cave paintings, 1:41, 44, 1:46 Buddhist Sage (Wang), 4:54 Buddhist statues, 2:201 Budget and funding Academia Sinica, 1:1 archaeology, 1:50 architecture history scholarship, 1:58 armaments, 1:77, 77t budgetary share of GDP, 1:452f central government share, 1:454f central-local relationships, 1:191192 Chinese international development aid, 2:331332, 332t community care, 1:338, 339 economic reform, 1:453454 education, 1:471, 472, 495, 497500, 498t, 499f environmental protection, 1:530 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 fiscal decentralization, 1:455456 health insurance, 1:511 higher education, 1:479480, 483484 key schools, 1:496 kindergarten, 1:477 literacy, 2:287 medical care, 2:569 military, 3:553 military enterprises, 3:112115 nongovernmental organizations, 2:142 pensions, 3:450451 provincial government, 3:206 public finance, 3:216220 research and development, 3:434t roads, 3:608 rural education, 1:475 rural medical care, 2:570 science and technology policy, 3:337 space program, 3:471 vocational education, 4:41 Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contracts, 1:156157 Bulaji, 1:301 Bulgaria. See East Central European states Bullet in the Head (film), 2:48 Bulwer-Lytton, V.A.G.R., 2:546 Bunjinga painting. See Literati painting Bureau for the Revision of Laws, 1:303304, 305 Bureau of Government Affairs, 2:132 Bureau of Religious Affairs, 3:570
412
Index
Bureau of Rites, 1:305 Bureaucracy examination system, 1:541 government administration, 2:140 High Qing political culture, 3:147 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:277 political culture, 3:148 propaganda, 3:185186, 187 Qing government administration, 2:131 Bureaus, 1:186188 Burial. See Death and funerals Burlingame, Anson, 2:349 Burlingame Treaty, 1:239 Burma, relations with, 4:163 Burma Road opening, 1:37 Burton Education Commission report, 1:487 Bush, George H. W., 2:634, 4:9 Bush, George W., 3:543 Australia, visit to, 1:120 Beijing Olympic bid, 3:55 Sino-American relations, 2:371 Business Boss Christians, 3:203 brands, 1:148152 China Democratic National Construction Association, 1:402403 commercial elite, 1:320322 compradors, 1:345346 Confucianism, 1:350 extraterritoriality, 1:543 high technology, 2:202205 Hong Kong politics, 2:244 Liu Hongsheng, 2:515516 Lu Zuofu, 2:534535 military enterprises, 3:112115 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 newspapers, 2:398 Ningbo, 3:42 private enterprises, 3:177182 Rong Zongjing, 3:287290 science and technology research and development, 3:338 service sector, 3:354356 shops, 3:394397 Sincere Department Store, 3:403405 Taiwan, 3:536 Tan Kah Kee, 1:242 Three Represents, 2:383, 384 urban planning, 4:21 Wenzhou, 4:7273 Wing On Department Stores, 4:7779 Zhang Jian, 4:145 See also Companies; Entrepreneurs Business associations, 2:142, 243 Business donations, 3:552
Butterfield, Fox, 2:367 Butterflies journals, 1:193 Butterfly do, 2:171 Butterfly literature. See Mandarin duck and butterfly literature Butterfly Woo. See Hu Die Buy Chinese campaign. See National Products movement Buzurg Khwaja, 2:653
C
Cadogan, Alexander, 1:362 Cadre suit, 1:301 Cadre system, 1:159161, 160t administration, 2:412413 central-local relationships, 1:191 collectivization, 3:302 corruption, 1:328, 364 development zones, 4:2425 education, 1:482 fashion, 2:24 municipalities under central control, 3:211 political succession, 3:158159 provincial government, 3:206 social classes, 3:425426, 426427 training, 3:20 xiafang, 4:107 Cage, John, 2:639, 650, 651 Cahill, James, 1:81 Cai Chang, 1:26, 4:88, 89 Cai Chusheng, 2:40, 3:291 Cai E, 2:591 Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:82, 83, 161162, 2:322 Cai Heshen, 1:336 Cai Lixiong, 3:35 Cai Mingliang, 2:51 Cai Qian, 3:293 Cai Ruohong, 1:116, 3:457 Cai Weilian, 3:48, 4:90, 91 Cai Yuanpei Academia Sinica, 1:1 aesthetic education, 1:104 art education, 1:97 art exhibitions, 1:83 art history, 1:86, 87 art societies, 1:98 Cai Weilian, art of, 3:48, 4:91 Chinese studies graduate programs, 1:3 intellectualism, 1:284 liberalism, 2:473 libraries, 2:474 Lin Fengmian, work with, 2:488 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 May Fourth demonstration, 2:567 moral education, 1:467 music, 2:643
New Culture movement, 2:566 sculpture, 1:105, 3:345 Warning of Russian Issues, 1:314 Western art, support of, 1:113 Xiong Shili, appointment of, 1:155 Xu Beihong, appointment of, 4:114, 116 Caimohua, 1:263 Cairo Conference, 2:353, 353354 Cairo Declaration, 3:76, 529, 538, 4:220 Calendars, 1:162164, 163 advertising, 1:312, 313 festivals, 2:3536 Calligraphy, 1:164166 art exhibitions, 1:81 connoisseurship, 1:351 epigraphic school, 1:535536 furniture calligraphies, 2:100 history, 1:88, 99100, 103 Japan, 1:86, 2:318 Latinxua script, 2:431 Six-Dynasties school, 2:319 Wang Zhen, 4:55 women artists, 4:92 Wu Changshi, 4:9899 Wu Hufan, 4:100 Zhang Daqian, 4:142 Cambodia, 3:467, 469, 4:33 Cameras, 3:130 Campaigns. See Elections Can Xue, 1:123125, 166, 3:392 Canada, 1:256, 258 Cang Jie, 4:114 Canonization, 3:493 Canteen system, 2:63 Cantlie, James, 3:510, 511 Canton. See Guangzhou Canton system history, 2:351 imperialism, 2:294 tea trade, 3:557558 Cantonese, 1:166168 compradors, 1:346 Guangdong, 2:153 nationalism, 3:13 Cantonese Opera, 3:89 Cao Kun, 1:143, 2:191, 3:512 Cao Queqin, 2:104 Cao Xinzhi, 1:317 Cao Xueqin, 1:287, 4:47 Cao Yu, 1:168169, 2:504, 3:134 Capacity utilization, 1:458 Capital Construction Corps, 3:113 Capital-intensive industrial development, 2:307 Capital punishment. See Death penalty
413
Index
Capitalism Confucian ethics, 1:350 Deng Xiaoping, 1:233234 fashion, 2:25 identity, 2:285 Mao Zedong thought, 1:222223 Maoist art, 2:322 New Left opposition, 3:30 Carbon dioxide emissions, 1:295, 527 Card games, 2:105 Cardin, Pierre, 2:25 Care for Girls initiative, 2:14 Caregivers, 2:10 Cargo. See Shipping; Transport infrastructure Caribbean coolie trade, 1:243244 Carrying capacity, 3:170171 Carter, Jimmy Chiang Ching-kuo, negotiations with, 1:208 normalization of relations, 4:89 Ren Wanding, appeal of, 1:395 Cartoons, 1:98, 313315, 2:3233 Carus, Paul, 3:410 Cash crops, 1:13 Castiglione, Giuseppe, 1:68, 261, 2:111 Catalogs, art, 1:85 Catching the Train (Gao), 3:334 Cathay Hotel. See Peace Hotel Catholicism, 1:170172, 171 Chinese priests, 2:616 Macao missions, 2:541 mission schools, 2:239 missionaries, 2:614 Protestantism, competition with, 3:201 Qing dynasty, 3:232 secret police activities against, 3:143 CC Clique, 3:19, 20 CCID Consulting, 3:270 Celebrations childbirth, 2:476 Forbidden City, 2:290 Celibacy, 3:261262 Cellular economy, 1:177 Cemetery, 4:14 Cen Jiawu, 1:88 Cen Yuying, 2:561 Censorship, 1:172174, 173 Cui Jian, 1:368 film, 2:39, 40 Internet, 1:512, 2:364365 literature, 2:505 newspapers, 3:38, 39 propaganda art, 3:190 publishing industry, 3:223224 Taiwan, 2:507 television, 3:562
Censuses economic, 3:498 national minorities, recognition of, 3:162163 population, 3:166 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1:534 Central Academy of Arts and Crafts, 3:74 Central Academy of Dramatic Arts, 1:384 Central Academy of Fine Arts art education, 1:9798 Chinese painting, 1:264 rustic realism, 3:325326 Central Asian states, 1:174177, 175f Central Bank of China (CBOC), 2:624 Central Broadcasting System, 3:243244 Central Committee army and politics, 1:7980 function of, 1:324 provincial government, 3:206 Central Conservatory, 3:550 Central Discipline Inspection Commission, 2:327 Central government administration, 2:128131 Confucianism, 3:247248 gradualism, 1:461 intellectuals, 1:284 organization, 1:186188 peoples communes, 3:303304 research organizations, 3:270 See also Government administration Central Huijin Investment Company, 1:134, 2:76 Central Investigation Department, 3:142 Central-local relationships, 1:190192 fiscal policy, 1:455456, 3:554555, 554556 public finance, 3:216220 science and technology policy, 3:339 Central Military Academy. See Whampoa Military Academy Central Military Commission armaments, 1:74 command structure, 3:108109 constitutions, 1:357 military control, 1:324 role and administration, 1:188190 Zhu De, 4:169 Central Military Leadership Group, 4:168
Central Motion Pictures Company, 2:50 Central Museum of the Revolution, 2:70 Central News Agency, 3:125 Central Organization Department, 1:191 Central Park, 2:112 Central Party School, 1:160 Central planning, 1:177180, 178t, 179f banking, 1:130 company forms, 1:339340 five-year plans, 2:5758 Great Leap Forward, 3:304 history, 2:217 industrial policy, 2:303304, 309 Central Propaganda Department, 1:173, 2:29, 3:186187 Central Radio and TV University, 1:490 Central Social Affairs Department, 3:142, 4:123 Central state organs, 1:180190, 1:182t183t Centralization of education, 3:545, 4:4142 Ceremonial dance, 1:386 A Certain Snowy Day in 1968 (Chen), 3:334 Cesarean births, 2:477 Chain stores, 1:429 Challenge-response theory, 2:224 Chambers of commerce, 1:321 Chan, Anson, 2:246 Chan, David, 2:376 Chan, Jackie, 2:48, 49, 3:36 Chan, Margaret, 2:347 Chang, Carsun. See Zhang Junmai Chang, Constance. See Zhang Shangpu Chang, Eileen, 1:193195, 1:298, 2:505, 4:46 Chang Bicheng, 1:195 Chang Jung, 2:367 Chang Tsongsong, 2:322 Chang Wanquan, 1:189 Chang Yu, 1:195 Changsha, 1:195197 Changsu. See Kang Youwei Chao, Y. R., 2:431 Chaoren (Bingxin), 1:145 Chaplin, Charlie, 2:582 Character dictionaries, 2:457458 Charities art societies, 1:100 beggars, 1:138 diaspora, 1:252 education, 1:475
414
Index
famine relief, 2:17 health care, 2:183 welfare services, 3:445 Yu Garden Calligraphy and Painting Charitable Association, 1:114 Charity schools, 1:462 Charter 08, 2:521, 3:184, 4:301304 Charter of Political Tutelage, 1:304 Chavannes, Edouard, 3:409410 Chavez, Hugo, 2:437 Chayu earthquake, 1:437 Chefoo Convention, 2:560561, 4:44, 72 Chemical fertilizer, 2:394 Chen, H. T., 1:386 Chen, Nai-Ni, 1:386 Chen Baichen, 3:133134 Chen Baoyi European modernism, 1:104 Japanese influence, 1:111, 112 modernist art, 2:619 oil painting, 3:48 Chen Baozhen, 3:251 Chen Bingde, 1:189 Chen Bingren, 2:278 Chen Boda, 2:276, 465 Chen Boping, 3:240 Chen Cheng, 3:19, 20 Chen Chuanlin, 3:122 Chen Cuifen, 3:510 Chen Da, 3:438 Chen Danqing, 3:325326 Chen Danxu, 1:317 Chen Duxiu, 1:197199 Anhui, 1:32 anti-Confucianism, 1:348 art history, 1:87 Bolshevik Communism, 1:334 Chinese Communist Party founding, 1:323 Chinese Marxism, 1:286 Comintern, 1:309, 310311 federalism, 2:28 filial piety, 2:37 intellectualism, 1:284 literati painting, 2:500 May Fourth movement, 1:113, 2:567 New Culture movement, 2:566 oil painting, 3:48 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Trotskyism, 3:615 United Front, 1:324325, 2:554 vernacular language literature, 2:504 Westernization, 4:74 Chen Fu, 3:615 Chen Fuli, 3:120, 3:121
Chen Fushan, 1:110 Chen Gang, 2:649 Chen Guangcheng, 3:276 Chen Hansheng, 3:439 Chen Henghe Shulin, 4:96 Chen Hengke, 1:263 Chen Hengque, 1:262 Chinese painting, 1:103 literati painting, 2:501 National Essence movement, 1:114 Chen Hengzhe, 2:504 Chen Hongmou, 1:462 Chen Hongshou calligraphy, 1:165 Chinese painting, 1:262 playing cards, 2:105 Shanghai school of painting, 1:101 Chen Huaiai, 4:126 Chen Jiageng, 1:241, 242243, 4:108 Chen Jing, 3:54 Chen Jinhua, 1:456, 457 Chen Jinshi, 3:122 Chen Jiongming China Zhigong Party, 1:406 feudalism, 1:227 Guangdong, 2:156 Sun Yat-sen, ousting of, 1:208, 3:512 Chen Jitang, 2:156 Chen Jun, 2:109 Chen Kaige, 1:199200, 2:4345 Chen Kunhou, 2:51 Chen Laingyu, 3:211 Chen Li, 1:23, 279 Chen Lifu, 3:19, 507 Chen Liting, 3:133134 Chen Muhua, 4:89 Chen Ping, 1:265 Chen Qigang, 2:639 Chen Qimei, 1:208 Chen Qiu, 2:169 Chen Qiyuan, 3:563 Chen Quan, 3:134 Chen Quzhen, 3:391 Chen Sanli, 2:503 Chen Shanyuan, 4:114 Chen Shaoxiong, 1:91 Chen Shizeng art history, 1:87 literati painting, 1:112 Western modernism and literati art, 1:536 Chen Shouqi, 3:292 Chen Shu, 4:101 Chen Shuibian, 1:201202, 2:459, 3:531 cross-strait relations, 3:544 Democratic Progressive Party, 3:549
presidency, 3:520 reunification, 2:84, 3:474 Song Meiling, burial of, 2:485 United Nations, 3:543, 545 United States, relations with, 4:10 Chen Shuren Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Japanese influence, 1:112 Lingnan school, 2:496, 498 Paris art exhibition, 4:116 Chen Tiegeng, 1:105, 3:32, 33 Chen Wanli, 3:118, 122 Chen Xiaocui, 4:91 Chen Xiaodie, 2:550 Chen Xiaoying, 2:496 Chen Xihe, 4:148 Chen Xilian, 2:470 Chen Xin, 3:30 Chen Xitong, 3:211 Chen Yan, 2:503 Chen Yanning, 3:49 Chen Yanqiao, 3:32 Chen Yi February 28 Incident, 3:538539 New Fourth Army, 3:103 Zhou Enlai, appointment by, 4:163 Chen Yifei, 3:42, 49 Chen Yiming, 3:333 Chen Yingning, 1:388 Chen Yingzhen, 2:507 Chen Yinke, 1:284, 2:225 Chen Yixi, 1:241 Chen Yonggui, 3:296 Chen Yuan historiography, 2:225 Ling Shuhua, association with, 2:495 Shen Congwen, association with, 3:391 woodblock printing, 4:95 Chen Yun, 1:202204 Communist Party history, 1:331 Deng Xiaoping, differences with, 1:411 gradualism, 2:181 Great Leap Forward, opposition to the, 1:408 inspection and audit, 2:327 Jiang Zemin, appointment of, 2:381 Long March, 2:528 Politburo Standing Committee, 2:265 Chen Zhanxiang, 2:469, 4:15 Chen Zhengxiang, 2:524 Chen Zhenlian, 1:89 Chen Zhi, 1:63
415
Index
Chen Zhifo, 1:105, 112, 316 Chen Zhili, 4:89 Chen Zhiqian, 2:185 Chen Zhongshi, 3:370 Chen Ziming, 1:422 Chenfang Ansheng. See Chan, Anson Cheng, Marcus, 3:202 Cheng Changgeng, 3:86, 87 Cheng Chongguang, 2:265 Cheng Conglin, 3:50, 325, 334 Cheng Danan, 1:4 Cheng Fangwu, 2:165, 446 Cheng Hongshou, 3:263 Cheng Jinguan, 3:51 Cheng Jingyi, 2:616 Cheng Long. See Chan, Jackie Cheng Maoyun, 3:7 Cheng Shifa, 3:384 Cheng Yanqiu, 2:581, 3:87 Cheng Zhang, 1:114 Cheng-Zhu Confucianism. See NeoConfucianism Chengdu, 1:204205, 265, 3:140 Chengdu N. 6B water treatment plant, 1:157 Chennault, Claire, 1:37, 3:16, 500 Chery company, 1:123, 150, 2:190 Chesneaux, Jean, 3:352, 4:96 Cheung, Leslie, 1:199, 2:49 Cheung, Maggie, 2:49 Cheung, Mark. See Zhang Zhaoda Chi Cheng. See Ji Zheng Chi Li, 2:506 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:206208, 207 Chiang Kai-shek, succession of, 1:211 Democratic Progressive Party, tolerance of the, 3:549 democratization, 3:567 elections, 1:504 military, 3:547 Nationalist Party, 3:19, 21 Youth Cadre Training School, 3:20 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:208212, 210, 2:353 anti-imperialism, 2:282 Anti-Japanese War, 4:64 Buck, Pearl S., attitude of, 1:153 Cairo Declaration, 3:538 Chiang, Ching-kuo, relationship with, 1:206208 civil war, 1:272 Comintern, 1:310 commercial elite, 1:322 Confucianism, 1:348 constitutionalism, 1:353 democratic ideas, 1:396 Dixie Mission, 1:212
Du Yuesheng, patronage of, 3:350 economic policy, 3:534 Fifth Encirclement campaign, 3:104 flood caused by military measure, 2:196 Flying Tigers, 1:37 Fourth Encirclement and Extermination campaign, 4:167 government administration, 2:139141 Guangdong, 2:155156 Hu Shi, appointment of, 1:284 internal pacification before external resistance policy, 1:36 international relations, 2:353 Japanese war criminals, 4:57 Jiangxi Soviet, 2:389 kidnapping of, 4:105 League of Nations, 2:343 Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi, disagreements with, 2:157 liberalism, opposition to, 2:473 Long March, 2:526528 Mao Dun, criticism by, 2:553 Marco Polo Bridge incident, 2:559560 martial arts, 3:479 mausoleum, 2:484 militarism, 2:591, 592593 military, 2:595596 military reform, 2:599 monetary policy, 1:362 Nanjing decade, 2:215 Nanjing Massacre, 3:2, 4 National Revolutionary Army, 1:78 nationalism, 3:1112 Nationalist government, 3:1417 Nationalist Party, 3:1820 New Life movement, 1:286, 4:80 Ningbo, 3:42 Northern Expedition, 3:4546 opium policy, 3:59 Outer Mongolia, 2:325 Paris group, 1:29 police, 3:142 political parties, 3:152 railways, 3:604 Shanghai, 3:375 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:382 Sichuan, 3:398399 Song Meiling, political involvement of, 4:88 Song Qingling, relationship with, 3:461, 462, 463 Song Ziwen, relationship to, 3:464 Stilwell, Joseph, relationship with, 3:499500, 4:123 study abroad, 3:507 Sun Yat-sen, relationship with, 3:512513
Taibei, 3:518 Taiwan politics, 3:529, 530 Three Principles of the People, 3:567 Tibet, 3:576 United Front, betrayal of the, 1:323 United States, support of the, 4:8 Wang Jingwei, association with, 4:4950 Wang Zhen, support of, 4:55 warlords, 2:213, 4:59 Whampoa Military Academy, 2:595, 599600 Xian Incident, 3:368369, 4:4 Yan Xishan, relationship with, 2:138139, 3:385 Yellow River flood, 1:37 Zeng Guofan, sayings of, 4:141 Zhou Enlai, association with, 4:162 Chide Zuzain, 2:609 Child abuse, 2:440441 Child care, 1:476, 2:910, 4:84 Child labor, 1:474, 4:97, 129 Child pornography, 2:440 Child protection, 1:433, 2:440441, 4:129 Childbearing, 3:146 Childbirth, 2:476477 Childhood, 2:477479 Children domestic violence, 1:430431, 433 migrant workers, 2:590 obesity, 2:65 privacy, 3:177 selling, 3:359 welfare activism, 1:153, 3:463 See also Laws on the protection of women and children Children of the Yellow Earth (Andersson), 1:47 Childrens songs, 2:643 China: Strategies for Reducing Poverty in the 1990s, 2:341 China Academy of Art, 1:91 China Art Gallery, 1:9596, 3:490 China Association for Promoting Democracy, 1:403 China Association for Science and Technology, 3:341342, 343 China Avant-Garde exhibition, 1:90, 91, 96, 108, 3:35 China Banking Regulatory Commission, 1:132, 133, 2:5556 China CARES, 2:230 China Central Television, 1:66, 67, 3:36, 562 China Construction Bank, 1:130, 133134
416
Index
China Country Programs, 2:340 China Defense League, 1:383384 China Democracy Party, 3:146 China Democratic League, 2:473, 3:152 China Democratic National Construction Association (CDNCA), 1:401403 China Development Bank, 2:5253 China Earthquake Administration, 1:438 China Education and Research Network (CER-NET), 1:490 China-Europe Global Navigation Satellite System Technical Training and Cooperation Center, 3:471472 China Falun Gong (Li), 2:1 China FAW-Volkswagen group, 2:190 China Hands, 1:212213, 3:499 China Industrial Development Company, 4:55 China Inland Mission, 2:614, 3:201 China Insurance Regulatory Commission (CIRC), 2:56 China International Center for Economic and Technical Exchanges (CICETE), 2:334, 340 China International Famine Relief Commission, 2:17 China International Trust and Investment Corporation, 1:131 China Investment Corporation, 2:75, 76 China Liberation Action Committee, 3:152 China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:213215, 214t Grand Canal, 2:146 Li Hongzhang, 2:210, 462 Liu Hongsheng, 2:516 China Mobile, 3:609 China National Academy of Fine Arts, 1:98 China National Nuclear Corporation, 1:521 China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC), 1:518 China National Publishing Administration, 3:222 China National Readers, 1:467 China National Tourism Office (CNTO), 3:582 China Netcom, 3:609 China News Service, 3:222 China Principles, 1:5253 China Publishing House, 3:221 China Qigong Scientific Research Association, 2:1
China Red Book on Endangered Faunas. See Zhongguo Binwei Dongwu Hongpishu China Reform Association, 2:402 China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC), 2:56 China-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park, 4:25 China Social Party, 3:454 China Statistical Yearbook, 3:497 China studies. See Sinology China Sun studio, 2:47 China Telecom, 3:608609 China threat, 2:83, 359, 4:11 China Under the Empress Dowager (Bland and Backhouse), 1:276 China Unicom, 3:608609 China Welfare Institute, 3:463 China Writers Association Ba Jin, 1:127 Gao Xingjian, 2:110 Lao She, 2:433 League of Left-Wing Writers as precursor to, 2:447 Mao Dun, 2:553 publishing industry, 3:223 Wang Anyi, 4:46 Xiao Qian, 4:109 Zuzhibu laile ge nianqingren (Wang), condemnation of, 4:51 China Youth Corps, 3:20 China Youth Development Foundation, 1:475 China Zhigong Party, 1:405406 Chinas Agenda 21, 1:215217, 532 Chinas Destiny (Chiang), 4:218220 Chinas Institute of Contemporary International Relations (CICIR), 3:143 Chinas National Defense in 2006, 1:74 Chinas New Art (exhibition), 1:82 Chinatowns, 1:247250, 249, 251 Chinese Academy of Engineering, 3:265 Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, 2:579 Chinese Academy of Sciences engineering education, 3:265 high technology, 2:202 research, 3:267, 270 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 3:270, 439 Chinese Americans, 2:286, 3:51 Chinese Art Treasures (exhibition), 1:81 Chinese Artists Association, 1:98, 116 Chinese Buddhist Association, 1:156 Chinese Catholics, 3:256257
Chinese-chess, 2:105106 Chinese Christians, 2:616, 3:256257, 567570 Chinese civilization origins, 1:4546, 56 The Chinese Classics, 2:451, 452 Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders, 2:233, 3:364 Chinese Communist Party, 1:180190, 322331, 325t, 329 All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 anti-Christian/anti-missionary sentiment, 1:3536 Anti-Japanese War, 1:38 autonomous regions, 3:207208 Chen Duxiu, work with, 1:197 Chen Yun, 1:202204 Chu Anping, criticism by, 1:266 Ding Ling, 1:419 Dixie Mission, 1:212 Fan Changjiang, 2:20 Fang Lizhi, expulsion of, 2:21 Hainan, 2:168 Harbin, 2:180 Hu Feng, conflicts with, 2:255 Inner Mongolia, 2:325 Jian Zemin, 2:381384 Jiangxi, 2:215, 389 Korean War, 2:407408 Liu Shaoqi, 2:517520 Long March, 2:526528 Luo Gongliu, 2:536537 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Manchuria, 2:550 Mao Zedong, role of, 2:554 minority membership, 3:208t Northern Expedition, 3:4546 Peng Dehuai, 3:9495 Red Star over China (Snow), 3:416417 Republican era, 2:214216 research, 3:270 Second United Front, 3:1516 Sun Yat-sen, alliance with, 3:18 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:567570 united front work, 4:35 warlord era, 2:213 Yanan, 4:122123 Zhang Junmai, opposition of, 4:146147 Chinese Communist Party criminal justice policy death penalty, 1:389390 drugs and narcotics, 1:433436 penal system, 3:9194 Chinese Communist Party cultural policy art history, 1:106107 art photography, 3:119, 121
417
Index
Chinese Communist Party cultural policy, continued art policy, 1:115117 censorship, 1:173174 documentary photography, 3:122124 fashion, 2:24 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829 graphic arts, 1:105 history, 1:369370 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446, 499500, 504505 literature, 4:154 literature of national defense, 2:502503 monuments, 2:628629 newspapers, 2:399400, 3:3839 pictorial magazines, 3:131 propaganda, 3:185187 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:644646 propaganda art, 3:188191, 192 propaganda photography, 3:126127 publishing industry, 3:221222 qigong, 3:229 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Chinese Communist Party economic policy Agrarian Reform Law, 2:425426, 3:300301 banking nationalization, 1:132 Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 4:256257 credit cooperatives, 3:307308 domestic trade, 1:428429 gradualism, 3:595596 handicrafts, 2:176 industrial labor, 4:98 military enterprises, 3:112115 political/economic link, 1:461 rural development policy, 3:296 state-owned enterprises, 3:493494, 496 unit, 4:2 Chinese Communist Party education policy higher education, 1:482 rural education, 1:466 Chinese Communist Party foreign policy foreign policy, 2:8184 international relations, 2:354 Russia, relations with, 3:318322 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413
Chinese Communist Party history, 1:331333, 2:216219, 4:276277, 284285, 298300 Chinese Communist Party military policy armed services command structure, 3:108109 army and politics, 1:79 military culture and tradition, 2:596, 600 military doctrine, 3:110112 military enterprises, 3:112115 militias, 2:601 Chinese Communist Party organization and governance corruption, 1:363366 democratic centralism and the mass line, 1:229 government administration, 1:196197, 2:140141 inspection and audit, 2:327 leadership struggles and prodemocracy movements, 3:182183 local government, 3:205 municipalities under central control, 3:211 party-state relations, 1:182t183t political control, 3:146 political representation, 3:155157 political succession, 3:157159 provincial representation, 3:206, 207 secret police, 3:142 Chinese Communist Party philosophy Chinese Marxism, 1:220 Chinese revolutionary movement, 1:335336 Comintern, influence of the, 1:309311 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:334335 comradeship, 2:530 constitutions, 1:356357 harmonious society, 2:180181 ideological education, 1:495 liberalism, opposition to, 2:473 mass movements, 1:230232 moral education, 1:492 nationalism, 3:1213 New Democracy, 3:2830 New Left, influence of the, 3:31 peasant nationalism, 2:295296 peasantry, 3:7981 postrevolutionary Marxism, 1:232234 proletarian consciousness, 1:222 revolutionary intellectuals, 1:283 socialism, 3:454 Trotskyism, 3:615
Chinese Communist Party religious policy Buddhism, 1:155156 popular religion, 3:161 Chinese Communist Party social policy beggars, 1:139 dissidents, 1:420423 gender relations, 2:115116 human rights, 2:268 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 nongovernmental organizations, 2:141142 peasants, 3:8283 social and community organizations, 3:418 social classes, 3:424 sports, 3:481 traditional Chinese medicine, views on, 1:4 women, status of, 4:84 Chinese Consultative Peoples Political Conference (CCPPC), 1:356 Chinese Consumers Association, 1:360 Chinese Cultural Renaissance movement, 1:211, 348, 350 Chinese culture. See Culture; Traditional Chinese culture Chinese Daoist Association, 1:388 Chinese Democratic Socialist Party, 4:147 Chinese Domestic Furniture (Ecke), 2:99 Chinese Eastern Railway, 2:178, 377, 3:323 Chinese exclusion laws, 1:153, 256257, 257t258t Chinese Girls School, 1:465 Chinese Household Furniture (Kates), 2:99 Chinese Imperial Government Fuzhou 8 percent loan, 2:79 Chinese Independent Art Association, 1:111, 2:620 Chinese ink painting Hong Kong, 1:110 Mao era, 1:106 New Ink Painting movement, 4:92 Taiwan, 1:110 Chinese International Trust and Investment Company (CITIC), 1:402, 403 Chinese Landscape Painting (exhibition), 1:81 Chinese-language program, 4:43 Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217219 duty collection, 3:552 foreign trade, 2:86
418
Index
Hart, Robert, 2:181182 rights-recovery movement, 2:352 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 treaty ports, 3:611612 Chinese Marxism, 1:219234 intellectual debate, 1:286 Liu Shaoqi, 2:518 May Fourth movement, 1:322323 morality, 2:630 New Democracy, 3:29 propaganda art, 3:189 Revolution of 1911, interpretation of the, 3:273 social classes, 3:421 social sciences, 3:439 socialist realism, 3:456457 Chinese National Amateur Athletic Federation (CNAAF), 3:51 Chinese National Socialist Party, 4:146147 Chinese overseas, 1:234261 ASEAN, 1:118119 Australia, 1:121 China Zhigong Party, 1:405406 dancers, 1:386 dialects, 1:417 diet, 2:64 from Fujian, 2:95 Guangdong, 2:154 Hakkas, 2:174 Hokkien, 2:230 identification and belonging, 2:281282 identity, 2:284286 investment in China, 2:77 investment in Fujian, 2:95 Kang Youwei, 2:402 labor outmigration, 2:420423 Latin American states, 2:435 scientists and engineers, 3:339 special economic zones, 3:475 tourism, 3:579, 586588 United Kingdom, 4:7 Wenzhou, 4:7273 Yang Zhenning, 4:127 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Chinese painting, 1:104, 261265, 262, 264 art history, 1:103 connoisseurship, 1:351 literati painting, 2:500502 National Essence Movement, 1:113115 women artists, 4:9192 Chinese Painting Society, 1:99, 115 Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party, 1:404, 3:152 The Chinese People Have Stood Up (Mao), 4:224225
Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) Chinese Communist Party history, 1:326 The Chinese People Have Stood Up (Mao), 4:224225 Common Program of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 4:221223 democratic parties, 1:401 political parties, 3:156 role and administration, 1:181, 183184 united front work, 4:45 Chinese Peoples Volunteer Force (CPVF), 2:407 Chinese Renaissance Society, 2:2122 Chinese revival architecture, 1:6061 Chinese Revolutionary Party, 1:208 Chinese Socialist Youth League. See Communist Youth League Chinese Society of Architects, 1:60, 64 Chinese studies. See Sinology A Chinese Winters Tale (Yu), 1:432 Chinese Youth Party, 3:152 Chineseness, 2:649651 Chinoiserie, 2:316318, 317 Chirac, Jacques, 2:92 Chistiakov, Pavel, 3:457 Chiu Chau, 3:350351 Chlorofluorocarbons, 1:527 Choi Shunghui, 1:384 Chongqing, 1:265266 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:457 domestic trade, 1:427 film, 2:39 government, 3:210211 Sichuan, split from, 3:399 Choo, Jimmy, 2:25 Choreography. See Dance Chou Wen-chung, 3:550 Chow, Stephen, 2:49, 3:36 Chow Tse-tsung, 2:568 Chow Yun-fat, 2:49 Christian Local Assembly, 3:202 Christian mission schools, 1:492493 Christian universities and colleges, 1:486489 Christianity Taiping Uprising, 3:520526 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:567570 See also Catholicism; Missionaries; Protestantism Christies auction house, 1:93, 108 A Chronicle of Changing Clothes (Chang), 1:298
Chu Anping, 1:266267 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:277, 278 journalism, 2:400 prodemocracy movement, 3:183184 Chu Ge, 1:165 Chu Minyi, 3:482 Chuangzao She. See Creation Society Chun, Prince, 1:391 Chunshui huayuan. See Spring Slumber Studio Church architecture, 1:60, 68 Churchill, Winston, 2:353 Cairo Conference, 2:353354, 3:538 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Chytil, Vojtech, 1:80 Cian Cixi, association with, 1:273 Zaichun, reign of, 1:507 Cigarette cards, 1:312 Cijin Island, 2:403 Circuit intendants, 2:133 Circular migration, 2:417, 588589, 3:426 Citizenship, 1:239, 2:241242 City and regional planning, 1:267269 Beijing, 1:140 Nanjing, 3:34 Taibei, 3:517518 Xiamen, 4:108 City Beautiful movement, 3:2 City Planning Act, 1:268, 4:21 Civics textbooks, 1:467468 Civil administration, 3:234, 4:141 Civil Aviation Administration, 3:606 Civil engineering, 1:60 Civil law codified law, 1:304, 305 customary law, 1:376377 domestic violence, 1:430 family law, 2:67 Nanjing Decade, 2:214 procedure, 2:443 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:378382 womens rights, 4:83 Civil-military relations Beiyang clique, 1:143 Communist forces, 2:600 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:106107 Civil rights Buck, Pearl S., activism of, 1:153 Chinese overseas, 1:255 civil law, 1:305
419
Index
Civil rights, continued The Common Program of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 4:221223 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, 4:277279 constitutionalism, 1:352353 constitutions, 1:354, 355, 356 international criticism, 2:270 penal system, 3:9293 Rights Defense movement, 3:274276 Civil service cadre system, 1:159161 development zones, 4:2425 Hong Kong, 2:244245, 246 Qing official incomes, 2:131 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150151 Zhao Ziyang, 4:156 Civil service examination system. See Examination system Civil society, 1:269271 Sino-European relations, 1:538 social and community organizations, 3:420 Civil war, 1:271273 banking, 1:129130 Chen Yun, 1:203 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:210211 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 effects of, 4:6566 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 film, 2:3940 following Anti-Japanese War, 1:40 government administration, 2:140141 Guangxi, 2:157 Hebei, 2:191 Hong Kong, refugees in, 2:236 intellectuals, split in the, 1:284 international relations, 2:353 Lin Biao, 2:486487 Manchuria, 2:550 Mao Zedong, 2:555 Marshall mission, 2:215 migration, 2:329 military, 2:596597 military culture and tradition, 2:600 military enterprises, 3:112 missionaries, 2:616 music, 2:644 Nationalist government, 3:17 New Fourth Army, 3:103 Peng Dehuai, 3:9495 Republican era, 4:64 Shandong, 3:373 Shanxi, 3:385 United States involvement, 4:8 Zhang Junmai, 4:147 Civilian aircraft, 1:76
Civilian space program, 3:471 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:273276, 274 decision making, 2:130 Forbidden City, 2:67 Garden of Sustenance in Peace, 2:111 Hundred Days Reform, 2:402 Hundred Days Reform, end of the, 2:276 occupation and peace treaties, 4:63 opera, 3:87 palaces, 2:290 political power, 4:87 reform, 2:210, 3:250251 Sino-French War, 3:406 six martyrs, 4:151 summer palace, 2:291 Yu Rongling, performances of, 1:383 Yuan Shikai, association with, 4:133 Zaichun, relationship with, 1:507508 Zaitian, reign of, 1:508509 Zhang Zhidong, association with, 4:150 Clans Cantonese, 1:167168 Chinatowns, 1:248 lineage, 2:492495 villages, 4:36, 38 Yunnan, 4:136137 Class, social. See Social classes Class struggle, 2:383, 3:92, 246247 Class Teacher (Liu), 3:335 Classic Uprightness Girls School, 1:493 Classical poetry, 3:135136, 137 Classical scholarship, 1:276288 calligraphy, 1:536 elimination from curriculum, 1:465 Gong Zizhen, 2:127 Hainan, 2:167 Jiang Qing, 1:3 Kang Youwei, 2:401 Zhang Zhidong, 4:152 Claudot, Andre, 2:488 Clean Development Mechanism, 1:521 Cleaner Production Strategy, 1:216 Clement XI, Pope, 1:170, 3:232 Clergy, 1:386388, 3:260262 Clerks, 2:135 Climate, 1:289298 air temperature, 1:294f, 295f, 296f, 297f climatic regimes, 1:290f climatic zones, 1:291f Fuzhou, 2:101 Guangzhou, 2:160 Hebei, 2:190
Huai River, 3:282 Hunan and Hubei, 2:271272 Jinan, 2:396 natural resources, 3:2223 Ningxia, 3:43 precipitation, 1:292f, 293f, 294f Qingdao, 3:235236 Sichuan, 3:400 Xian, 4:105 Climate change, 1:292295 Clinical research, 1:5, 2:577 Clinics, medical, 2:569570 Clinton, Bill, 4:74 economic relations, 4:10 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 Wei Jingsheng, release of, 1:394 Close, Chuck, 3:326 Cloth, 1:301 Cloth (rock band), 2:642 Clothing, 1:298, 298302, 299 brands, 1:150 ethnic minorities, 2:611 See also Fashion Cloud Gate Theater, 2:649 Clubb, O. Edmund, 1:212 Clunas, Craig, 1:89 Co-hong, 3:60 Coal central planning, 1:178 distribution, 1:428 electricity generation, 1:522 imports and exports, 3:602t Inner Mongolia, 2:326 Jiangxi, 2:393 Liu Hongsheng, 2:516 mine safety, 2:410 mineral rights, 2:604 output, 2:603f production and consumption, 1:515517, 2:602 railways, 3:605 resources, 3:25 safety record, 1:517 Shandong, 3:371 Shenyang, 3:393 shipping, 3:602603 Coastal navigation, 1:424, 3:371, 601 Coastal regions central-local relationships, 1:191 climate, 1:289 foreign investment, 2:78, 79 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 migrant workers, 2:588 ports, 3:599 service sector, 3:355 Coastal waters, 1:525526 Cobra, 2:641
420
Index
Coco Ma. See Ma Ke Cocoon trade, 3:401403 Codified law, 1:302306, 2:214, 3:199 See also Qing Code Coeducation, 1:465, 493 Cohabitation, 2:562 Cohen, Paul A., 2:225 Cohung, 1:442 Coins, 1:361362, 2:626, 3:415 Cold literature, 2:110 Cold War China Hands, 1:212213 defense planning, 1:267268 diaspora and homeland, 1:252 Europe, 1:537 Germany, 2:123 imperialism, 2:296 international relations, 2:354, 355357 Korea, 2:404 Korean War aftermath, 2:408 Macao, 2:541 Middle Eastern states, 2:585 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634 Olympics, 3:5253 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413 Snow, Edgar, 3:417 Southeast Asia, 3:469 study abroad, 3:507508 Taiwan, 1:211 United States, 4:89 Collaboration international research, 3:271 science, 3:269, 343344 space program, 3:471472 Collection of Essays Criticizing the Thought of Hu Shi, 1:287 Collections and collecting, 1:306309 art market, 1:92 books, 2:474, 4:9394 European collectors of Chinese antiquities, 1:42 Forbidden City, 2:68 furniture, 2:99100 imperial, 2:199200 museums, 1:95 New Print movement, 3:32 playing cards, 2:105 woodblocks, 4:96 Wu Hufan, 4:99100 Zhang Daqian, 4:142, 143 Collective bargaining, 2:411, 3:503 Collective ethic, 3:149 Collective identity, 3:82 Collective welfare model, 3:430
Collectives companies, 1:341342 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 township and village enterprises, 3:315 Collectivization agricultural production, 1:15 brands, 1:149 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 credit cooperatives, 3:307 domestic trade, 1:428 Great Leap Forward, 3:304305 handicrafts, 2:176 heavy industry, 2:187 household responsibility system, 2:248249 industrial policy, 2:308 land use, 2:428 Mao Zedong, 2:555556 peasants, 3:80, 8283 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217 rice production, 1:18 rural cooperative medical systems, 3:294 rural development, 3:302 sent-down educated youth, 3:352353 shops, 3:396 social policy programs, 3:430 social welfare, 3:441 standard of living, 3:486 tea cultivation, 3:559 timber trade, 1:2122 Twenty-three Articles, 4:241247 College entrance examinations, 1:474, 483 Colonialism. See British colonialism; Imperialism; Japanese colonialism Colonization. See Internal migration and colonization Comedy, 3:36 Comfort women, 1:39, 3:198, 200, 4:57 Comics, 1:313315 Comintern, 1:309311 anti-imperialism, 2:295 Borodin, Mikhail, 3:512 democratic centralism, 1:228 Mao Zedongs relationship with, 2:554555 New Democracy, 3:29 Popular Front, 4:123 United Front, 1:323324 united front work, 4:4 Command-and-control mechanisms, 3:252 Command economy, 1:177, 3:176
Command structure of the armed services, 3:108110, 108t, 109t, 110t Commemorative music, 2:643, 644 Commensality, 3:436 Commerce. See Domestic trade; Retail sector Commercial art, 1:311320, 312 Commercial banking. See Banking Commercial code, 1:303 Commercial elite, 1:320322 Commercial law, 1:304, 376, 2:443 Commercial Press, 1:467, 512, 2:509 Commercialization art history, 1:108 art in Taiwan, 1:110 domestic trade, 1:425 film, 2:4344 housing, 2:253 kindergarten, 1:476 literature, 2:506 military enterprises, 3:114 peasant paintings, 3:196 publishing industry, 3:222224 technology, 3:337 Commission for Army Reorganization, 4:61 Commission for Integrated Survey of Natural Resources (CISNAR), 3:23 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:456457 Commission on Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense, 1:7475 Commissions, 1:186188 Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars, 2:366 Committee on Public Information (U.S.), 2:399 Committee on the Authentication of Ancient Chinese Calligraphy and Painting, 1:88 Commodities Commodity Inspection Bureau, 1:360 domestic trade, 1:428 dual-track pricing, 1:457458 Commodity housing, 4:2223 Common Program of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:183, 356, 4:221223 Communal religious traditions, 3:159162 Communes. See Peoples communes Communications domestic trade, 1:426 infrastructure, 3:608609 Outer and Inner Courts, 2:129130
421
Index
Communications, continued Skinnerian model of urbanization, 4:1516 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 4:256257 Communist thought, 1:333336 brands, 1:149 Communist Youth League, 1:337 cult of Mao, 3:115117 East Central European states, 1:439440 education, 1:495 gender roles, 4:38 How to Be a Good Communist (Liu), 4:214217 Khrushchev-Mao disagreements, 3:318320 Liu Shaoqi, 2:517518, 520 party history, revision of, 1:332333 prodemocracy movement, 3:183184 propaganda, 3:185187 rituals, 2:8 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413, 412413 socialist realism, 3:456457 Trotskyism, 3:614616 utopia, 2:217218 Westernization, 4:75 women, 4:8889 See also Chinese Communist Party; Korean Communist Party; Soviet Communism Communist Youth League, 1:336 Deng Xiaoping, 1:407 Hu Jintao, 2:256 Hu Yaobang, 2:261 Xiao Qian, 4:109 Communities baojia system, 1:136137 government, 3:214215 militias, 2:601 rehabilitation centers, 3:446 self-defense, 1:136137 unit, 4:23 Community care, 1:337339 Community organizations. See Social and community organizations Companies, 1:339345, 2:443 commercial elite, 1:321 engineering research, 3:265266 financial regulation, 2:55 Taiwan, 3:536 township and village enterprises, 3:593 Company Law amendment, 1:343, 344
Comparative advantage, 1:344 Comparative religions, 2:452 Compass school fengshui, 2:3334 Compatriot tourism, 3:586587 Competition architecture, 1:60 domestic trade, 1:429 domestic vs. foreign enterprises, 2:312, 314315 domestic vs. foreign investors, 2:79 environmental issues, 1:527 high technology, 2:202205 industrial policy, 2:310 joint ventures, 1:345 service sector, 3:356 sports, 3:480481 weddings and status competition, 2:479 Competitive bidding, 1:156157 Composers mass mobilization music, 2:643646 popular music, 2:640 Tan Dun, 3:550551 Western and Russian influence, 2:647651 Compradors, 1:345346, 2:515516, 4:28 Comprehensive Archives, 1:69 Compressed development, 2:415416 Compulsory education law, 1:474 reform era, 1:470 republican era, 1:465 Taiwan, 3:540, 545 vocational education, 4:41 Compulsory military service, 3:547548 Compulsory social health insurance, 1:510 Concessions, 3:344345 imperialism, 2:294 international relations, 2:349 loans, 2:80, 331, 332 minerals, 2:603604 post Sino-Japanese War, 2:350351 power politics in East Asia, 2:352353 railways, 3:603604 Shanghai, 3:374375 Sino-Japanese War, 3:408 Soviet Union, 3:318 Tianjin, 3:572 Treaty of Nanking, 4:190192 Treaty of Shimonoseki, 4:202204 Treaty of Tianjin, 4:195196 Twenty-one Demands, 4:208209 unequal treaties, 2:360 Concubinage, 2:5, 562, 4:38
Conductors Tan Dun, 3:550551 Conference of all Circles of Society, 1:422 Confucian capitalism, 3:436 Confucian classical scholarship. See Classical scholarship Confucian gentry. See Gentry Confucianism, 1:347351, 349 adoption, 1:5 Ba Jin, 1:127128 childhood, 2:477478 classical poetry, 3:136 classical scholarship, 1:276277 clergy, 3:260261 clothing, 1:300 democracy, 1:395396 Diary of a Madman (Lu), 2:566 disabled elderly, 3:446 elderly, role of the, 2:89 examination system, 1:539542 family, 2:35, 213, 481482 family-based care, 3:443 feudalism, 1:228 filial piety, 2:37 gender relations, 2:114, 117 government, purpose of, 3:247248 great harmony, 2:181 Hundred Days Reform, 2:210 imperialism, 2:293 individual rights, 2:302303 intellectuals, 1:282283 marriage, 2:563 military, 2:591 missionaries, 2:615 moral economy, 3:551 moral education, 1:462, 466467, 492493 morality, 2:630, 631 nationalism, 3:10 New and Old Text schools, 1:280281 New Text scholarship, 2:221222 penal system, 3:9091 political culture, 3:146, 148149 popular religion vs., 3:160 Qing dynasty, 2:208209 Qing restoration, 3:234 social classes, 3:421 social rituals, 3:436 socialization and pedagogy, 3:457458 spiritual humanism, 1:286 sports, 3:479 state cult, 3:493 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 Taiwan education, 3:545 technology, 2:311 Wei Yuan, 4:6667 women, status of, 4:82
422
Index
Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Zhang Junmai, 4:146, 147 Confucius food, 2:6061 gardens, 2:111 Confucius Institutes, 2:359, 363 Congress of Soviet Writers, 3:456 Connoisseurship, 1:351352 Conservation, wildlife, 3:2526 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, 4:277279 Constitutionalism, 1:352354, 3:151 Constitutions, 1:354355, 355357 autonomous regions, 3:207 central state organs, 1:181 Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:183 Common Program of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 4:221223 elections, 1:503, 504 intellectual debates, 1:285 language policy, 2:433 law courts, 2:439 local government elections, 3:205 minority nationalities, 2:606 Nationalist government, 3:14 Nationalist Party, 3:18 presidency and vice presidency, 1:186 public finance, 3:219 reform, 3:251 social welfare, 3:440 special administrative regions, 3:473 State Council, 1:186 Three Principles of the People, 3:513 Zhang Junmai, 4:147 Zhang Zhidong, 4:152 Construction, 2:304f Beijing, 1:65, 67, 141 development zones, 4:24 environmental impact statements, 1:531 Forbidden City, 2:67 Guangzhou, 2:161 heritage protection, 2:201 industrial planning, 1:267 Peoples Republic of China building campaign, 2:220 urban areas, 4:20 Consular courts, 1:543 Consuls Chinese overseas, 1:239 settlement administration, 2:72 treaty ports, 3:611612 Consumer goods, 2:312313 Consumer price inflation, 1:453f Consumer protection, 1:360
Consumption beef, 1:21 energy, 1:515 food-calorie, 1:15 grain, 1:1214 oil and natural gas, 1:518 pork, 1:19 tea, 3:558 Consumption and consumer cultures, 1:357361, 359 brands, 1:148149, 150, 152 conspicuous consumption, 2:494 leisure, 2:454455 lineage, 2:494 Nanjing Road, 3:375 National Products movement, 3:89 shops, 3:394397 standard of living, 3:486487, 487, 488 tourism, 3:583584 Container ports, 3:599 Contemporary art, 1:82 Continuing education, 1:490, 3:546 Contraception birth-planning policy, 3:169170 marriage, 2:481 population policy, 3:167 Contract labor system, 1:244245, 2:415 Contract Responsibility System, 1:134135 Contracts build-operate-transfer contracts, 1:156157 customary law, 1:376 extraterritoriality, 1:543 labor law, 3:503 reform era, 2:442 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:381 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 2:200 Convention of Beijing, 2:349, 3:62, 572 Convention of Peking, 2:234 Convention on Biological Diversity, 1:513 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1:513 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 2:200 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 4:56
Convention on the Rights of the Child, 4:129 Convention on World Heritage Sites, 3:581 Cookbooks, 2:63 Coolies, 1:244 emigration policy, 1:239 Hong Kong, 2:235 opium smuggling, 3:414 overseas Chinese, 1:235, 237, 243246 Cooperative medical systems. See Rural cooperative medical systems Copper and silver, 1:361363, 362 foreign loans, 2:80 foreign trade, 2:85, 86 Great Depression, 2:148149 money and monetary policy, 2:625627 nineteenth-century silver supply, 2:206 opium trade, 3:60 production, 2:603 Silver Purchase Policy, 1:362 silver standard, 2:149f Copying program, 1:71 Cormon, Fernand, 2:488 Coromaldi, Umberto, 3:72 Corporal punishment, 1:430431, 433 Corporate branding, 1:149152 Corporate capitalism, 2:322 Corporate income tax, 3:554555 Corporate law, 1:339341, 342343 Corrections. See Criminal justice system Correlative cosmology, 1:366367 Corruption, 1:363366, 365 Chen Shuibian, 1:202 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328, 3:428 Heshen, 2:205 illegal land deals, 2:430 inspection and audit, 2:327 Jiang Zemin era, 2:257 Liaoning, 2:471 local government, 3:317 Macau, 2:542 Nationalist Party, 3:21, 549 princelings, 3:427 Qing dynasty, 3:233 Qing restoration, 3:234 smuggling, 3:416 Suzhou, 3:515 Tian Fengshan, 2:194195 township and village enterprises, 3:315 Zhu Rongji, 4:170 Cosco Pacific, 3:600
423
Index
Cosmetics, 1:150 Cosmology, 1:366368 Cost of living, 2:298, 3:476 Costas, Bob, 3:54 Costs desertification, 1:412 education, 1:470, 497500, 498t, 499f, 500t health care for the elderly, 2:10 joint ventures, 1:344 outmigration, 2:421 Cotter, Holland, 1:351 Cotton industry domestic trade, 1:428 industrialization, 2:313 Jiangsu, 2:385 mills, 3:288289 textile industry, 3:564566 Council of State, 1:275 Counterrevolutionaries crimes, 1:389 dissidents, 1:421 human rights, 2:270 punishment, 3:9192 urban proletarian, 1:225 Country Assistance Strategy, 2:341 Country Cooperation frameworks, 2:340 County administration, 2:133134 County government, 3:209210 Courbet, Amedee, 3:406 Court administration, 2:276 Court Diaries, 1:71 Court rituals, 3:492 Courtesans Sai Jinhua, 3:329330 Courtyard house, 2:250 The Craft of Gardens (Ji), 2:111 Creation Society, 2:165, 499, 4:130 Credit agricultural banking, 3:313314 consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 farmers, 2:428 foreign banks, 2:622 microfinancing, 2:584 See also Banking; Foreign loans; Loans Credit cooperatives, 3:307308, 312, 313314 Credit ticket system, 1:244245 Crescent Moon Society, 2:495, 499, 4:118 Cret, Paul Philippe, 1:60 Crime baojia system, 1:136137 family responsibility, 2:5 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350352 reform through labor, 1:501502
Crimes against humanity. See War crimes Criminal justice system arrest and detention, 2:445 codified law, 1:302304 Criminal Procedure Law, 2:271 death penalty, 1:388390 drugs and narcotics, 1:436 exemplary deterrence, 1:492 human rights issues, 2:270 penal system, 3:8994 prostitution, 3:198 reform era laws, 2:445 reform through labor, 1:501502 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:380 Criminalization of homosexuality, 2:233 Criminology, 1:304 Cross-strait relations. See Taiwan Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (film), 2:448, 2:448449, 3:550 Crow, Carl, 2:399 Cuba, 1:245, 2:435, 436 Cuba Commission Report, 1:245 Cuban missile crisis, 3:413 Cui Jian, 1:368369, 2:47, 641 Cui Wei, 4:126 Cui Zhiyuan, 1:288, 3:30 Cuisine beggars, 1:137 elite, 2:62 Fuzhou, 2:102 Cult of Lu Dongbin, 1:387 Cult of Mao, 3:116 art, 1:108, 3:197 central committees repudiation of, 2:217 history, 3:115117 humanism and alienation debate, 1:288 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 Li Rui, criticism by, 2:413 Little Red Book, 1:375, 2:487 Peng Dehuai, objections of, 3:95 propaganda art, 3:189190 propaganda photography, 3:127 sculpture, 3:348 Yanan, 4:122, 123 Cultivation land use, 2:428430 opium, 3:60 peasantry, 3:77 Qing dynasty land use, 2:427 Cultural Christians, 3:203204 Cultural criticism, 2:490491 Cultural development, 4:20 Cultural education, 1:80 Cultural evolution, 4:40 Cultural heritage. See Heritage protection; Heritage sites
Cultural heroes, 2:532 Cultural history architecture, 1:58 art history and historiography, 1:8589 historiography, 2:225 Cultural imperialism, 3:202 Cultural knowledge, 3:585 Cultural policy, 1:369371 archaeology, 1:5456 art policy, 1:115117 folk art, 2:60 minority nationalities, 2:607 music, 2:648 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Cultural relations and exchanges dance, 1:383 Germany, 2:124 Guangzhou, 2:159 higher education, 1:481 intellectuals, 1:283 Japan, 2:374 Mei Lanfang, 2:582 socialist realism, 3:457 Soviet art influence, 1:117 Cultural Relics Protection Law, 2:200 Cultural Revolution, 1:371376, 372, 2:218 All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 Ba Jin, persecution of, 1:129 central government structure, 1:187 Chen Yun, 1:203 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326327 Communist Youth League, 1:336337 Deng Xiaoping, 1:408409 Fan Changjiang, 2:20 Guo Moruo, 2:166 Harbin, 2:180, 194 Henan, 2:198 Hong Kong, 2:236 Hu Yaobang, 2:261 Hua Guofeng, 2:263 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 Li Fengmian, 2:488 Lin Biao, 2:487 Liu Shaoqi, 2:520 Luo Gongliu, 2:537 Mao Zedong, 2:557 Pan Tianshou, 3:71 Pang Xunqin, 3:74 Red Guards, 3:246247 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:413 The Song of Youth (Yang), 4:126 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:569 united front work, 4:5
424
Index
women in politics, 4:89 Wuhan, 4:101102 xiafang, 4:107 Xie Jin, 4:110 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Zhao Shuli, 4:154 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 Zhou Yang, 2:503, 4:166 Zhu De, 4:169 Cultural Revolution, cultural policy of the architecture, 1:6465 art policy, 1:116 art products, 3:196197 Chen Kaige, films of, 1:199 Chinese painting, 1:264 cynical realism, 3:154 dance, 1:384385 documentary photography, 3:123124 fashion, 2:24 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 film, 2:41 folk art, 2:60 hairstyle, 2:171 history, 1:370 journalism, 2:400 literature, 2:506 Maoist art, 2:321322 misty poetry, 3:138139 museums, 2:636 music, 2:649 New Model Operas, 4:75 oil painting, 3:4950 peasant painting, 3:194195 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645646 propaganda art, 3:189, 190 radio, 3:243 rustic realism, 3:325 sacred sites, destruction of, 3:161 sculpture and public art, 3:346, 348 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Cultural Revolution, economic policy of the five-year plans, 2:58 industrial policy, 2:187 industrialization, 2:306 reverse urbanization, 4:29 Cultural Revolution, education policy of the education policy, 1:469470 higher education, 1:483 key-point schools, 1:473 womens education, 1:493
Cultural Revolution, military policy of the armed forces grades and ranks, 3:110 militarism, 2:593 militias, 2:601 Cultural Revolution, political philosophy of the anarchist movement, 1:29 constitutions, 1:356 humanism and alienation debate, 1:288 mass movements, 1:231232 political culture, 3:149150 Cultural Revolution, religious policy of the Buddhism, 1:156 Confucianism, 1:350 Islam, 2:370 Cultural Revolution, social policy of the class, 1:226 dissidents, 1:421422 gender relations, 2:116 health care, 4:36 homosexuality, 2:233 housing, 2:252 human rights, 2:268 labor insurance, 3:441442 minority nationalities, 2:606 peasantry, 3:80 poverty, 3:173 self-reliance, 2:87 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 women, status of, 4:84 youth, 4:129 Cultural Revolution legacy Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci (Deng), 4:272276 art, depictions in, 1:108 Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 4:247252 party history, revision of, 1:333 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 political pop, 3:153 reversal of verdicts, 2:264265 scar literature, 3:335 Cultural theorists, 3:456 Cultural tourism, 2:174 Culturalism, 3:10 Culture, 2:198 autonomous regions, 3:208 beggars, 1:137138 Beijing, 1:142 Boxer Uprising, 1:148 brands, 1:150 diaspora and homeland, 1:252253
ethnic minorities, 2:611612 Fujian, 2:97 Henan, 2:196 Hokkien, 2:231232 Mao era, 4:19 national minorities, 2:610611 New Culture movement, 2:566 New Life movement, 2:215 Qingdao, 3:237 regionalism, 3:253 Resolution on the Construction of Socialist Spiritual Civilization, 2:384 rural-urban divide, 4:17 Shaanxi, 3:369370 Shanghai, 1:193, 3:375 Shanxi, 3:385, 387 Sichuan, 3:400401 warlord era, 4:5859 Westernization, 4:75 Culture, traditional Chinese. See Traditional Chinese culture Culture-fever movement, 2:225 Currency banking, 1:130 compradors, 1:345346 copper and silver, 1:361363 money and monetary policy, 2:624627 Peoples Bank of China, 1:132133 reform, 2:149150 Current of life painting, 1:108 Curriculum Christian universities and colleges, 1:487 examination system, 1:541 kindergarten, 1:477 socialization and pedagogy, 3:457459 teacher education, 3:560 Customary law, 1:376377, 2:423425, 425 Customs Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217219 collections, 2:80 foreign trade, 2:86 Hart, Robert, 2:181182 Nanjing decade, 2:140 opium smuggling, 3:414415 Qing dynasty, 3:552 rights-recovery movement, 2:352 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 treaty ports, 2:85, 3:611612 villages, 4:3638 weights and measures, 4:68 Cynical realism, 1:108, 3:50, 3:153155 Czechoslovakia. See East Central European states
425
Index
D
Da Qing Luli. See Qing code Da Silva, Lula, 2:435 Da Yijin, 1:404 Dada art, 3:35 Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal, 4:115116 Dagong Bao (newspaper), 2:1920, 399, 4:109 Dai Ailian, 1:383384 Dai Jinhua, 4:148 Dai Jitao, 3:7 Dai Qing, 1:267, 4:52, 149 Dai Wangshu, 2:504, 3:137 Dai Zhen, 1:277 dAiguebelle, Paul-Alexandre Neveue, 2:125 Dalai Lama, 1:379381, 380 India, political asylum in, 2:299 Merkel, Angela, meeting with, 2:124 Mongolia, 2:628 Qing dynasty, 3:232 Sino-European relations, 1:538 Tibet, 3:575578 Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, 2:612 Dalian, 1:381382 Dams, 1:519520 Dance, 1:382386, 385 Mei Lanfang, 2:581 Zhang Yimou, 4:149 Dane, Richard, 3:332 Dangwai, 1:201, 3:21 Danwei. See Unit Dao Lang, 2:642 Daoguang emperor. See Minning Daoism, 1:386388 celibacy, 3:261 religious organizations, 3:254 water, 2:367 Dapan, 4:27 Daqing Bank, 2:623 Daqing oil field, 2:89, 194, 308 Darwin, Charles, 4:121 Dasheng Cotton Mill, 4:145 Data collection agricultural production, 1:12 central-local relationships, 1:192 clergy, 3:262 income, measures of, 1:444 population censuses, 3:166 standard of living measurements, 3:484488 statistics, 3:497499 unemployment, 2:418 Data quality, 3:498 Datang, 2:203
Datang Telecom Technology & Industry Group, 3:609 Datong shu (Kang), 1:282, 348 David, Elias, 2:377 David, Percival, 1:81, 308 Davidovsky, Mario, 3:550 Davies, John Paton, 1:212, 213 Davis, John F., 2:366, 4:43 Dayi. See Pan Tianshou Dazhai Production Team, 3:296, 298 Dazhong shitang caipu, 2:63 Dazibaos Democracy Wall, 1:393395 Deng Xiaoping, 1:410 dissidents, 1:422 prodemocracy movement, 3:183 De-Maofication, 3:117 Death and funerals, 2:7, 33, 2:34, 2:483486, 2:484 Death penalty, 1:388390, 389 human rights, 2:270, 271 Mao era, 3:92 Qing code, 3:90 rape, 3:244 smuggling, 3:416 Debates. See Intellectual debates Debt, 3:358 Debussy, Claude, 2:639, 647, 651 Decentralization archaeology, 1:51 banking system, 1:132 central-local relationships, 1:190191 central planning, 1:177 corruption, 1:364 industrial management, 2:187 medical care, 2:572 military, 2:208209 real estate management, 4:2526 school funding, 1:475 social security systems, 3:452 state-owned enterprises, 3:495 Taiwan education, 3:546 township and village enterprises, 3:591 Decision making cadre system, 1:161 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:457 Outer and Inner Courts, 2:129130 science and technology policy, 3:338 Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 4:247252 Decision on Basic Education Reform and Development, 3:560
Decision on Energetically Developing Vocational and Technical Education, 4:41 Decision on the Reform of the Science and Technology Management System, 3:337 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, 1:119 Declaration on the Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation, 2:356 Decollectivization gradualism, 1:459 household farming, 3:309 township and village enterprises, 3:312 transition economy, 3:594595 Decriminalization of homosexuality, 2:233 Defendants, 3:380381 Defense, 1:390393 militias, 2:601 modernization program, 1:2 planning, 1:267268 Qing restoration, 3:234235 See also Military; Peoples Liberation Army Defense industry Li Hongzhang, 2:461 Xian, 4:106 A Defense of Humanism (Wang), 1:288 Deflation, 2:149150 Deforestation, 1:21, 3:24 Deindustrialization, 2:415 Democracy Chen Duxiu, 1:198 Chu Anping, 1:266267 Confucianism, 1:348 constitutionalism, 1:353 elections and assemblies, 1:503504 The Fifth Modernization: Democracy (Wei), 4:257262 Hong Kong, 4:7 intellectual debate, 1:288 Nationalist Party, 3:18 small welfare, 3:433 Taiwan, 3:474 Three Principles of the People, 3:513, 566, 567 villages, 3:213214 workplace, 2:414 See also Prodemocracy movement Democracy Wall, 1:393395, 397 constitutionalism, 1:353 democratic ideas, reforms and experiments, 1:398399 Deng Xiaoping, 1:410 dissidents, 1:422
426
Index
New Wave movement, 3:34 poetry, 3:138 prodemocracy movement, 3:183, 184 Red Guards, 3:247 Stars painting group, 3:490 Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong, 2:243, 244 Democratic centralism, 1:228229 Democratic ideas, reforms and experiments, 1:395399 Democratic League democratic parties, 1:400401 history, 1:403404 political parties, 3:152153 united front work, 4:4 Democratic parties, 1:399406 Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:181 Hong Kong, 2:243244 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 Republican era, 3:152153 socialism, 3:454 Democratic Progressive Party Chen Shuibian, 1:201202 cross-strait relations, 3:544 Dangwai, 3:21 elections, 3:530, 532533 history, 3:548549 Meilidao Incident, 2:403 Democratic Socialist Party, 3:152153, 530 Democratic United Front for the New Democratic Era, 1:400 Democratization Li Denghui, 2:459460 Macau, 2:542 rural development, 3:310 Taiwan, 3:520, 532 village government, 3:213214 Demographic trends, 3:165166, 165f, 170 See also Population aging Demolition Beijing, 1:65 heritage sites, 2:201, 3:160, 161 hutongs, 2:279280 Demonetization, 3:307 Deng Lijun, 2:640641 Deng lineage, 2:493 Deng Linlin, 3:56 Deng Shi, 1:86, 113114 Deng Shiru, 1:100 Deng Shu, 4:91 Deng Tingzhen, 3:249 Deng Tuo, 2:400 Deng Xiaohua. See Can Xue
Deng Xiaoping, 1:406412, 409 All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce, 1:402 anti-rightist movement, 2:278 archaeology, 1:56 army and politics, 1:79 beggars, 1:139 Central Military Commission, 1:188, 189 Chiang Ching-kuo, study with, 1:206 Chinese Communist Party, 1:231, 326, 327, 328329 Chinese Marxism, 1:233234 Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:183 consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 cross-strait relations, 3:544 cultural policy, 4:124 Cultural Revolution, correction of the, 2:558 Dalai Lama, meetings with the, 1:379 de-Maofication, 3:117 death penalty, 1:390 Democracy Wall, 1:393 dissidents, 1:422 economic reforms, 1:131, 2:220, 3:604 European Union, relations with the, 1:537 Fang Lizhi, expulsion of, 2:21 first front, 2:557 foreign investment, 2:78 foreign policy, 2:8283 Four Modernizations, 2:90 Gandhi, Rajiv, meetings with, 2:300 Gang of Four, 1:373 gradualism, 1:458459, 459, 3:595 Great Leap Forward, 2:219 high technology, 2:202, 3:337 higher education, 1:483 Hong Kong, return of, 4:67 Hu Jintao, relationship with, 1:186, 2:256 Hu Yaobang, relationship with, 2:261 Hua Guofeng, relationship with, 2:263265 Japan, relations with, 2:375 Jiang Zemin, appointment of, 2:381 Jiangxi, 2:393 Mao Zedong thought, 1:224 military doctrine, 3:110 military enterprises, 3:114 National Peoples Congress, 1:187 New Era United Front, 4:5 offshore defense strategy, 3:97 party history, revision of, 1:332
Peoples Liberation Army, 3:107 political control, 3:144, 146 political succession, 3:157, 158159 prodemocracy movement, 3:183, 4:156 rectifications, 4:154155 reform and opening policies, 2:219 Russia, relations with, 3:320, 322 secret police, 3:142143 Shanghai, 3:376 Sino-Soviet schism, alleviation of the, 3:413 small welfare, 3:432433 social sciences, 3:439 special administrative regions, 3:472473 special economic zones, 3:475, 479 State Council, 1:187 study abroad, 1:29, 3:507, 508 Taiwan policy, 2:83 Three Worlds theory, 2:357 Tiananmen Incident, 3:570571 Tibet, future of, 1:381 tourism, 3:579 treaties, 2:361 underground journals, 3:138 United States, relations with, 4:9 urbanization, 4:29 on wealth, 1:523 Wei Jingsheng, arrest of, 1:394 women, status of, 4:8485 xiafang, 4:107 Yang Zhenning, advice of, 4:127 Zhou Enlai, relationship with, 4:161, 164 Deng Yanda, 1:403, 404, 3:152 Deng Yaping, 3:54 Deng Yingchao, 1:26, 4:8889, 162 Deng Zhongyuan, 3:345 Dengs Six Principles, 2:83 Denishawn, 1:383 Denmarks APM Terminals, 3:600 Department of Aid to Foreign Countries, 2:331 Department of the Privy Purse, 2:289 Department stores gramophones, 2:143 Nanjing Road, 3:375 Republican era, 3:395 Sincere Department Store, 3:403405 Wing On Department Stores, 3:405, 4:7779 Depopulation, 4:157 Deregulation, service sector, 3:356 Desalinization, 3:287 Desertification, 1:294295, 1:412415, 414 Desexualization of women, 2:618619
427
Index
Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Law on the Preservation of Ancient Objects, 1:308 Detention criminal law, 2:445 human rights, 2:270 law, 2:445 Mao era, 3:92 reform era, 3:9293 Rights Defense movement, 3:274275 Deurbanization, 3:163 Developing countries African states, 1:9 Bandung Conference, 2:356 Chinese aid to, 2:331333 Chinese expansionism, 2:296 Maoist propaganda, influence of, 2:322323 relations with, 2:82, 83, 355 Development Bank of China, 1:131 Development Research Center, 3:270 Development zones, 1:191, 3:42, 4:2325, 160 Dewey, John educational influence, 1:466, 468 Hu Shi, influence on, 2:259 May Fourth movement, interpretation of the, 2:366 physical education, 3:480 Di Baoxian, 1:114 Di Chuqing, 2:113 Diaghilev, Sergei, 1:384 Dialects, 1:415417, 416 Bai, 2:612 Chinese overseas, 1:235236 classification, 2:431 Fujian, 2:97 Fuzhou, 2:102 Hokkien, 2:230232 sending areas, 1:241 Southeast Asia diaspora, 1:250251 Dialogue (installation art), 1:91 Dianshizhai Illustrated (periodical), 2:544, 3:130 Dianshizhao Lithography Studio, 2:544 Diaoyu Islands, 2:375, 376, 3:13 Diaspora, 1:251 Falun Gong, 2:3 identity, 2:285286 literature, 2:507 See also Chinese overseas Dibao (newspaper), 3:37 Dice, 2:103104 Dictation tests, 1:258 Dictionaries, 2:457458, 634 Diet. See Cuisine; Food
Digital publishing, 3:222 Ding Cong, 1:315, 3:463 Ding Fang, 3:35 Ding Guangen, 3:185 Ding Guangxun, 3:568 Ding Ling, 1:418420 arrest, 4:166 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:500 May Fourth movement, 1:283 New Culture movement, 2:504, 566 politics, 4:89 xiafang, 4:107 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Ding Richang, 1:392, 3:234, 250 Ding Shande, 2:649 Ding Song, 1:105, 316, 3:47 Ding Wenjiang, 1:47, 3:23 Ding Wenwei, 3:263 Ding Xilin, 2:495 Ding Yanyong, 1:110, 2:620 Dingan. See Gong Zizhen Diplomacy and diplomats art exhibitions, 1:81 ASEAN, relations with, 1:118119 Deng Xiaoping, 2:8183 European Union, 1:537 France, normalization of relations with, 2:91 Hart, Robert, 2:182 Hu Jintao, 2:258 Japan, 2:373 Li Hongzhang, 2:460463 Southeast Asian states, 3:466 United Kingdom, 4:6 United States, 4:89 Vietnam, relations with, 4:34 Wade, Thomas, 4:4344 warlord period, 2:138 Zhou Enlai, 4:163164 Direct Subsidy Scheme, 2:240 Directors, film, 2:40t Chen Kaige, 1:199200 Feng Xiaogang, 2:3132 Lee, Ang, 2:447449 Sun Daolin, 3:509 Xie Jin, 4:110 Zhang Yimou, 4:148149 Disabled persons, 3:447 Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System, 3:435 social care, 3:444, 445449 special needs children, 1:8 Disaster relief aid from China, 2:332 Central Military Commission, 1:190
Cui Jian, benefit performance by, 1:368 diaspora and homeland, 1:252 famine relief, 2:17 Huai River, 3:283 Richard, Timothy, 3:273 Tan Kah Kee, 1:242 Discipline childhood, 2:477 lineage, 2:493 Taiwan, 3:545546 Discipline Commission, 2:327 Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (Cohen), 2:225 Discrimination ethnic Chinese in Vietnam, 4:33 homosexuality, 2:233 household registration, 2:247 laws prohibiting sex discrimination, 2:441 migrant workers, 2:588 national minorities, 3:208 peasants, 3:300 womens employment, 4:8182 Disease transmission and control, 2:183, 227229, 228t See also Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) The Dismissal of Hai Rui (Wu), 1:287 Dispersed production, 2:175 Dispute resolution, 2:443444 Dissidents, 1:420423 espionage, 3:143 Hong Kong as sanctuary for, 2:236 human rights, 2:270 Liu Xiaobo, 2:521 Meilidao Incident, 2:403 political control, 3:146 prodemocracy movement, 3:182185 Sino-European relations, 1:538 strikes, 3:501 Taiwan, 3:539 Wang Shiwei, 4:52 Wei Jingsheng, 1:394 Distance education, 1:490 District magistrates, 2:134 Diversification, banking, 1:132 Diving, 3:484 Divorce domestic violence, 1:431 family, 2:5, 6 late Qing dynasty, 2:564 Taiwan, 3:540 trends, 2:562 Dixie Mission, 1:212, 4:123 Doctors. See Barefoot doctors; Physicians
428
Index
Documentary Chinese, 4:43, 44 Documentary photography, 3:121124, 3:123 Documents, government, 2:130131 A Dolls House (Ibsen), 3:596 Domestic adoption, 1:58 Domestic enterprises, 2:312, 314315 Domestic roles, 2:116117 Domestic tourism, 3:582585, 3:583, 584, 3:589 Domestic trade, 1:423429 agricultural, 1:13 Beijing, 1:141 Korean War, 2:408 textiles, 3:564565 urban areas, 4:13 villages, 4:3536 Zhejiang, 4:157 Domestic violence, 1:429433, 431, 432 laws concerning, 2:440441 privacy, 3:177 Domestic work, 4:84 Domestically produced goods. See Made in China products Doming Lam, 2:648 Dominicans, 1:170 Dominoes, 2:104 Domoto Insho, 2:319 Donald, William Henry, 2:399 Dong Biwu First National Congress, 1:323 inspection and audit, 2:327 United Nations, 2:345 vice-presidency, 1:185 Dong Cong, 1:105, 3:33 Dong Cunrui, 1:492 Dong Dayou, 1:61 Dong Jianhua. See Tung Chee-hwa Dong Qichang art collections, 1:306 art exhibitions, 1:82 bunjinga painting, 2:318 Chinese painting, 1:261 Southern and Northern schools theory, 2:500 Dong Qizhang, 2:507 Dong xi wenhua ji qi zhexue (Liang), 1:348 Dong Xiwen, 1:107, 3:190 Dong Xun, 2:181 Dong Yangzi, 4:92 Dong Zuobin, 1:43, 54 Dongxiang, 2:369 Dorgon, 3:231 Dormitory labor regime, 3:479 Double-cropping, 1:1214 Double-Star Program, 3:472
Double Yang Festival, 2:36 Doubting Antiquity school, 1:42 Douglas, Emory, 2:321 Dowdall, William, 1:68 Downward mobility, 3:429 Dowries, 2:11, 479 Doyle, Christopher, 2:49 Dragon Boat Festival, 2:36 Drama. See Plays The Dream Factory (film), 2:31, 3:36 The Dream of the Red Chamber (Cao), 1:287, 430 Dress. See Clothing; Fashion Drinking water, 1:525 Dropout rates, 1:472, 474 Drought Boxer Uprising, 1:146 climate change, 1:293294 famine, 2:1415 Henan, 2:196 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368 river systems, 3:277 Drugs and narcotics, 1:433436 HIV/AIDS transmission, 2:227228 Hong Kong, 2:234 See also Opium Drumwright, Everett F., 1:213 Dryland environmental degradation. See Desertification Du Fu, 2:196 Du Jinfang, 2:581 Du Kezhen, 3:507 Du Wanxiang (Ding), 1:420 Du Wenxiu, 4:135 Du Xiaoshan, 2:584 Du Yuesheng, 3:350351 Du Yuming, 4:127 Du Zhili, 4:127 Dual-track pricing central planning, 1:180 economic reform, 1:453454, 457458 gradualism, 1:459 price system, 3:176 Duan Fang, 1:43, 307 Duan Qirui Anhui, 1:32 Beiyang clique, 1:143 elections, 1:504 northern government, 3:513 Sun Yat-sen, power struggle against, 3:512 Duan Yucai, 2:126 Duchamp, Marcel, 3:35 Duckweed Blossom Society, 1:100 Dujiangyan irrigation system, 3:278, 397, 400
Dulesi, 2:469 Dumbarton Oaks conference, 2:343, 345 Duncan, Isadora, 1:383 Dung Kai Cheung. See Dong Qizhang Dunhua Boulevard, 3:519 Dunhuang cave paintings, 1:41, 42, 44, 1:46, 47, 1:72 Duoduo, 3:139 Dushu (journal), 3:30 Duties. See Customs
E
E. D. Sassoon & Company, 2:378 Earthquakes, 1:437439 Cui Jian, benefit performance by, 1:368 famine, 2:15 Ningxia, 3:43 Sichuan, 3:400 television coverage, 3:562 East and West Association, 1:153 East Asia consumption and consumer culture, 1:359360 European relations, 1:538 imperialist expansion, 2:350 power politics, 2:352353, 361 rural entrepreneurs, 3:181 traditional medicine, 2:574 East Asian Summit, 1:119 East Central European states, 1:439441 foreign investment, 2:78 literature, 3:597 migration, 1:255 socialist realism, 3:457 study abroad, 3:508 transition economy, 3:594596 East China Art Academy, 2:515 East Germany. See Germany East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Government, 3:415 East Hope Group, 1:523 East India Company, 1:442 Morrison, Robert, 2:633 opium, 3:60 tea, 3:558 East Turkestan Islamic Movement, 2:371 Eastern Language Institute, 4:47 Eastern Lighting movement, 3:203 Eastern Turkestan Republic, 4:112 Ecke, Gustav, 2:99 Ecole des Beaux Arts, 1:60 Ecological discourse, 1:415 Ecological restoration, 1:23 Economic administration, 1:448
429
Index
Economic competition cultural policy, 1:371 health insurance, effect on, 2:570 joint ventures, 1:344 silk, 3:402403 Sincere Department Store, 3:405 state-owned enterprises, 3:496 Economic Cooperation Program, 4:137 Economic decentralization, 1:190191 Economic development, 1:442451, 1:443f, 444f, 448t Agenda 21, 1:216217 Beijing Consensus vs. Washington Consensus, 2:436 Chen Yun, 1:203 city and regional planning, 1:267269 corporate law, 1:343 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 desertification, 1:413 foreign investment, 2:76, 79 Four Modernizations, 2:90 green GDP, 1:530 gross regional product, per capita, 1:447 heavy industry, 2:186190 heritage protection, 2:201 household registration, 2:247248 joint ventures, 1:345 labor market, 2:415416 microfinancing, 2:584 minority nationalities, 2:607 Modern Standard Chinese, 1:417 Nanjing Decade, 2:214215 nongovernmental organizations, 2:142 Pakistan, 3:70 poverty, 3:174 provincial development gaps, 3:206 Qing dynasty, 2:205 Richard, Timothy, 3:273 self-strengthening, 2:210 service sector, 3:354355 social impact in Taiwan, 3:540541 special economic zones, 3:475479 Taiwan, 3:534538, 3:535, 537 tourism, 3:586 townships, 3:212 urban employment and unemployment, 4:32 vocational education, 4:3940 youth, 4:129 Zuo Zongtang, 4:175 See also Development zones; Rapid economic development Economic discrimination, 3:300 Economic growth army and politics, 1:79 Confucianism, 1:350 Dalian, 1:382
fashion, 2:26 fiscal decentralization, effect of, 1:456 Hebei, 2:193 Hu Jintao, 2:257 international relations, 2:359 Japan, involvement of, 2:374 Korean War, 2:408 leisure, 2:454455 migrant workers, 2:588 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 population growth, effect on, 3:167 private enterprises, 3:180 return of overseas students, 1:255 special economic zones, 3:475479 standard of living, 3:486, 487488 Taiwan, 3:531 transition economy, 3:595596 urban areas, 4:12 Wen Jiabao, 4:71 Economic impact of desertification, 1:412 Economic indicators small welfare, 3:432433 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 standard of living, 3:484488 statistics, 3:497498 Economic nationalism, 3:8 Economic performance agriculture, 3:297299 special economic zones, 3:477478 Economic policy agricultural production, 1:14 central planning, 1:177180 Chen Yun, 1:202, 203 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:206 city and regional planning, 1:267269 Deng Xiaoping, 1:408 domestic trade, 1:427 five-year plans, 2:5758 Great Leap Forward, 2:217, 219 Jiang Zemin, 2:384 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Mao era, 4:19 Nationalist government, 3:15 peasants, 3:77 Qing restoration, 3:234 railways, 3:604 socialist market economy, 3:455 special economic zones, 3:4751843 Taiwan, 3:534538 transition economy, 3:594596 Tung Chee-hwa, 2:245 Wen Jiabao, 4:71 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155156 Zhejiang, 4:159 Zhu Rongji, 4:169170
Economic production. See Manufacturing and production Economic reform, 1:451461 All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce, 1:402 architecture, 1:6566 army and politics, 1:79 art market, 1:93 ASEAN, relations with, 1:118119 brands, 1:149 build-operate-transfer contracts, 1:156157 Central Military Commission, 1:189 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328329 Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 4:256257 corporate law, 1:343 Cultural Revolution, influence of the, 1:372 Deng Xiaoping, 1:410, 411 development zones, 4:2325 education costs, 1:497498 emigration, 1:254255 entrepreneurs, 1:523525 fashion, 2:25 financial markets, 2:5254 fisheries, 1:24 five-year plans, 2:5758 foreign investment, 2:7879 foreign policy, 2:83 foreign trade, 2:89 Four Modernizations, 2:90 gradualism, 1:458461, 3:595596 Guizhou, 2:164 handicrafts, 2:176 heavy industry, 2:188189 housing, 2:249 Hu Yaobang, 2:262 Hungarian influence, 1:440 industrial development, 2:306 Jiang Zemin, 2:381 land tenure, 2:426 Latin American states, 2:435 law, 2:442443 Ma Yinchu, ideas of, 3:164 military enterprises, 3:114115 minority nationalities, 2:607 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634 New Left, criticism by the, 3:3031 one-child policy, 2:12 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219, 220 political control, 3:144 price system, 3:175176 prostitution, 3:200 public finance, 3:216217
430
Index
rural industrialization, 2:306, 3:315316 service sector, 3:355356 shops, 3:396397 social classes, 3:425 social sciences, 3:439440 socialist market economy, 3:455 special economic zones, 3:475479 standard of living, 3:487488 street committees and communities, 3:215 Sun Yat-sen, 3:514 taxation, 3:553556 Tianjin, 3:573 township and village enterprises, 3:590594 trade unions, 2:413414 transition economy, 3:594596 transport infrastructure, 3:599 treaties, 2:362 unemployment, 2:418420 Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles (Deng), 4:270272 urbanization, 4:29 Wen Jiabao, 4:71 women, employment of, 4:8182 women, status of, 4:8586 Xinjiang PCC, 3:299 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155156 Zhu Rongji, 4:169170 See also Socialist market economy; Transition economy Economic regions, 1:446449 Economic relations African states, 1:910 ASEAN, 1:119 cross-strait, 3:537538, 544 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 exchange rates, 2:7374 Germany, 2:124 heavy industry and protectionism, 2:189 India, 2:300 Korea, 2:404 Middle Eastern states, 2:586 Qing dynasty, 3:232233 United States, 4:911 Vietnam, 4:34 Economic restructuring city and regional planning, 1:268 industrial policy, 2:306, 310 state-owned enterprises, 3:494 township and village enterprises, 3:316 urban employment and unemployment, 4:31 Economic rights, 2:268, 271 Economic security, 3:112 Economic sociology, 3:28
Economic theory macroregions, 1:424 research, 3:271 urbanization, 4:1617 Economics and families, 2:11 Economists Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Economy, local Anhui, 1:33 Beijing, 1:142 Changsha, 1:197 Chengdu, 1:205 Chongqing, 1:266, 3:211 Dalian, 1:382 Fujian, 2:93, 95 Guangdong, 2:154 Guangzhou, 2:161 Guizhou, 2:164 Hainan, 2:167168, 169 Hangzhou, 2:177178 Harbin, 2:180 Hebei, 2:191 Heilongjiang, 2:194 Huizhou, 2:267 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272275 Inner Mongolia, 2:326 Jiangsu, 2:385386, 387388 Jilin, 2:394395 Jinan, 2:396397 Liaoning, 2:470471 Manchuria, 2:549, 550 Ningbo, 3:42 Ningxia, 3:44 Qingdao, 3:236 Qinghai, 3:239240 Shanghai, 3:376 Shanxi, 3:385 Shenyang, 3:393, 394 Sichuan, 3:399 Suzhou, 3:515 Taibei, 3:519520 Tianjin, 3:573 Wenzhou, 4:7273 Wuhan, 4:103 Xiamen, 4:108 Xian, 4:106 Xinjiang, 4:113 Yangzhou, 4:128 Yunnan, 4:136137 Zhejiang, 4:159160 Edison, Thomas, 2:143 Editorials, 3:38 Education, 1:461501 academies, 1:23 architectural education, 2:469 art schools and colleges, 1:9698 autonomous regions, 2:605 Beijing, 1:142 cadres, 1:160161 childhood, 2:477478
Chinese Communist Party, 1:468472 cultural policy, 1:369370 Cultural Revolution, 1:372, 374 design, 1:319 disabled youth, 3:446 engineering, 3:265 enrollment, 1:470t environmental education, 1:527528 examination system, 1:539542 expenditures, 1:499f fashion design, 1:201 footbinding, link to, 2:6566 foreign settlements, 2:72 gender, 4:38 Giquel, Prosper, 2:125 HIV/AIDS, 2:229230 Hong Kong, 2:239241 human rights, 2:271 intellectuals, 1:282283 international students, 2:362363 journalism, 2:398, 400 legal education, 2:450451 libraries, 2:474 literacy, 2:287288 medical schools, 2:183, 185 migrant workers, children of, 2:590 missionaries, effect of, 1:35 peasantry, 3:80 physical education, 3:127129 private schools, 1:500501 Qingdao, 3:237 science and technology, 3:339 sex education, 3:361362 social classes, 3:424, 429 socialization and pedagogy, 3:457459 sports, 3:480 standard language, 2:431432 standard of living, 3:487, 488 study abroad, 1:254 Taiwan, 3:534, 540, 545546 teacher education, 3:559561 Tianjin, 3:572 unemployed persons, 4:32 urbanization, 4:17 villages, 4:36 women, 4:80, 81t, 82 Xian, 4:106 Zhang Zhidong, 4:152 See also Curriculum; Higher education; Vocational education Education (Amendment) Ordinance 2004, 2:240 Education reform art schools and colleges, 1:97 Changsha, 1:196 civil service examination, abolition of the, 1:542 Hong Kong, 2:239240
431
Index
Education reform, continued Qing dynasty, 3:10 rural areas, 1:473475 sishu schools, 1:463 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 Taiwan, 3:545546 teacher education, 3:560 vocational education, 4:4042 youth, 4:129130 Education through labor, 1:501502 Educational exchanges environmental issues, 1:532 international students, 2:362363 Japan, 2:374 See also Returned students; Study abroad Edwards, George, 3:550 Edwards, Richard, 1:81 Ehrenburg, Ilja, 2:400 Eight Banners, 1:390, 2:591, 4:28 Eight donts, 3:137 Eight-House fengshui, 2:33 Eight-Nation Victorious Army, 2:132 8.7 poverty-alleviation plan, 3:433 Eight Points of Attention, 1:324 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 3:412 Eitel, Ernest, 2:34 Elderly, 2:456, 482 abuse, 1:433 disabled, 3:446448 family-based care, 3:443444 filial piety, 2:38 institutional care, 3:444445 leisure and culture, 2:455457 life cycle, 2:481482 means-tested welfare schemes, 3:442 pensions, 3:449450 population, 2:10t roles, 2:810 social security, 3:308 Election Committee, 2:245 Elections, 1:503504 Chen Shuibian, 1:201 Chinese Communist Party, 1:329 constitutions, 1:354, 355 Democratic Progressive Party, 3:548549, 549 electoral districts, 3:155 Hong Kong, 2:242244, 3:474, 4:7 Jiang Zemin era, 2:257 Li Denghui, 2:459 local government, 3:205 National Peoples Congress, 1:184 Nationalist government, 3:14 Nationalist Party, 3:2122 political representation, 3:155157 reform, 3:530531
Taiwan, 3:530533, 532533, 532t, 533t villages, 3:213214, 311 Electric and Musical Industries (EMI), 2:143144, 640 Electricity coal industry, 1:516 energy, 1:515 generation, 1:522 hydrological power, 1:518520 industrialization, 2:313 nuclear power, 1:521 wind power, 1:520521 Elementary schools, 1:462, 463 Elements of International Law (Wheaton), 1:303 Elgin, Lord, 4:43 Elisseef, Serge, 3:410 Elite Daoists, 1:387 diet, 2:62 education, 1:462 examination system, 1:539542 gardens, 2:111 health care, 2:182183 higher education, 1:481 militias, 2:601 Nanjing Decade, 2:215 Nationalism, 2:211212 nationalism, 3:10, 11 Qu Quibai, criticism by, 2:446 social classes, 3:422, 424, 427, 428 womens education, 1:493 Elizabeth II, 4:6 Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future (Deng), 4:262268 Embezzlement, 2:471 EMI. See Electric and Musical Industries Emigration from Fujian, 2:95 globalization, 1:253255 from Guangdong, 2:154 identification and belonging, 2:281282 labor outmigration, 2:420423 from Ningbo, 3:42 policy, 1:238240 sending areas, 1:241 See also Chinese overseas Emigres, 1:90 Emissions Agenda 21, 1:216217 air quality, 1:526527 climate change, 1:295 motor vehicles, 1:518 Emotions, 2:528529, 3:436
Emperors, 1:505509 appointments, 2:131 constitutions, 1:354 morality, 2:630 state cult, 3:491492 Employees health insurance. See Health insurance Employment, 4:29t aquaculture, 1:25 cadres, 1:159161 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:218 collectives, 1:342 economic structure, 2:311t Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 handicrafts, 2:174, 176 health insurance, 1:509511, 2:570, 571 heavy industry, 2:189 housing, 2:253 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272274 industrial sector, 2:409410, 4:9698 migration, 2:328 military as profession, 4:6162 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 on-the-job training, 1:490 pensions, 3:449450 private enterprises, 3:177180 reform period, 4:19 rural industrialization, 2:307 sectors, 2:306t sent-down educated youth, 3:353 Shenzhen, 3:476 social welfare, 3:441 Soviet-style industrialization, 2:305 special economic zones, 3:475479 state farms, 3:297 state-owned enterprises, 3:493496, 495t structural change, 1:444f tourism industry, 3:586 township and village enterprises, 3:591593, 591t, 593t unit, 4:13 Wuhan, 4:103 See also Women, employment of Employment, urban, 4:2729, 2932, 4:29t, 30t, 31f An Encyclopedia of Geography (Murray), 1:511 Encyclopedias, 1:511512, 2:458 Endangered species protection, 1:512514, 513, 1:519, 3:2526 Enemies of the people, 3:92 Energy, 1:514522 Central Asian states, 1:175176 climate change, 1:295 Daqing oil field, 2:194 heavy industry, 2:189
432
Index
Hebei, 2:193 mineral resources, 3:25 overseas search for, 1:255 railways, 3:605 Taiwan, 3:536537 Engineering civil engineering, 1:60 research, 3:265266 science and technology policy, 3:339 World Federation of Engineering Organizations, 3:343 England. See United Kingdom English language, 3:374 English poetry, 3:137 Enlightenment, 2:213 Enlightenment (journal), 3:138 Enlisted military personnel, 3:110t Enrollment Christian universities and colleges, 1:487 higher education, 1:479, 481, 483, 484, 497 kindergarten, 1:476477 mission schools, 1:492493 primary school, 1:474 rural areas, 1:473 women, 1:494495, 494f Enterprise groups, 1:340, 3:496 Entertainment Beijing, 1:142 leisure, 2:452453, 454 literature, 2:506 opera, 3:8689 pictorial magazines, 3:131 social status of entertainers, 3:359 Entertainment journalism, 2:398 Entrepreneurs, 1:522525, 524 brand nationalism, 1:149150 economic reform, 1:454 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 Hardoon, Silas Aaron, 2:378 Liu Hongsheng, 2:515516 Lu Zuofu, 2:534535 Nanjing Decade, 2:214215 private enterprise, 3:180181 publishing industry, 3:222 Rong Zongjing, 3:287290 Sassoon, Victor, 2:377 Song Ziwen, 3:463465 Wenzhou, 4:73 women, 4:8182 Ye Shi, 4:72 Environment, 1:525533 benzene factory toxic leak, 2:180 Chinas Agenda 21, 1:215217 Chongqing, 1:266 climate change, 1:292295 coal burning, 1:516517
consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 Dalian, 1:382 desertification, 1:412415 electricity generation, 1:522 endangered species protection, 1:512514 forestry and timber trade, 1:23 gradualism, 1:461 grasslands degradation, 3:24t, 25 Harbin, 2:195 heavy industry, 2:189 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368369 motor vehicles, 1:518 nineteenth century, 2:205 petrochemical industry, 2:190 renewable energy, 1:520521 resource management, 3:26 science and technology policy, 3:340341 Sichuan, 3:400 Sino-European relations, 1:538 small welfare, 3:433 social and community organizations, 3:418419 Taiwan, 3:536537 Three Gorges Dam, 1:519 United Nations Development Programme, 2:340 urban areas, 4:20 water resources, 3:287 Xiamen urban planning awards, 4:108 Xian, 4:106 Yangzi River, 3:279 Environmental Protection Bureau, 1:216, 531532 Epidemics, 1:533535, 2:580, 3:359361 Epigraphic school of art, 1:535537 art history, 1:99100, 102 Li Keran, 2:464 literati painting, 2:501 Epistle school of calligraphy, 1:164165 Equality, 1:354 Erectile dysfunction, 3:364 Erhu music, 2:650 Erlitou, 1:49 Erosion, 3:280 Erya, 2:457 Espionage, 3:143 Essays Bingxin, 1:144145 Feng Guifen, 2:3031 Lu Xun, 2:532533 popularity, 2:506 Qian Zhongshu, 3:227, 228 Qiu Jin, 3:241 Zhu Ziqing, 4:172
Essays of Protest (Feng), 2:30 Essays on Qing Imperial Statecraft (He and Wei), 2:206 Essence/functioning dualism, 4:151 Established King movement, 3:203 Ethnic Chinese Manchukuo, 2:545 refugees, 2:158 tourism, 3:579, 586588 Vietnam, 4:33 Ethnic identity. See Identity Ethnic minorities. See Minority nationalities Ethnic relations Chinese overseas, 1:239 Fujian, 2:97 Korean community, 2:405406 Miao uprisings, 2:582584 Nationalist Party, 3:20 Qing dynasty, 2:206, 207 Qinghai, 3:237239, 240 Ethnic tourism, 2:612, 613, 3:580 Ethnographic studies, 2:482483 Ethnology, 3:439 Ethnomusicology, 2:649 Etiquette, 3:436437 Eunuchs, 1:275, 3:609 Eurasia, 3:232233 Euro-American Chinese studies, 2:224225 Eurocentrism, 1:57 Europe architects, 1:68 art exhibitions, 1:8081, 82 Chinatowns, 1:247248, 248 Cultural Revolution, 1:376 diaspora, 1:252 expansionism, 2:350 explorers, 1:4041 Five Point Peace Plan, 1:381 Hong Kong nationality issues, 2:241242 official development assistance, 2:334 treaty port system, 2:8486 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 European Space Agency, 3:471 European Union, 1:537539 arms embargo, 2:82, 4:7 East Central European states, 1:441 scientific exchanges, 3:343344 space-flight collaboration, 3:471 See also Specific countries Evans, Walker, 3:122 Ever-Victorious Army, 2:128 Evidential research movement academies, 1:23 calligraphy history, 1:99100
433
Index
Evidential research movement, continued classical scholarship, 1:277280 Gong Zizhen, criticism by, 2:127 historiography, 2:221, 225 political culture, 3:147 Ruan Yuan, 3:293 statecraft, 3:248 Evolutionism, 2:222, 223 Examination system, 1:539542, 1:541t abolition, 1:465, 479, 2:211 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275276 clergy, 3:261 formal education, 1:462 gentry, 3:422 Hundred Days Reform, 2:275276 intellectuals, 1:285 Jiangsu residents, 2:386387 political culture, 3:148 Qing restoration, 3:234 reform and the abolition of, 3:251 Ruan Yuan, 3:292 study abroad, 3:507 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150151 Zhejiang, 4:157 See also Jinshi Excavations archaeology, 1:50 Dunhuang cave temples, 1:44 oracle bones, 1:43 sinology, 3:411 Exchange rates. See Foreign exchange Exclusion in receiving countries, 1:256258, 257t258t Executions, 1:388390, 1:389 Executive Yuan, 3:464, 530 Exercise, 2:456 Exhibition Hall of Antiquities, 1:95 Exhibitions. See Art exhibitions Exile Dalai Lama, 1:380381 Ding Ling, 1:420 xiafang, 4:107 Expeditions surveys of natural resources, 3:23 Western explorers, 1:4041, 42, 45 Experimental art. See Art in new media Exploration, oil and gas, 1:518 Export-Import Bank, 1:131, 2:331 Export processing (EP) regime, 2:89 Exports arms, 1:77 chinoiserie, 2:316318 special economic zones, 3:478t Taiwan, 3:534, 537538 tea, 3:557559 textiles, 1:301, 3:565566 See also Foreign trade
Expressionism, 3:32, 35 External economic influences, 4:32 Extraterritoriality, 1:542544 Britain, 3:62 free press, 3:37 imperialism, 2:294 legal reform, 1:304 penal system, 3:91 revocation of, 2:352 rights-recovery movement, 2:352 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:379380 treaty ports, 3:611 unequal treaties, 2:360 Yuan Shikai, 2:138
F
Fabi reform, 1:362 Face, 3:436 Faction of practice, 1:288 Factionalism, 3:246 Factories, 2:312f, 387388 Faculty, higher education, 1:486 Faguan, 1:387 Fairbank, John K., 2:224, 3:410 Fakuda Yasuo, 2:374 Fallen people, 3:359 Falsification, data, 3:498 Falun Gong, 2:13, 2 demonstration, 3:230231 political control, 3:146 secret police activities against, 3:143 White Lotus legacy, 4:77 Family, 2:314, 4, 6 adoption, 1:56 Ba Jin, 1:127128 care provision, 3:443444 childhood, 2:477479, 478 Chinatowns, 1:248 companies, 1:339 domestic violence, 1:429432 education costs, 1:470, 498 elderly, 2:455456, 482483 feudal family structure, 1:127128 filial piety, 2:3638, 4:128 guanxi, 3:2628 lineage, 2:492495 May Fourth movement, 2:213 morality, 2:630 peasantry, 3:77 political culture, 3:149 privacy, 3:177 reform era, 3:312 religion, 3:254 See also Marriage The Family (Ba), 1:128, 430 Family farming labor market effect, 3:178 rural development, 3:309
Sichuan, 3:399 standard of living, 3:488 transition economy, 3:594 Family law, 1:305, 2:67, 37, 38, 4:293298 Family planning. See Birth-planning policy Famine, 2:1419, 16, 18 canteen culture, 2:63 crop failure, 1:13 Great Leap Forward, 2:219, 3:305306 human rights, 2:268 peasantry, 3:80 poverty, 3:172, 173 Shanxi, 3:385 Sichuan, 3:399 Fan Changjiang, 2:1920, 2:399 Fan Kuan, 1:81 Fan Shi Yizhuang, 2:492 Fan Wenlan, 2:224, 3:346 Fan Xiaomei, 2:60 Fan Yafeng, 1:288 Fan Yanqiao, 2:551, 552 Fan Zhongyan, 1:464, 2:492 Fang Dongmei, 1:350 Fang Dongshu, 1:277, 279 Fang Fang, 2:506 Fang Junbi, 3:48, 49, 4:90, 91 Fang Keli, 1:228 Fang Lijun art market, 1:93 Central Academy of Fine Arts, 1:97 cynical realism, 1:108, 3:154 oil painting, 3:50 Fang Lizhi, 2:2021 Fang Rending, 2:498, 620 Fang Rui, 1:169 Fang Yuping. See Fong, Allen Fang Zengxian, 1:264 Fang Zhaoling, 4:92 Fangshan Fanzhuang restaurant, 2:62 Far Eastern Games, 3:51 Farewell My Concubine (film), 1:199, 1:200, 2:44 Farewell My Concubine (opera dance), 1:383 Farm economy, 3:77 Farm Security Administration, 3:125 Farmers food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 housing, 2:249 rural-urban gap, 3:316317 rustic realism, 3:325 villages, 4:35 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 Farmers Bank of China, 2:428, 624 Farrow, Mia, 1:10
434
Index
Fascism, 2:2122 Fashion, 2:2227, 23, 26 design, 1:320 gender relations, 2:116 hairstyles, 2:169173 models, 1:301 shows, 1:300 Westernization, 4:75 See also Clothing Father (painting), 3:326 Father/son relationships, 2:4 Fathers and Sons (Turgenev), 1:128 Favoritism. See Nepotism and guanxi February 28 Incident, 3:529, 538539 Federalism, 2:2728 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829, 2:433, 3:127 Fei Danxu, 1:101, 262 Fei Dawei, 1:82 Fei Ming, 2:504 Fei Mu, 3:291 Fei Xiaotong Democratic League of China, 1:404 feudalism, 1:227 guanxi, 3:27 identity and belonging, 2:282 small towns, 4:27 social sciences, 3:438 xiafang, 4:107 Feidu (Jia), 2:380 Female impersonators, 2:581582, 3:8687, 366 Female infant abandonment, 1:6 Female infanticide. See Infanticide Feminism All-China Womens Federation, 1:28 anarchism, 1:28 Ding Ling, 1:419 domestic violence, 1:432 historiography, 2:225 model theater, 2:618619 New Culture movement, 2:566 prostitution, 3:198 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 Wutai jiemei (film), 4:110 See also Womens rights Feng Chongyi, 1:288 Feng Gong, 3:36 Feng Guifen, 2:3031 constitutionalism, 1:352 Hundred Days Reform, 2:276 Qing restoration, 3:235 Feng Guozhang, 1:143, 2:191 Feng Jicai, 2:60, 531, 3:42 Feng Jizhong, 1:62 Feng Ling, 2:25
Feng Mengbo, 3:153 Feng Menglong, 2:529 Feng painting, 3:333334 Feng Xiaogang, 2:3132 Feng Xuefeng China Writers Association, 4:109 Cultural Revolution, 2:503 League of Left-Wing Writers, 4:165 literature of national defense, opposition to the, 2:502 Feng Youlan, 1:350 Feng Yuxiang Beiyang clique, 1:143 Deng Xiaoping, work with, 1:407 militarism, 2:591 military, 2:594, 596 Feng Zhangjie, 1:109 Feng Zhi, 3:137, 138 Feng Zikai, 2:3233 comics, 1:314 graphic arts, 1:105, 316 Japanese influence, 1:112 manhua, 1:313314 Fengmian, 1:264 Fengshui, 2:3335, 34 Fengsuo (Chang), 1:193194 Fengyun ernu (film), 3:7 Fenollosa, Ernest F., 2:319 Ferdinand, King, 2:316 Ferguson, John C. See Fu Kaisen Fergusson, James, 1:57 Fermi, Enrico, 4:126 Ferrous metallurgy, 2:602603 Ferry, Jules, 4:150 Fertility rate birth-planning policy, 3:170 demographic trends, 3:166 life cycle, 2:481 one-child policy, 2:12 sex ratio, 3:363 Festivals, 2:3536 music festivals, 2:642 rituals, 2:8 villages, 4:38 Feudal family Ba Jin, 1:127128 Chinese Communist Partys views on, 2:482 Feudalism, 1:227228 Fiction domestic violence in, 1:430 Lao She, 2:434 late Qing dynasty, 2:503 Liang Qichao, theory of, 2:468 Lu Xun, 2:532 publishing industry, 3:222
See also Avant-garde fiction; Mandarin duck and butterfly literature Field administration, 2:132135, 3:292293 Fifteenth Army, 1:212 The Fifth Democratization: Democracy (Wei), 1:394, 395 Fifth Encirclement campaign, 3:104 Fifth Generation filmmakers, 2:42, 4345, 45 The Fifth Modernization: Democracy (Wei), 4:257262 Fifth Moon group, 1:110, 2:512 Fifth National Congress, 1:323324 Fighting League for Chinese Freedom and Democracy, 4:147 Figure painting, 4:143 Filatures, 3:401403 Filial piety, 2:3638 disabled elderly, 3:446447 elderly, 2:455456 family-based care, 3:443 political culture, 3:149 social rituals, 3:436 youth, 4:128 Film directors. See Directors, film Film industry, 2:3852 Films Cui Jian, music by, 1:368 ethnic minorities, 2:611612 Forbidden City, 2:71 gramophone records, 2:144 Hu Die, 2:254 Lee, Ang, 2:447449 music, 2:644 New Years movies, 3:3637 party-state control over, 2:216 picture books, 1:317 propaganda, 3:187 root-searching literature, 3:291 Shanghai, 2:72 Taiwan, 3:539 Xian Film Studio, 3:370 Xie Jin, 4:110 Zhang Yimou, 4:148149 Zhao Dan, 4:153 Zhou Xuan, 4:165 Filtering technology, 2:364 Finance foreign investment, 2:79 gradualism, 1:461 Hankou, 4:101 microfinancing, 2:584 Shanghai, 3:376 warlord period, 2:138 See also Banking Financial assistance. See Social welfare Financial crisis. See Asian financial crisis
435
Index
Financial markets, 2:5255, 53, 2:56, 148 Financial regulation, 2:5556 Finding-lists, 1:70 First Automobile Works (FAW), 1:121, 2:394, 395 First Chinese National Art Exhibition, 1:103 First Five-Year Plan architecture, 1:63 banking, 1:130 Grand Canal, 2:146147 Great Leap Forward, 3:304 industrial planning, 1:267 industrial production, 2:186 Liaoning, 2:470 Shanxi, 3:385 social welfare, 3:441 textiles, 3:564 urbanization, 4:12 Wuhan, 4:102 First Generation filmmakers, 2:40 First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, 1:323 First National Peoples Congress, 4:89 First on the list (game), 2:103 First Opium War. See Opium Wars First Special District Court, 3:382 Fiscal policy, 3:551553 contract system, 1:191 county government, 3:209 decentralization, 1:455456, 3:315 gradualism, 1:461 Nanjing Decade, 2:215 provincial government, 3:206 public finance, 3:216220 reform era, 3:554555 The Fish Pond of the Commune (painting), 1:107 Fishery and aquaculture, 1:2325, 1:24, 1:514 Five-Antis campaign Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 drug policies, 1:433434 human rights, 2:268 penal system, 3:92 purpose of, 2:216 united front work, 4:5 Five Classics, 1:541542 Five-colored flag, 3:6 Five elements theory, 2:574, 575 Five Gardens, 2:290 Five guarantees, 3:308, 430, 442 Five-nationality doctrine, 3:575576 Five phases in cosmology, 1:367 Five Point Peace Plan, 1:381 Five-Power theory, 1:353 Five principles of peaceful coexistence, 2:355, 356
Five-stage theory, 1:227 Five-year plans, 2:5758, 2:57t, 217, 3:598 See also First Five-Year Plan; Third Five-Year Plan Flags. See National flags and anthems Flameng, Francois, 1:195 Flaubert, Gustave, 1:418419 Flint, James, 3:60 Floating population, 2:330, 416, 4:2930 Flood control dams, 1:520 history, 3:285287 Huai River, 3:283 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368 Qing dynasty, 2:17 river systems, 3:277 Three Gorges Dam, 1:519 Wen Jiabao, 4:71 Yellow River, 3:280281 Floods Anhui, 1:30 famine, 2:1415 Jinan, 2:397 locust plagues, 2:524 nineteenth century, 2:205 Wuhan, 4:102, 4:102 Yangzi River, 3:279 Zhengzhou, 1:37 Flower-and-bird paintings, 1:101, 102 Flying Pigeon bicycles, 1:149 Flying Star fengshui, 2:34 Flying Tigers, 1:37, 3:16, 500 Fogg Museum, 1:42 Foguangsi, 2:469 Fojiao Xiejin Hui. See Association for the Advancement of Buddhism Folk art, 2:5860, 59 art history, 1:106 ethnic minorities, 2:611 propaganda art, 3:188, 191192 Shaanxi, 3:369 socialist realism, 3:457 Folk culture, 2:176, 434, 435 Folk dance, 1:384, 2:611 Folk music ethnic minorities, 2:611 popular music, 2:641 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:643 Taiwan, 2:649 Folk religion, 2:196197, 3:203 Folklore, 2:591, 3:390 Fong, Allen, 2:49 Food, 2:6065, 61, 64 Food and Agriculture Organization, 2:337338
Fuzhou, 2:102 industry, 2:313 shipping, 3:602 Food aid, 2:332 Food and Agriculture Organization, 2:337338 Food-calorie consumption, 1:15 Food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 Footbinding, 2:6567, 66, 511 childhood, 2:478 clothing, 1:300 Little, Alicia, 2:510 For-profit welfare services, 3:445, 448 Forbidden City, 1:141, 2:6771, 69, 70, 291 documentary photography, 3:122 palace, 2:289290 Forced industrialization, 1:179180, 3:303 Forced labor, 1:501502 See also Servile statuses Foreign Affairs Bureau, 1:190 Foreign aid African states, 1:910 Chinese aid to Pakistan, 3:6869 environmental assistance, 1:533 international development aid, 2:331333 Japan, 2:374 leaning to one side, 2:82 outmigration, 2:420421 Pakistan, 3:6970 Soviet Union, 2:82, 3:318 Foreign banks, 1:132, 2:624 Foreign companies Chinese enterprises, competition with, 2:314315 corporate law, 1:343 labor, 2:410 service sector, 3:356 Foreign concessions, settlements, and leased territories, 2:7173 Foreign currency reserves, 2:7374, 2:74f, 75 Foreign debt, 2:622 Foreign Economic Liaison Ministry, 2:421 Foreign exchange, 2:73f Big Four banks, 1:133 copper and silver, 1:361 financial markets, 2:52 foreign currency reserves, 2:7374 foreign loans, 2:80 foreign trade, 2:89 Great Depression, 2:148150 price system, 3:176 public finance, 3:216, 218
436
Index
regulation, 2:55 State Administration of Foreign Exchange, 2:75 Foreign Inspectorate of Customs, 1:218 Foreign intelligence, 3:143 Foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) company forms, 1:340 foreign trade, 2:89 social classes, 3:427 state-owned enterprises, competition with, 3:496 Foreign investment, 2:7577, 7779, 77t African states, 1:911, 10t build-operate-transfer contracts, 1:157 central-local relationships, 1:191 Dalian, 1:382 development zones, 4:25 domestic trade, 1:429 electricity sector, 1:522 food, 2:64 Fujian, 2:95 Germany, 2:124 gradualism, 1:459 Guangzhou, 2:161 Hakkas, 2:174 Hangzhou, 2:177 high technology, 2:203204 higher education, 1:486 history, 2:220 Hong Kong, 2:238 industrial development, 2:306 industrialization, 2:312 Japan, 2:374 joint ventures, 1:344 Latin American states, 2:435, 437 migrant workers, 2:589 nuclear power plants, 1:521 ports, 3:600 private enterprise, 3:178 private schools, 1:501 Qingdao, 3:236 Qinghai, 3:239240 service sector, 3:356 Shanghai, 3:376 small towns, 4:27 Soviet Union, 2:87 special economic zones, 3:475479, 477t Taiwan, 3:537, 541 telecommunications, 3:609 Tianjin, 3:573 tourism, 3:588 trade, 2:89 Wenzhou, 4:73 Xiamen, 4:108 Xian, 4:106 See also Joint ventures Foreign Language Press, 4:109
Foreign literature, translation of, 3:596598, 597 Foreign loans, 2:7981, 2:80t Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:218219 money and monetary policy, 2:625 Nationalists, 2:624 Foreign Matters movement, 1:281 Foreign ministers Song Ziwen, 3:463465 Foreign partnerships. See Joint ventures Foreign policy, 2:8184 army and politics, 1:79 Central Military Commission, 1:190 Chinese Communist Party rebuilding, 1:327 Chinese consuls, 1:239 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 Hu Jintao, 2:258 Islam in, 2:370371 Jiang Zemin, 2:384 Korean relations, 2:404405 Mao Zedong, 1:233 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:220 Qing dynasty, 3:232233 Qing restoration, 3:234235 reform, 3:250 shift from developing to developed countries, 1:9 Sino-Japanese War, 3:407 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:412413 Taiwan, 3:542545 Zhou Enlai, 4:163164 See also International relations; Treaties; Specific countries Foreign propaganda, 3:187 Foreign settlements. See Foreign concessions, settlements, and leased territories Foreign tourism, 3:585588, 3:586 Foreign trade, 2:8487, 2:85f, 2:8789, 2:88t African states, 1:10 agricultural products, 1:14 aid tied to, 2:332 antiquities, 2:200 art market, 1:9294 ASEAN-China Free Trade Area, 1:119 Australia, 1:120121 banking, 2:622 British drug trade, 2:234 Canton system, 2:294, 351 Central Asian states, 1:174175, 175f central-local relationships, 1:191 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217219 clothing, 1:301
compradors, 1:346 consumption and consumer culture, 1:358359 copper and silver, 1:361363 East India Company, 1:442 European Union, 1:537538, 4:7 Four Modernizations, 2:90 fruit farming, 1:17 Germany, 2:124t gradualism, 1:459460 grain exports, 1:425 Great Depression, 2:148150 Hainan, 2:167 handicrafts, 2:175 Hangzhou, 2:177178 heavy industry, 2:187, 189190 high technology, 2:204 Hunan and Hubei, 2:271, 274 India, 2:300 Japan, 2:374 Korea, 2:404 Margary affair, 2:560561 money and monetary policy, 2:625 Mongolia, 2:628 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 opium, 3:5758 Opium Wars, 3:6063 Parsis, 3:75 power generation equipment, 1:522 Qing dynasty, 2:206207, 3:232233 Qingdao, 3:236 rice, 1:18 salt, 3:330333 self-strengthening movement, 2:210 Shanghai, 2:388 Shanxi, 3:384 shipping infrastructure, 3:703705 silk, 3:401403 Taibei, 3:517 tea, 3:557559 textiles, 3:564566 timber, 1:2123 treaty port city growth, 4:17 unequal treaties, 2:360 United Kingdom, 4:7 United States, 2:7374, 4:911 Xiamen, 4:108 Zhejiang, 4:158 Forestry and timber trade, 1:2123, 1:22 Forests desertification, 1:413, 415 endangered species protection, 1:514 environmental issues, 1:527 resources, 3:2425 Forgeries, art, 4:142
437
Index
Form school fengshui, 2:33 Formal employees, 4:31 Formosa Incident. See Meilidao Incident Formosa Plastics Corporation, 3:536 Forsyth, Douglas, 1:42 Fortress Besieged (Qian), 3:227228 Foster, Norman, 1:67 Founding Ceremony (Dong), 3:190 Four Basic Principles, 1:332, 410, 3:146 Four great freedoms, 1:356 Four Modernizations, 2:8991 army, 1:79 Chinese Marxism, 1:233 education, 1:473 international relations, 2:357 Shenzhen, 3:476 small welfare, 3:432 study abroad, 3:508 treaties, 2:361 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 Four Olds, 3:246 Four Perfections, 2:501 Four Rens, 3:262263, 4:91 410 Demonstration for Educational Reform, 3:545 Four Wangs art history, 1:87 Chinese painting, 1:263 Li Keran, influence on, 2:464 literati painting, 2:500 Fourteenth U.S. Air Force, 3:16 Fourth Encirclement and Extermination campaign, 4:167 Fourth generation filmmakers, 2:42 Fourth World Conference on Women, 1:27, 2:142 Fragrant Hills Hotel, 1:65 Frame structure, 1:58 Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Co-operation, 1:119 France, 2:9193, 92 art exhibitions, 1:82 Chinese Catholic Church, 1:171 extraterritoriality, 1:543 Paris group, 1:2829 scramble for concessions, 3:344 sculpture, 3:345346 Second Opium War, 1:506507, 3:62 sinology, 3:409 Taiwan, 3:527, 542 tin mines, 2:603 treaty port system, 2:8486, 349 Vietnam colonialism, 4:33 Yunnan, influence in, 4:135 See also Sino-French War Franco, Johan, 1:195
Frank, Robert, 1:195 Franke, Otto, 3:410 Free markets, 3:315 Free press, 3:3738 Free Tibet movement, 3:578 Free trade ASEAN, 1:119 Dalian, 1:382 Latin American states, 2:435 Southeast Asian Nations, 2:89 Freer, Charles Lang, 1:85, 307, 308 Freight. See Shipping; Transport infrastructure French modernism, 2:488 Friedman, Milton, 4:156 Friendship. See Love and friendship Fruit and vegetable farming, 1:1617 Fry, Margery, 4:109 Fryer, John, 3:410 Fu Baoshi art history, 1:88 Chinese painting, 1:103, 264 Japanese influence, 1:112 oil painting, 3:48 Fu Kaisen, 1:86, 307 Fu Mingxia, 3:484 Fu Sinian historiography, 2:223, 225 intellectualism, 1:284 politics of archaeology, 1:54 social sciences, 3:438 Fu Xinian, 1:59 Fu Yuehua, 1:393 Fu Zhifang, 2:581 Fudan University, 3:505 Fujian, 2:9397, 94, 96 emigration, 1:235, 241 Xiamen, 4:108 Fujian Rebellion, 4:146147 Fujishima Takeji, 1:111 Fukua, 2:18 Fukuda Hideko, 3:240 Fukuzawa Yukichi, 2:222 Fulton, Mary, 2:183 Functional areas, 1:448 Functional constituencies, 2:243244 Fund raising, 1:248 Funding the Poor Cooperative (FPC), 2:584 Funerals. See Death and funerals Furniture, 2:97101, 99 Furong zhen (Gu), 2:150151 Futian Incident, 2:554 Fuzhou, 2:101102 Fuzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone, 2:102 Fuzhou Naval Yard, 1:391, 2:101, 125
G
Gai Qi, 1:101, 262 Galileo Satellite program, 1:538 Galleon trade, 2:625 Gallery of Antiquities, 2:68 Galloping (Xu), 4:115 Gamble, William, 2:409 Gambling, 2:542, 2:543 Games and play, 2:103106 Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO), 3:53 Gan Shaocheng, 3:491 Gan Yang, 1:288, 3:3031 Gandhi, Mohandas, 2:320, 4:73 Gandhi, Rajiv, 2:300 GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces), 3:53 Gang of Four, 1:374 arrest of, 1:327 Cultural Revolution, 1:373 Hua Guofeng, 2:263 scar art, 3:333 sculpture, 3:348 Shanghai, 3:377 Tiananmen Incident, 3:570571 Gangs drugs and narcotics, 1:435 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350351 Nian Uprising, 3:40 Gansu, 2:106109, 107, 108, 2:652653 Gao Gang five-year plans, 2:58 industrial development, 2:186 party leadership struggle, 1:408 propaganda art, 3:190 State Planning Commission, 1:187 Gao Gangchuan, 1:189 Gao He, 2:583 Gao Jianfu, 1:104, 2:497 Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Indian nationalist movement, 2:320 Japanese influence, 1:112 Lingnan school, 2:496498 oil painting, 3:48 pictorial magazines, 3:130 Xu Beihong, friendship with, 4:114, 116 Gao Jianqun, 3:370 Gao Minglu, 3:34, 35 Gao Qifeng Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Guangzhou, 2:160 Japanese influence, 1:112 Lingnan school, 2:498 pictorial magazines, 3:130 Xu Beihong, friendship with, 4:114
438
Index
Gao Qipei, 3:71 Gao-Rao affair, 2:5758 Gao Siaosheng, 3:336 Gao Xiaohua, 3:334 Gao Xiaosheng, 2:534 Gao Xin, 2:521 Gao Xingjian, 2:109111 literature for self-understanding, 2:507 modernism, 2:506 plays, 3:135 root-searching literature, 3:291 Shen Congwen, influence of, 3:392 Gao Xiqing, 2:76 Gao Yaojie, 2:229 Gao Yong, 1:101, 114 Gao Zhisheng, 3:276 Gaogan, 2:412 Gaoxiong. See Kaohsiung Gaoxiong Incident, 1:201, 3:21, 531 Garden of Sustenance in Peace, 2:111 Gardens and parks, 2:111113, 112 chinoiserie, 2:316 summer palaces, 2:290 Garment industry. See Textiles Garside, Roger, 2:367 Gastronomy, 2:6263 Gate of the Heavenly Peace, 2:70 Gated communities, 4:23 Gates, Hill, 4:1617 Gazettes, imperial, 3:37, 221 Ge Fei, 1:124, 2:506 Ge Gongzhen, 2:113114, 2:399, 3:130 Geely company, 1:123 Gendarmerie, 3:140141 Gender childbirth, 2:476 childhood, 2:478479 Chinese overseas, 1:237 clergy, 3:261 constitutions, 1:355 domestic violence, 1:430433 education access, 1:493494 family law, 2:67 family relationships, 2:4 friendship, 2:530 infanticide, 2:1012 model operas and ballets, 2:618619 school enrollment, 1:474 suicide, 2:485 transsexuality, 3:609611 See also Sex ratio; Son preference Gender (linguistics), 2:231 Gender equality laws, 2:441 marriage, 2:564 Taiwan, 3:541
Gender relations, 2:114117, 116 May Fourth movement, 2:213 Tibetan people, 2:609 Gender roles All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 elderly, 2:456 employment of women, 4:7982 transsexuality, 3:609 villages, 4:38 women, status of, 4:8286 Genealogies, 1:71, 2:196 General Administration of Press and Publication (GAPP), 3:222223 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 2:344 General Agreement on Trade in Services, 3:354 General Armament Department, 1:7475 General Political Warfare Department, 3:547 General ports, 3:599 General practitioners. See Physicians General Publishing Office, 3:221 Generational issues care provision, 3:443 filial piety, 4:128 intergenerational households, 2:9, 9t political culture, 3:149 Genetics, 3:269 Geneva Conventions, 4:5556 Geng Huichang, 3:143 Geng Jianyi, 3:35, 153 Geng Qinggo, 1:438 Gentrification of Chinatowns, 1:248249 Gentry Changsha, 1:196 childhood, 2:478 clergy, 3:260261 examination system, 2:211, 3:422 rural administration, 2:134135 self-strengthening movement, 2:208210 social class, 3:422 Geographic regions, 2:117123 arable lands, 3:24 identity, 2:283284 natural resources, 3:2223 Geography Fujian, 2:9394 HIV/AIDS, 2:226227 local gazetteers, 2:523 river systems, 3:277 Shaanxi, 3:367 Shandong, 3:370371 Western explorers, 1:40 Yellow River, 3:280
Geologic surveys, 3:23 Geological Survey Institute, 1:47 Geomancy, 1:58 Geophysical orientation, 2:33 George, Henry, 3:18, 453, 514 George IV, King, 2:316 Geostrategic power, 1:119, 2:303 Gerasimov, Alexander, 3:457 Germ theory, 2:184 German civil code, 3:359 German Dual System, 4:41 Germany, 2:123125, 2:124t extraterritoriality, 1:543 Jinan, 2:397 Qingdao, occupation of, 3:236 scramble for concessions, 3:344 Shandong, 3:371 sinology, 3:410 textiles industry, 3:564 Geti Laodongzhe Xiehui, 1:270 Gezhi Shixue Academy, 1:462 Gezhouba Dam, 1:519 Giant panda, 1:513 Gifts, 3:436 Gilbert, Rodney, 2:366 Giles, Herbert, 3:409, 4:44 Gini coefficient, 2:298, 3:173, 174, 486, 488 Gins, G. K., 3:324 Giquel, Prosper, 2:125126, 3:389 Girls childhood, 2:478479 education in the nineteenth century, 1:462 public schools, 1:465 secondary education, 1:465 socialization and pedagogy, 3:457458 Glass, Frank, 3:615 Global branding, 1:150 Global Learning Event, 2:342 Global Positioning System, 3:471472 Global production chains, 2:307, 308 Global warming, 1:292295 Globalization brands, 1:148, 151152 Chinese Communist Party, 1:329330 corruption, 1:364 drugs and narcotics, 1:434 emigration, 1:253255 fashion, 2:25 film and Chinese identity, 2:448 Fujian, 2:95 identity, 2:285 industrial development, 2:306 International Monetary Fund, 2:339
439
Index
Globalization, continued liberalism, 1:288 outmigration, 2:421422 political culture, 3:151 product design, 1:320 state-owned enterprises, 3:496 urban planning, 4:21 Wenzhou, 4:73 Zhejiang, 4:160 Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 2:638 GMD Youth Corps, 3:19 Gobi Desert, 3:23 Goddess of Democracy (statue), 1:398, 399 Goehr, Alexander, 2:649 Gold, 1:247, 256, 2:148149 Golden House (periodical), 3:387 Golden House Press, 3:387 Golden Rule, 2:630 Golden shield, 3:39 Golden Triangle, 1:434 Golden weeks, 3:579, 585 Gollancz, Victor, 4:109 Gong, Prince Cixi, influence of, 1:273274, 276 Hart, Robert, association with, 2:181 Opium Wars, 3:62 reform, 3:249 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:379 Sino-French War, 3:406 Zongli Yamen, 2:349 Gong Deshun, 1:64 Gong Gongzuo. See Gong Zizhen Gong Hongyuan, 3:289 Gong Jing Ou (anthem), 3:6 Gong Li, 1:199, 3:72, 4:148 Gong Liu, 3:139 Gong Pinmei, 1:172 Gong Zizhen, 2:126 historiography, 2:221 lineal view of history, 3:249 New Text studies, 1:278 poetry revolution, 3:136 reforms, 3:248 The Good Earth (Buck), 1:152153 Gorbachev, Mikhail Deng Xiaoping, meeting with, 3:322 economic policy, 3:595 rapprochement policy with China, 1:440 Sino-Soviet schism, alleviation of the, 3:413 visit to China, 2:358 Gordon, Charles, 2:127128, 2:461, 3:523 Gordon, Richard, 3:387
Gothic architecture, 1:58 The Gourmet (Lu), 2:61 Governance company forms, 1:340341 joint ventures, 1:344, 345 science and technology, 3:339 Government, central. See Central government Government, local. See Provincial and subprovincial government Government administration, 2:128136, 136141 administrative code, 1:302303 autonomous regions, 2:605 development zones, 4:2425 five-branch government, 2:214 Hainan, 2:168 levels of government, 3:204205 Qing dynasty, 2:207 Qing renewal, 2:206 unit, 4:13 urban areas, 4:13 urbanization, 4:19 Government Administrative Council, 1:183 Government documents, 1:6972, 2:130131 Government Information Office, 3:539 Government loans, 1:213, 214t Government officials Ruan Yuan, 3:292293 Shen Baozhen, 3:388389 Government-organized nongovernmental organizations, 2:141143 Government regulations. See Regulations Government schools, 2:239 Grades and ranks, military, 3:109110, 109t, 110t Gradualism, 1:458461, 3:595596 Graduate education, 1:482 Grain diet, 2:6061 domestic trade, 1:424, 425, 426, 428429 Great Leap Forward, 3:305306 Jiangsu, 2:385 procurement system, 3:297 production, 1:1216, 13t quotas, 2:430 rationing, 2:16 rice production, 1:18 transport, 2:145147, 3:248, 601 Grammar, 1:167, 415 Gramophones and records, 2:143145, 2:640 Grand Canal, 2:145147, 146 history, 3:285 Minning, 1:506
Shandong, 3:371 Yangzi River resources, 3:278 Grand Council abolishment, 2:132 appointments, 2:131 decision making, 2:130 Grand Council documents, 3:37 Grand Secretariat, 2:129, 132 Grandparents, 2:810 Grant, Ulysses S., 2:522 Grant-in-Aid scheme, 2:239 Grants, 2:331 Graphic arts history, 1:105 Japanese influence, 1:112113 See also Commercial art Grasslands degradation, 1:294295, 413, 3:24t, 25 Great Depression, 2:148150 documentary photography, 3:122 trade, 1:427, 2:86 Great Firewall of China, 1:174 Great Green Wall program, 1:413 Great Hall of the People, 1:63, 64 Great Leap Forward, 3:306 agricultural production, 1:15 architecture, 1:63 canteen system, 2:63 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 collectives, 1:341 Deng Xiaoping, 1:408 education policy, 1:469 famine, 2:1719 film, 2:40 five-year plans, 2:58 gender roles, 4:38 handicrafts, 2:176 heavy industry, 2:187 Henan, 2:198 human rights, 2:268 industrial planning, 1:267 industrialization, 2:306 international relations, 2:355 land use, 2:428430 Mao Zedong, 2:557 mass movements, 1:231 militarism, 2:593 peasant painting, 3:194 peasantry, 3:80 peasants, 3:8283 Peng Dehuai, 3:95 Peoples Communes, 3:303304 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217, 219 poverty, 3:173 propaganda art, 3:189 public finance, 3:219 revolutionary romanticism, 3:457 rural development, 3:304306 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:413
440
Index
textiles, 3:564 united front work, 4:5 Great Qing Code. See Qing Code Great Western Development Scheme Chengdu, 1:205 Chongqing, 1:266 economic development, 1:449450 Gansu, 2:109 minority nationalities, 2:607 Qinghai, 3:240 Sichuan, 3:399400 Tibetan response, 3:578 tourism, 3:580 Xian, 4:106 Xinjiang, 4:113 Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, 2:224 Greater Mekong Subregion, 4:137 Greco-Roman architecture, 1:58 Greed, 3:427 Green Gang, 1:208 Green GDP, 1:530 Green Great Wall, 1:20 Green Standard Army, 1:390391, 2:597, 4:28 Greene, Felix, 2:366 Gretry, Andre, 2:638 Gropius, Walter, 3:83 Gross domestic product (GDP) agricultural performance, 3:297298 annual growth, 1:443f budgetary share, 1:452f Changsha, 1:197 data quality, 3:498 government revenue to ratio, 3:217f Guangzhou, 2:161 Hangzhou, 2:177 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272274 industrial production, 2:187 service sector, 3:354 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 special economic zones, 3:477t standard of living, 3:484, 485486, 488 transition economy, 3:595 United Nations Development Programme Report on China, 2005, 1:451 Wenzhou, 4:72f Gross national product (GNP), 3:432, 519520 Gross regional product, 1:447 Gross value added, 2:304f Ground force, 3:97, 98 Groundwater, 1:525
Group action, 2:402 Group for Authentication of Ancient Calligraphy and Painting, 1:88 Group meetings, 1:231 Group relationships, 2:478 Growing out of the plan, 1:457, 459 Grucci, Phil, 1:162 Grunwedel, Albert, 1:41 Gu Cheng, 3:139 Gu Dexin, 1:91 Gu Gong, 3:139 Gu Guangqi, 4:93 Gu Heqing, 1:261 Gu Hongming, 2:495 Gu Hua, 2:150151, 3:392, 4:110 Gu Jiegang, 1:42, 2:58, 223 Gu Kaizhi, 3:71 Gu Linshi, 1:263 Gu Mengyu, 4:147 Gu Qingyao, 4:91 Gu shuhua jianding gailun (Xu), 1:88 Gu Weijun, 3:513 Gu Wenda, 2:151152 art exhibitions, 1:82 China National Academy of Fine Arts, 1:98 Chinese characters, use of, 1:108 New Wave movement, 3:35 Gu Yanwu Essays of Protest (Feng), 2:30 statecraft scholars, influence on, 1:278 Taipei Uprising, 3:524 Gu Yuan, 3:33, 192 Gu Zhenfu, 3:544 Guan Daosheng, 4:90 Guan Hu, 2:45 Guan Jinghe, 2:411 Guan Jinpeng, 3:292 Guan Liang, 1:111, 2:619, 620 Guan Moye. See Mo Yan Guan Shanyue, 2:498 Guan Yi, 1:93 Guan Yu, 2:597, 4:36 Guan Zilan European modernism, 1:104 Japanese influence, 1:111 modernist art, 2:619 oil painting, 3:48 women artists, 4:90, 91 Guandi temples, 3:258 Guang yizhou shuangji (Kang), 1:8586, 100 Guang Yu, 2:591 Guangdong, 2:152156, 153, 155 artists, 1:102 Chinese painting, 1:262
furniture, 2:98 migration, 1:235, 241, 2:329, 417 silk, 3:402 Guangdong confederation, 3:131 Guangdong Museum of Art, 3:124 Guangdong Provincial Peasant Association, 3:82 Guangming ribao (periodical), 1:266 Guangren, 2:276 Guangshe, 3:118 Guangxi, 2:156159, 158, 159 Guangxia. See Kang Youwei Guangxu emperor. See Zaitian Guangzhou, 2:155, 159161, 4:16 agricultural-exhibition pavilions, 1:62 Canton system, 2:351 classical scholarship, 1:279 coolie trade, 1:243 industrial workers, 4:97 industrialization, 4:151 Lin Zexu, 2:492 migration, 2:329 militarization, 2:601 opium trade, 3:6061 Parsis, 3:75 ports, 3:600 Sex Cultural Festival, 3:362 shops, 3:395 silk, 3:402 Taiping Uprising, 3:522 trade fairs, 2:87 treaty ports, 3:613 urbanization patterns, 4:17 Guangzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone, 2:161 Guano workers, 1:245 Guanxi. See Nepotism and guanxi Guanyin, 3:609 Guerrilla warfare Anti-Japanese War, 1:38, 4:65 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 military culture and tradition, 2:600 Red Army, 3:104 Zhu De, 4:167 Guest quotas, 2:173 Guidelines for National Unification, 3:544 Guild of Fine Woodwork, 2:98 Guilds beggars, 1:138 commercial, 3:395 furniture makers, 2:98 merchants, 1:320 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:381 shops, 3:395 Guiqiao, 1:238, 260
441
Index
Guizhou, 2:162165, 163, 163t, 164, 2:582583, 4:37 Guizhou Army, 1:204 Gujing Jingshe, 1:23, 3:293 Gujing Qingshe Academy, 1:462 Gulf of Tonking, 4:33, 35 Gulf War, 2:358, 4:9 Guling summer resort, 2:393 Gunpowder, 1:161162 Guo Boxiong, 1:189 Guo Chuan, 4:7779 Guo Daiheng, 1:59 Guo Feixiong, 3:276 Guo Fucheng, 2:641 Guo Jin, 1:98 Guo Jingjing, 3:484 Guo Jingming, 3:224 Guo Lin, 3:229 Guo Luo, 4:7778 Guo Lusheng, 3:138 Guo Minying, 2:166 Guo Moruo, 2:165166 cartoons, 1:314 Creation Society, 2:499 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:28, 29 historiography, 2:224 Li Keran, work with, 2:464 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 modern poetry, 3:137 plays, 3:134 politics of archaeology, 1:56 translation of foreign literature, 3:596 Yu Dafu, friendship with, 4:130 Guo Pei, 2:25 Guo Shixing, 3:135 Guo Shiying, 2:166 Guo Songtao, 1:196 Guo Wei, 1:98 Guo Wenjing, 2:639, 3:550 Guo Xi, 1:81 Guochao huazheng lu (Zhang), 1:85 Guohua. See Chinese painting Guohua yuekan (periodical), 1:115 Guoli Xiji Zhuanke Xuexiao, 1:168 Guomindang. See Nationalist Party Guoqi ge (anthem), 3:7 Gurkhas, 3:574 Gutzlaff, Karl, 2:634, 3:522 Guwu Chenliesuo, 2:199 Guzman, Abimael, 2:322 Gymnastics, 3:128
H
Habitat diversity, 1:512 Hackett Medical College, 2:183
Hahn, Emily, 3:388 Hai Rui, 1:287 Hai Rui Dismissed from Office (Wu), 1:373 Haicheng, 3:407 Haier, 1:150, 320 Haiguan system. See Customs Haiguo tuzhi (Wei), 2:221 Haikou, 2:167169 Hainan, 2:167169, 3:478 Haipai, 3:375 Hairstyles, 2:169173, 170, 172 Haishang molin (Yang), 1:101 Haiyuan earthquake, 1:437 Hakkas, 1:241, 2:94, 2:153, 250, 393 Hall of Supreme Harmony, 2:70 Han, 2:285 clothing, 1:300 Cultural Revolution, 2:606 dance, 1:384, 386 dialects, 1:417 footbinding, 2:6566 Guangdong, 2:153 Guangxi, 2:157 Guizhou, 2:162163 identity, 2:283284 Inner Mongolia, 2:324 language, 2:431, 433 marriage, 2:562 migration, 2:330 nationalism, 2:295 Ningxia, 3:44 politics of archaeology, 1:5556 population, 2:605 Qinghai, 3:238240 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 Tibet, 3:576, 578 Uygurs, relations with, 2:370, 372 Xinjiang, 4:113 Yunnan, 4:135 Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau macroregion, 2:120 Han Deqiang, 1:288 Han dynasty, 1:49, 50 Han Fuju, 2:397 Han Fuqu, 1:36 Han Han, 3:224 Han learning classical scholarship, 1:277280 neo-Confucianism, 1:347 Ruan Yuan, 3:293 Han River, 4:102 Han Sanping, 2:31 Han Shaogong, 3:290, 392 Han Wenzhou, 4:154 Han Xiaopeng, 3:54 Han Yi, 1:127 Han Ying, 1:337
Han Yuhai, 1:288 Handicrafts, 2:174176, 175, 313f collectives, 1:341 ethnic minorities, 2:611 industrialization, 2:314 Jiangsu, 2:385, 386 Jiangxi, 2:390 product design, 1:319 rural industrialization, 3:314 urban employment, 4:2728 villages, 4:35 Hang Zhiying, 1:316 Hangzhou, 2:177178 Hangzhou Bay Bridge, 4:159 Hangzhou National Art Academy, 2:619 Hankou, 3:613, 4:101 Hanyeping Company, 2:602 Hanyu da zidian, 2:458 Hao Bocun, 2:459 Hao Ran, 2:495 ul-Haq, Zia, 3:68 Harbin, 2:178180, 179, 194 benzene leak, 2:195 Russian emigres, 3:322323 Russian Jews, 2:377 Harbors, 2:402403 Hardoon, Silas A., 2:378, 4:114 Hardwood furniture, 2:97, 98 Harmonious society, 2:180181 Chinese Communist Party, 1:330 Chinese Marxism, 1:220221 employment, 2:419420 international relations, 2:359 morality, 2:631 Hart, Robert, 2:181182 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217 Gordon, Charles, work with, 2:128 Margary affair, 2:561 reform, 3:250 treaty port system, 2:85 Wade, Thomas, work with, 4:43, 44 Zaichun, reign of, 1:507 Harvard University, 3:410 Hashimoto Kansetsu, 2:319 Hautstont, Jean, 3:6 Hawaii, 1:256 Hawke, Bob, 1:120 He & She Limited, 2:25 He Baosen, 3:490 He Changling Essays on Qing Imperial Statecraft, 2:206 sea transport experiment, 2:147 statecraft, 1:278, 3:248 Wei Yuan, association with, 4:66, 67
442
Index
He Dun, 2:506 He Duoling, 3:50, 325 He Hongshen. See Ho, Stanley He Jianjun, 2:4546 He Jingzhi, 2:644 He Jiping, 3:135 He Kongde, 3:49 He Lin, 1:350 He Liwei, 3:392 He Long, 2:526, 3:53 He Qifang, 3:137 He Ruzhang, 2:522 He Shaoji, 1:165 He Tianjian, 1:115, 263 He Tichua, 3:119 He Weifang, 1:288 He Xiangning All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 politics, 4:88, 90 Song Qingling, work with, 3:463 He Xin, 1:395 He Youzhi, 1:318 He Yuan, 2:111, 113 He Zhanhao, 2:649 He Zhen, 1:28 He Zhenliang, 2:175176, 3:221222 Health care, 2:182186, 184, 569574, 573 childhood, 2:479 community care, 1:337339 disabled persons, 3:447448 elderly, 2:10, 483 employees health insurance, 1:509511 peasantry, 3:80 peoples communes, 3:304 rural cooperative medical systems, 3:294295 social policy programs, 3:431, 432 social welfare, 3:442 villages, 4:36 women doctors, 4:80, 4:83 See also Barefoot doctors; Medical education; Medicine, traditional; Medicine, Western Health insurance, 1:509511 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 market competition, effect of, 2:570, 571 state-run system, 2:572 Health issues diet, 2:65 physical education, 3:127129 Heat patterns, 1:291292
Heath, Edward, 3:473, 4:6 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:349352 Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace, 3:201, 520524 Heavenly Masters, 1:387 Heavenly Wind Pavilion, 2:498 Heavy industry, 2:186190, 187t, 188 automobile manufacturing, 1:121123 Changsha, 1:197 Chongqing, 1:265 coal, 1:516 energy, 1:515 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 Guangzhou, 2:161 Harbin, 2:180 Hebei, 2:191 industrial development, 2:306, 307 Jinan, 2:396 Liaoning, 2:470471 Nanjing, 3:2 Shanxi, 3:385 Shenyang, 3:393 Sichuan, 3:399 third front concept, 1:447 urbanization, 4:18 Xian, 4:106 Zhejiang, 4:159 Heavy-lift launch vehicles, 3:471 Hebei, 2:190193, 192, 193, 3:415416 Hedin, Sven, 1:40, 3:23 Hefei, 1:33 Hegemony, opposition to, 3:320, 322 Heifetz, Jascha, 2:647 Heilongjiang, 2:194196, 195 Heirs. See Inheritance Henan, 2:196199, 197, 198 Herbal medicine, 2:574, 575576 Herding, 1:1921, 1:20, 1:413 Hereditary servants, 3:357358 Hereditary status, 3:423 Heritage protection, 2:199202, 201 antiquities, 1:46 archaeology, 1:50, 5253 architecture, 1:65 Beijing, 1:141 collections and collecting, 1:308 hutongs, 2:279280 intangible cultural heritage preservation, 3:161 Nanjing, 3:34 Suzhou, 3:515 Taibei, 3:520 urban areas, 4:20 World Heritage Sites, 3:581 Yangzhou, 4:128
Heritage sites destruction of, 3:160, 161 heritage protection, 2:199201 Huizhou, 2:268 Shaanxi, 3:369 Shanxi, 3:387 Suzhou, 3:515 Hero altars, 2:494 Heroes, 2:597 Heshen corruption, 3:233, 248 Qianlong, association with, 2:205 Yongyan, arrest by, 1:505 Hessler, Peter, 2:367 Heude, Pierre, 2:635 Hidden unemployment, 2:418 Hierarchy of nationalities, 2:610 High-energy physics research, 3:269 High Qing political culture, 3:147 High-speed trains, 3:605606 High technology, 2:202205, 203t, 204 engineering research, 3:266 science and technology policy, 3:337341 service sector, 3:356 Xian, 4:106 High-yielding hybrid rice, 1:18 Higher education, 1:480, 484, 485, 1:496f adults, 1:490 archaeology, 1:48, 50 architecture, 1:60, 67 cadres, 2:412413 Christian universities and colleges, 1:486489 continuing post-university education, 1:490 education policy, 1:496497 engineering, 3:265 foreign settlements, 2:72 graduate programs, 1:3 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 historiography, 2:223 Hong Kong, 2:240241 Hunan and Hubei, 2:275 international students, 2:362363 Jiangxi, 2:393 Mao era, 1:482483 mission run colleges, 1:464 Nanjing, 3:3 Qing dynasty, 1:464, 465, 479 reform era, 1:470 Republican period, 1:479 rural students, 1:474475 science and technology, 3:338, 339 science research, 3:267268 scientific community, 3:341 Sichuan, 3:401
443
Index
Higher education, continued social class, 3:429 social science and policy research, 3:270 student organizations and activism, 3:505506 Taiwan, 3:545, 546 teacher education, 3:560 vocational education, 4:4041 warlord era, 1:479481 women, 1:494495, 4:80 Xian, 4:106 Highly skilled labor, 1:255 Highway construction, 3:607608 Hijacking, 3:132 Hindemith, Paul, 2:648 Hinduism, 2:320 Hinton, Carma, 3:387 Hinton, William, 2:366, 3:387 Hirohito, 4:57 Hirota Koki, 3:4 Hirth, Frederic, 3:410 Historians, 1:148, 2:223, 3:349350, 351352 Historic preservation. See Heritage protection Historical assessment Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci (Deng), 4:272276 Cultural Revolution, 1:372, 375376, 3:149150 Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 4:247252 Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future (Deng), 4:262268 of Mao Zedong, 2:558, 3:117 Resolutions on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China, 4:276277 Revolution of 1911, 3:272273 Historical literature, 3:134, 370 Historiography, 2:221226, 467468 Historiography of architecture. See Architecture, historiography of History, 2:205226 archives, 1:6973 historical periods, 2:211 Japanese textbook issue, 2:374, 3:5, 13 lineal view, 3:249 professionalization, 2:223
History of archaeology. See Archaeology, history of History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (Fergusson), 1:57 History of the Chinese Communist Party. See Chinese Communist Party history History paintings, 1:117118, 2:537, 3:4950 Hitler, Adolf, 2:554 HIV/AIDS, 2:226230, 227, 228t, 229 activism, 2:229 drug use, 1:434 prostitution, 3:199 Yunnan, 4:135 Ho, Stanley, 2:542 Ho Chi Minh, 4:123 Ho Hau-wah, Edmund, 3:474 Ho Kai, 1:396 Ho Yin, 2:541 Hobart, Alice Tisdale, 2:366 Hobson, Benjamin, 2:183 Hokchia, 1:241 Hokkien, 2:97, 2:230232 Hokusai KAtsushika, 3:263 Holidays Buddhas birthday, 1:156 leisure, 2:455 tourism, 3:579, 585 Hollywood films, 2:38, 39 Hollywood influence, 2:466, 3:3637 Home-ownership housing reform, 2:253 reform period, 4:19 urban housing, 4:2223 Hometown associations, 3:419420 Homo erectus, 1:49 Homo sapiens sapiens, 1:49 Homosexuality, 2:228, 232234, 3:366 Hong Jun, 3:329 Hong Kong, 2:234246, 235, 237, 238, 3:473 art history, 1:110111 Bank of China Tower, 3:85, 3:85 Buddhism, 1:156 Cantonese, 1:167 Christian universities and colleges, 1:488489 comics, 1:314 coolie trade, 1:243 dance, 1:385386 Daoism, 1:387 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 diaspora and homeland, 1:252 emigration, 1:241 fashion, 2:25 film, 2:39, 4749, 48
Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350351 homosexuality, 2:233 household servants, 3:359 international relations, 2:358 language policy, 2:433 laws protecting women and children, 2:440441 lineage, 2:493 literature, 2:506507 Macau, relations with, 2:541 Maoist art, 2:322 migration, 2:329, 330 missionary medicine, 2:183 music, 2:648 New Years movies, 3:36 newspapers, 3:37 opium smuggling, 3:414 piracy, 3:132 popular music, 2:640 ports, 3:599600 prostitution, 3:200 rape, 3:245 religious policy, 3:259260 return to China, 4:67 severe acute respiratory syndrome crisis, 1:125 Shanghai, rivalry with, 3:377378 Shenzhen, relation with, 3:477 shops, 3:397 Sincere Department Store, 3:404405 Sino-British Joint Declaration, 4:280282 special administrative regions, 3:473474 Sun Yat-sen, 1:250 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:569 tourism, 3:589 trade, 2:87 transsexuality and sex-change operations, 3:609, 610 United Kingdom interests in, 4:5 Wing On Department Stores, 4:7778 See also Basic Law of Hong Kong Hong Kong calendar, 1:162164 Hong Kong Stock Exchange, 2:53 Hong Liangji, 3:248 Hong Rengan, 3:522, 524 Hong Shen, 2:254, 3:133 Hong Xiuquan Guangzhou, 2:160 Taiping Uprising, 2:127, 207, 3:1, 520524, 4:59 Hong Yang, 2:339 Hong Ye, 3:72 Hong Yi, 3:47 Hong Ying, 2:496
444
Index
Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, 2:77, 79, 81 Hongmen, 1:405406 Hongren, 2:267 Hongshan culture, 1:49 Hopewell Power, 1:156 Hordern, Anthony, 4:77 Horner, Jill, 2:539 Horse paintings, 4:115, 116 Hoshot Mongols, 3:237 Hospitals childbirth, 2:476 medical care, 2:569 missionaries, 2:183 urban areas, 2:570 Western medicine, 2:577, 580 Hosting, 3:436437 Hotels, 3:580, 587, 588 Hou Bo, 3:127 Hou Dejian, 2:641 Hou Hsiao-Hsien, 2:51 Hou Wenyi, 4:93 Hou Xiaoxian, 2:51 Household farming. See Family farming Household registration, 2:246248 economic development, effect on, 1:444 education, 1:469, 473 Hakkas, 2:173 human rights, 2:268 income, 2:297 iron rice bowl, 3:494 migrant workers, 2:588, 3:313 migration, 2:329 peasantry, 3:8081 peoples communes, 3:303 political control, 3:144 reform period, 4:19 social welfare, 3:441 unemployment, 2:418 urban areas, 4:12 urbanization, 4:18 Household responsibility system, 2:248249 agricultural production, 1:16 agriculture reform, 1:453 Anhui, 1:33 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328 constitutions, 1:357 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 economic reform, 2:90 employment and unemployment, 4:30 land tenure, 2:426 peasants, 3:83 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 poverty, 3:173
spread of, 1:454 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155 Household sector, 1:135 Household servants, 3:358359 Housing, 2:249253, 252t community structure, 3:215 Fujian, 2:97 hutongs, 2:279280 Mao era, 4:12, 19 migrant workers, 2:588 real estate management, 4:2526 reform period, 4:1920 Taibei, 3:520 urban areas, 4:21, 2223 workers new villages, 1:62 How the Steel Was Tempered (Ostrovsky), 3:597 How to Be a Good Communist (Liu), 2:518, 4:214217 Howard, John, 1:120 Hsia, C. T., 1:194, 2:551, 3:228 Hsing, Lee. See Li Xing Hsu, Francis L. K., 2:284, 612 Hu, King. See Hu Jinquan Hu Boxiang advertising posters, 1:313 art photography, 1:313 Huashe, 3:118 Hu Chenggong, 4:66 Hu Chunhua, 1:337 Hu County peasant paintings, 3:195196, 369 Hu Die, 2:144, 254 Hu Donglin, 2:98 Hu Feng, 2:254256 Cultural Revolution, 2:503 dissidents, 1:420421 imprisonment, 1:370 literary theory, 2:506 literature of national defense, opposition to the, 2:502 two slogans debate, 2:447 Hu Fuming, 1:287288 Hu Gongshou, 2:319, 3:264 Hu Guangyong, 4:174 Hu Hanmin Chiang Kai-shek, leadership struggle with, 3:15 Guangdong, 2:156 land policy, 2:425 national anthem, 3:7 Nationalist Party, 3:18 right-wing faction, 3:152 socialism, 3:453454 Sun Yat-sen, support of, 3:511 Hu Jia, 3:143 Hu Jieqing, 2:433, 434 Hu Jinquan, 2:50
Hu Jintao, 2:256259, 3:321 AIDS stigma reduction, 2:230 army and politics, 1:80 Australia, visit to, 1:120 Central Military Commission, 1:189, 3:108 Chinese Marxism, 1:234 Chongqing, 3:211 Communist Youth League, 1:337 development of the west, 3:211 education policy, 1:472 elite, 3:428 employment, 2:420 environmental policy, 1:530 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 harmonious society, 2:180, 631 human rights protection, 3:274 India, relations with, 2:300 New Left, influence of the, 3:31 party future, 2:383 party leadership, 1:330 peaceful rise concept, 2:362 political succession, 3:158 presidency, 1:186 rural health care, 3:295 rural problems, 3:317 social policy programs, 3:431 socialist market economy, 3:455 Song Ping, patronage of, 4:69 Taiwan policy, 2:84 Hu Lancheng, 1:194 Hu Linyi classical scholarship, 1:280 militarism, 2:591 military leadership, 4:140 Zhang Zhidong, influence on, 4:149 Zuo Zongtang, association with, 4:173 Hu Qiaomu, 2:400 Hu Qili, 2:261 Hu Qiuyuan, 2:447 Hu Quiaomu, 1:288 Hu she yuekan (periodical), 1:114 Hu Shi, 2:259260 Anhui, 1:32 Chen Duxiu, association with, 1:197, 198 Chinese studies graduate programs, 1:3 Chu Anping, influence on, 1:266 constitutionalism, 1:353 Crescent Moon Society, 2:489, 499 federalism, 2:2728 filial piety, 2:37 history, study of, 2:223, 224, 225 intellectualism, 1:284 liberalism, 2:472 libraries, 2:474 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514
445
Index
Hu Shi, continued Mao Zedong, attack by, 1:287 May Fourth movement, 2:567 New Culture movement, 2:566 pace of change, 1:286 plays, 3:133 poetry revolution, 3:136, 137 prostitution, 3:198 Shanghai Art Academy, 3:48 Shen Congwen, association with, 3:391 study abroad, 3:507 translation of foreign literature, 3:596 vernacular literature movement, 1:285286, 2:504 Westernization, 4:7475 Hu Shicha, 1:43 Hu Wanchun, 3:135 Hu Xiaolian, 2:75 Hu Xigui, 1:101 Hu Yanlin, 3:98 Hu Yaobang, 2:260262 Changsha, 1:196 Communist Youth League, 1:337 Deng Xiaoping, work with, 1:410 downfall of, 1:328 fall of, 1:411 Hu Jintao, patronage of, 2:256 Hua Guofeng, support of, 2:263 Jiangs outreach to followers of, 2:383 political succession, 3:158 prodemocracy movement, 3:183 propaganda, 3:185 resignation, 1:203, 2:21, 4:156 Socialist spiritual civilization, 1:328 Wen Jiabao, association with, 4:7071 Hu Yepin, 1:419 Hu Yichuan, 1:105, 3:32, 33 Hu Yuan, 3:384 Hu Yuying, 2:579 Hu Zhang, 2:319 Hu Zheng, 4:154 Hua Guofeng, 2:262265, 264 army and politics, 1:9 caretaker regime, 1:231 Central Military Commission, 1:188 cult of, 3:117 on the Cultural Revolution, 3:150 Deng Xiaoping, struggle with, 1:393 five-year plans, 2:58 Four Modernizations, 2:90, 4:164 National Peoples Congress, 1:187 party leadership, 1:327 political succession, 3:158
premiership, 1:409410 rustic realism, 3:324 sent-down educated youth, 3:353 Tiananmen Incident, 3:571 whatever faction, 1:287, 2:261 Hua hun (film), 3:72 Hua Lanhong, 1:62 Hua Shan, 3:368 Hua Tianyou, 1:105 Hua Tuo, 2:574 Hua Yan, 1:101 Huai Army, 1:32 Huai River, 3:282, 3:282283 Huaihai campaign, 1:272, 3:17 Huaju. See Plays Huang Banruo, 4:92 Huang Binhong, 2:265267, 266 art history, 1:86 bunjinga painting, 2:319 Chinese painting, 1:103, 263, 264 Li Keran, association with, 2:464 literati painting, 2:501 National Essence movement, 1:114, 115 Wu Changshi, influence of, 1:102 Huang Chunming, 2:507 Huang Gongwang, 4:100 Huang Jianxin, 2:31 Huang Jinshu, 4:131 Huang Jinyan, 3:597 Huang Ju, 2:383, 3:211 Huang Junbi, 1:110 Huang Kuan, 2:579 Huang Pilie, 4:93 Huang Rui, 3:489, 490, 491 Huang Shizheng, 4:90, 91 Huang Tifang, 1:3 Huang Xian, 3:512 Huang Xiang, 3:138 Huang Xinbo, 3:33 Huang Xing, 1:196 Huang Yanpei China Democratic National Construction Association, 1:402 Democratic League of China, 1:403 intellectualism, 1:284 Lu Zuofu, influence on, 2:535 vocational education, 4:39 Huang Yizhou, 1:3 Huang Yong Ping art exhibitions, 1:82, 83 installation art, 1:91 New Wave movement, 3:35 Huang Yongsha, 2:611 Huang Yongyu, 1:106 Huang Yuan, 2:502
Huang Yulin, 1:62 Huang Zi, 2:548, 644, 3:7 Huang Zongjiang, 3:509 Huang Zongxi, 1:277, 278 Huang Zunxian, 2:221, 503, 3:136 Huang Zuolin, 3:135 Huangmei Opera, 3:89 Huangpu Park, 2:112 Huangshan. See Huizhou Huaqiao, 1:238 Huaren, 1:238 Huashe, 3:118 Huawei, 1:150, 3:266 Huawei Technologie, 3:609 Huayi, 1:238, 2:286 Hubei. See Hunan and Hubei Hudec, Laszlo, 1:68 Huguang. See Hunan and Hubei Hui history and culture, 2:608 Islam, 2:369, 371372 Ningxia, 3:44 uprisings, 2:606 Hui Brothers, 2:4849 Hui Koon-Man, Michael, 3:36 Huihui, 2:608 Huizhou, 2:267268 Huizong, Emperor, 1:41 Hukou system. See Household registration Human development, 2:340 Human rights, 2:268271, 269, 270 African states, 1:910 Beijing Olympics, 3:56 constitutions, 1:357 criminal law, 2:445 death penalty, 1:390 Democracy Wall, 1:395 France, relations with, 2:92 Germany, relations with, 2:124 international relations, 2:358 Liu Xiaobo, 2:521 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 nationalism, 3:13 Rights Defense movement, 3:274276 Sino-European relations, 1:538 tourism, 3:582 United States, relations with, 4:9, 11 White Paper on Human Rights, Preface, 4:290291 Human Rights Watch, 1:10 Human trafficking. See Trafficking Humanism art, 1:107108 Confucian ethics, 1:286 debate on, 1:288
446
Index
Humans, Beasts, and Ghosts (Qian), 3:227 Hunan and Hubei, 2:271275, 275, 4:97 Hunan Army, 1:391, 4:139 Hunan Report, 1:221 Hunan Self-study University, 1:3 Hundred Days Reform, 2:275276 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275 Confucianism, 1:348 institutional changes, 3:251 Kang Youwei, 2:210, 401, 402 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:274 Sino-Japanese War, 3:408 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:183 Democratic League of China, 1:404 democratic parties, 1:401 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 Hu Yaobang, 2:261 intellectuals, 2:217 Liu Binyan, 2:512 Mao Zedong, 2:557 mass movements, 1:231 On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (Mao), 4:228230 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 Hundred Regiments campaign Deng Xiaoping, 1:408 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 Peng Dehuai, 3:9495 Zhu De, 4:168 Hundred schools, 1:280281 Hung Wu, 1:89 Hungary, 3:596 Hunger, 3:171 Hunger Strike Manifesto (Liu), 4:285287 Hunger strikes, 2:521 Huozhe (film), 1:124 Hupeh. See Hunan and Hubei Hupei. See Hunan and Hubei Hurley, Patrick, 3:17, 4:123 Huters, Theodore, 3:228 Hutong, 2:278280, 279 Huxley, Thomas H., 1:285, 3:10, 4:121 Hydrological power, 1:518520 Hydropower, 3:240, 279 Hyperinflation, 1:362363, 3:15 Hyperrealism, 3:35
I
I Ching, 2:650 Ibsen, Henrik, 3:596 Ice and Snow Festival, 2:179, 180 Ichi-Go offensive, 1:408 Iconography, Maoist. See Cult of Mao Idea writing, 2:501 Identification and belonging, 2:281283 Identification cards, 1:254, 2:246 Identity, 2:283287, 285 autonomous regions, 3:208209 Chinese overseas, 1:235, 237 collective identity, 3:82 film, 2:449 Hakkas, 2:173174 Muslims, 2:370 origins and development of Chinese civilization, 1:4546 peasants, 3:82 Taiwan, 3:539540 Zhuang, 3:209 Ideological education, 1:495 Ido Reizan, 1:86 Illegal aliens, 2:422 Illegal land transfers, 2:476, 3:313 Illiteracy and literacy, 2:287288 adults, 1:489, 490 baojia system, 1:136 examination system, 1:541 funding, 1:498 peasantry, 3:80 rural areas, 1:473 sishu schools, 1:463 Taiwan, 3:545 United Nations Development Programme Report, 1:451 villages, 4:36 women, 1:462, 493, 494f Zouping County, 1:469 Image and Phenomena (exhibition), 1:91 Imamura Shiko, 2:319 Imla Convention, 3:104 Immigrants Korean labor, 2:406 social welfare, 3:452 Taibei, 3:518 Taiwan, 3:529530, 540, 3:540 Immigration policy, 1:235, 256257 Immunity, legal. See Extraterritoriality Imperial art collections, 2:199200 Imperial-audience questions, 4:44 Imperial Bank of China, 2:622 Imperial collections, 1:306307, 2:68, 635636 Imperial commissioners Lin Zexu, 2:491492
Imperial gardens, 2:111112 Imperial Household Department, 2:62, 129, 288289, 3:331 Imperial Maritime Customs Service. See Chinese Maritime Customs Service Imperial orthodoxy, 1:277 Imperial palaces, 2:289293 Imperial physicians, 2:182 Imperial University of Beijing, 1:479 Imperialism, 2:293297, 294 capitalism, link with, 1:222 consumption and consumer culture, 1:358 extraterritoriality, 1:542543 foreign settlements, concessions and leased territories, 2:7172 nationalism, 2:281, 352, 3:10 police, 3:140 radio, 3:243244 railways, 3:603604 scramble for concessions, 2:350351 treaty ports, 3:612614 Western explorers, 1:40 Xinjiang, Qing conquest of, 4:111112 Yuan Shikai, 2:138 Implementing The Three Peoples Principles (Jiang), 4:282283 Import liberalization, 2:89 Imports arms, 1:74 coal, 1:516 consumption and consumer culture, 1:358359 oil, 1:517 shops, 3:395 telecommunications equipment, 3:609 textiles, 2:175 See also Foreign trade Imprisonment, 3:91, 93 In the New Era: Revelation of Adam and Eve (painting), 3:3435 Inauguration of Barack Obama, 2:539 Incentives agricultural production, 1:1516 central planning, 1:177178 economic incentives and gradualism, 1:459 one-child policy, 3:168 special economic zones, 3:475, 476 Income, 1:444f, 2:297299, 298f Agrarian Reform Law, 3:301 farmers, 3:316317 financial markets, 2:54 gradualism, 1:461 Great Leap Forward, 3:305 Guizhou, 2:164
447
Index
Income, continued measures of, 1:444 peasantry, 3:81 rural-urban disparities, 3:316 sending areas, 1:241 social classes, 3:425 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 standard of living, 3:486, 487, 488 Taiwan, 3:538, 540 United Nations Development Programme Report, 1:451 Indemnities Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:218219 foreign investment, 2:75 foreign loans, 2:8081 Treaty of Nanjing, 3:62 Indentured laborers, 1:235, 243246 Independent Art Association, 1:111 Indexes, 1:70 India, 2:299302, 301 border disputes, 3:320, 4:66 Dalai Lama, 1:379381 games, 2:104 Mao Zedong, influence of, 2:558 Maoist propaganda, influence of, 2:322 McMahon Line, 3:104 nationalist movement, 2:320 New Democracy, 3:30 Pakistan, influence on relations with, 3:6570 Tibet, 3:574 Westernization, 4:73 Zhou Enlai, 4:163 Indian Ocean, 1:289 Indigenous Peoples Basic Act, 3:541 Indirect taxes, 3:551552 Individual and the state, 2:302303 Individual-farmer responsibility system, 2:248 Individual income tax, 3:554 Individual privacy, 3:177 Individual rights, 1:352353, 2:472473 Individualism, 2:472 Individualization, 3:91 Indochina, 1:120, 2:323 Indonesia ASEAN, 1:118119 Bandung Conference, 2:356 history of relations with, 3:467468 race riots, 1:235 Sino-Indonesian Dual Nationality Treaty, 1:237 South China Sea islands dispute, 3:465466
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, 1:133134 Industrial associations, 2:142 Industrial development, 2:303307, 304f, 305, 306t agriculture, importance of, 3:297 domestic trade, 1:426427 foreign investment, 2:79 Fujian, 2:95 heavy industry, 2:186190 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272274 medicines, 2:580 planned economy, 1:443 Shanxi, 3:384, 385 Shenyang, 3:392 stages, 2:311312 Zhejiang, 4:160 Industrial economic zones, 3:515 Industrial enterprise statistics, 3:498 Industrial exports, 3:537538, 602 Industrial policy, 2:307310 companies, 1:340 gradualism, 1:459 Great Leap Forward, 3:305 Taiwan, 3:534 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155 Industrial workers. See Workers, industrial Industrialists copper and silver, 1:361 Tan Kah Kee, 1:242 Zhang Jian, 4:144145 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 Industrialization, 2:310316, 311f, 311t, 312f brands, 1:149 central planning, 1:179180 county government, 3:210 deindustrialization along with, 2:415 five-year plans, 2:58 foreign trade, 2:86 Four Modernizations, 2:90 Gansu, 2:109 gender relations, 2:115 Great Leap Forward, 3:305 Guizhou, 2:164 handicrafts, 2:175, 313f Harbin, 2:180 industrial development stages, 2:311312 industrial planning, 1:267 Inner Mongolia, 2:326 Jiangsu, 2:387 labor, 2:409410 Manchuria, 2:550 Nantong, 4:14 peasantry, 3:80 Peoples Communes, 3:303
Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217 printing, 2:508 Qingdao, 3:236 Republican era, 4:17 rural development, 3:310 service sector, 3:355 Shandong, 3:373 Shanghai, 1:206 Soviet influence, 3:318 Soviet support, 2:87 stages, 2:304305 Taiwan, 3:536537 textiles, 3:563564 townships, 3:212 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 2:216 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Industry Beijing, 1:142 central planning, 1:178t Confucianism, 1:350 employment by, 4:31f factory employees, poverty among, 3:173 Guangzhou, 2:160 Henan, 2:199 Hong Kong, 2:236 Jiangxi, 2:390391 Liaoning, 2:470471 military enterprises, 3:112115 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 Qingdao, 3:236 Sichuan, 3:400 small towns, 4:27 special economic zones, 3:475479 sulfur-dioxide emissions, 1:527 urban employment, 4:28 women workers, 4:8283 Wuhan, 4:102103 Zhejiang, 4:157 See also Heavy industry; Light industry Infancy, 2:477 Infant mortality life cycle, 2:476, 479 Mao era, 3:430 standard of living, 3:487, 488 Infanticide All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 family, 2:7, 1012 one-child policy, 3:168 sex ratio, 3:362 Inflation civil war, 1:272 housing prices, 2:253 monetary crisis, 1:362363 price controls, 4:71 Influences abroad, 2:316323, 317
448
Index
Information exchange, 2:338 Infrastructure African states, 1:9, 11 Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contracts, 1:156157 Central Asian states, 1:175 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:207208 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 Gansu, 2:109 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449, 450 Guangzhou, 2:161 Qinghai, 3:240 schools, 1:475 science and technology, 3:269 Taiwan, 3:536 See also Transport infrastructure Inheritance adoption, 1:56 Bureau of Rites, 1:305 family law, 2:6 land transfers, 2:424, 425 lineage, 2:492495 Injected drugs, 1:434, 2:227228 Inland navigation, 1:426 Inner Court, 2:129, 130 Inner Mongolia, 2:121, 323326, 325, 326 Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government, 2:325 Innovation, technological, 2:203, 3:337341 An Inquiry into Some Theoretical Issues of Marxism (Zhou), 1:288 Inspection and audit, 2:327 Installation art, 1:90, 94 art in new media, 1:91 Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:161162 calligraphy, use of, 1:165 Chinese characters, use of, 1:108 exhibitions, 1:85 Gu Wenda, 2:152 Institute for Research in Chinese Architecture. See Zhongguo Yigzao Xueshe Institute of Archaeology, 1:48, 50, 53, 56 Institute of Building Science, 1:59 Institute of Ethnology, 1:2 Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources, 3:23 Institute of History and Philology, 1:47, 53, 5456, 58 Institute of National Culture, 4:147 Institute of Self-Government, 4:147 Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, 1:48 Institutional care, 2:483, 3:444445, 448
Instrumental music, 2:650 Insurance, 2:56 See also Health insurance; Social welfare Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, 3:343 Intellectual debates, 1:276288 Intellectual property, 1:152, 2:442, 444 Intellectuals academies, 1:23 anarchism, 1:2829 Anti-Christian/anti-missionary movements, 1:3436 anti-Confucianism, 1:348 anti-rightist campaign, 2:217 archaeology in the Republican era, 1:54 art collecting, 1:307 artists as, 2:621 Ba Jin, 1:127129 Boxer Uprising, 1:148 Buddhism, 1:154, 155 China Democratic League, 3:152 Chinese Marxism, 1:220 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:334 Cultural Revolution, 1:374 democratic ideas, 1:396397 Democratic League of China, 1:403404 dissidents, 1:420423 educational grounding, 1:282283 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829 folk art, 2:58 gender relations, 2:114115 Guangming ribao (periodical), 1:266 Hangzhou, 2:177 health care, 2:184 Hu Shi, 2:259260 Hu Yaobang, support of, 2:261262 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 Kang Youwei, 2:401402 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446447 Li Rui, 2:465466 liberalism, 2:472473 literature in the late Qing dynasty, 2:503 Liu Xiaobo, 2:521 May Fourth movement, 2:565568 music, 2:643 National Essence Movement, 1:113 Nationalism, 2:211212 Neo-Confucianism, 1:276277 New Left, 3:3031
origins and development of Chinese civilization, 1:4546 penal system, 3:92 poetry revolution, 3:137 Protestantism, 3:202 Qing dynasty, 3:232 Scar literature, 3:335 Self-strengthening movement, 2:210 social sciences, 3:438 socialism, 3:453454 study abroad, 3:507 Suzhou, 3:514, 515 thought-reform campaign, 1:326 Wang Shiwei, 4:52 warlord era, 4:5859 workers, relationship with, 3:501502 Yanan model, 3:369 Zhou Enlai on, 1:233 Zhu Ziqing, 4:171172 See also Left-wing intellectuals; Scholars Intelligence, foreign, 3:143 Intensive vegetable farming, 1:1617 Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), 2:435 Intercropping, 1:17 Interdenominational missions, 3:201 Interdepartmental Joint Committee on Species Protection, 1:513 Interest groups, 1:454, 3:418 Interest rates, 1:132, 2:55 Intergenerational issues. See Generational issues Intergovernmental organizations, 2:345348 Interministry Working Meeting on Protecting the Safety of Peoples Republic of China Citizens and Organizations Overseas, 1:255 Internal migration and colonization, 2:328331, 417 dialects, 1:417 education, 1:473 Guangdong, 2:154 Hakkas, 2:173174 Hokkien, 2:230231 household registration, 2:246248 labor mobility, 2:416417 peasantry, 3:8081 population policy, 3:162 reform period, 4:19 rural-urban divide, 4:18 urban employment and unemployment, 4:2930 urban housing, 4:23 urban planning, 4:2122 Wenzhou, 4:7273 Xiamen, 4:108
449
Index
Internal migration and colonization, continued Xinjiang, 4:113 Yunnan, 4:135136 See also Migrant workers Internal pacification before external resistance policy, 1:36 Internal publications, 3:223 International adoption, 1:68, 7 International community, 1:532533, 2:269271 International cooperation, 3:343344, 471472 International Council for Science, 3:343 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1:538 International development aid, 2:331333, 332t International development programs, 2:333342, 584 International Dunhuang Project, 1:44, 72 International Exhibition of Chinese Art, 1:81 International film festivals, 4:149 International financial institutions, 2:333, 334 International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, 3:343 International Labour Organization, 2:343, 411 International law cultural heritage guidelines, 1:308 diplomacy, 2:349 nationality issues, 2:241 war crimes, 4:5557 International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 4:56 Nanjing Massacre, 3:45 Puyi, testimony of, 2:547 war crimes, 4:5657 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 International Mixed Court of Shanghai. See Shanghai Mixed Court International Monetary Fund, 1:131, 2:73, 338339 International Olympic Committee, 3:5155 International Organization for Standardization, 1:149 International organizations, relations with, 2:342344, 344348, 2:357 International PEN writers association, 3:224 International relations, 2:348362, 353 human rights, 2:270 Manchukuo, 2:546 military modernization, anxiety over Chinese, 2:258
International research organizations, 3:271 International scientific community, 3:342343 International Settlement government, 2:72 Jews, 2:376379 Shanghai, 3:374375 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:379 treaty ports, 3:612613 International student movements, 1:375, 2:558 International students, 2:362363 International Style, 1:62 International telecommunications UnionTD-SCDMA, 2:203 International tourists, 3:585588 International tribunals, 3:378 Internationalists, 4:168 Internationalization, 1:228229 Internet, 2:364365, 365 censorship, 1:174, 3:224 civil society, 1:271 dating, 2:562 dictionaries, 2:458 dissidents, 1:423 encyclopedias, 1:512 infrastructure, 3:608609 New Left, 3:31 newspapers, 3:39 online education, 1:490 privacy, 3:177 publishing, 3:222 religion, 3:161 Rights Defense movement, 3:275 statistics, 3:497 tourism, 3:583 Internment camps, 4:128 Interpretation, Western, 2:365367 Interpreters Morrison, Robert, 2:633 Wade, Thomas, 4:4344 Interprovincial cooperative agreements, 1:268 Interracial adoption, 1:153 Interregional migration, 2:416417, 417 Intrabureaucratic conflict, 1:454 Intravenous drug use, 1:434, 2:227228 Inukai Tsuyoshi, 3:73 Investment ASEAN states, 1:119 Chinese overseas, 1:236 compradors, 1:346 decentralization, 1:190191 emigration, 1:255 five-year plans, 2:58
Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 special economic zones, 3:475479, 477t Taiwan investment in Fuzhou, 2:102 See also Foreign investment Investment trusts, 1:402 Iran, 2:586587 Iraq War, 2:371 Iron Girls, 2:116, 4:8485 Iron industry, 2:602, 3:376 Iron rice bowl social policy programs, 3:430 state-owned enterprises, 3:494 transition economy, 3:595 Irrigation and water resources management, 2:367369, 3:286 Dujiangyan irrigation system, 3:397, 400 Henan, 2:196 history, 3:2324 locust plagues, 2:524 rivers, 3:281282, 284287 rural development, 3:305 South-North Water Transfer Project, 3:278 Three Gorges Dam, 2:274 water control, 3:286 Yangzi waters, 3:278 Isamu Noguchi, 2:466 Ishiwara Kanji, 2:549 Islam, 2:369372, 371 Central Asian states, 1:176 Xinjiang, 4:113 See also Muslim uprisings; Muslims Isolationism, 2:355 Israel, 2:587 Italy, 3:409 Ivory Coast, 1:910 Iwaya Ichiroku, 2:319
J
Jackson-Vanik Amendment, 2:634 Jacoby, Annalee, 2:366 Jadidism, 4:112 Jahrya, 2:106, 652 Jameson, Fredric, 2:534 Japan, 2:373376, 375 anarchism, 1:28 anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:65 architecture, historiography of, 1:57 ASEAN+3, 1:119 Chinese art history, 1:8687 Chinese dictionaries, 2:458 Chinese painting, 1:103 civil law, 1:305
450
Index
comfort women, 1:39, 3:198, 200, 4:57 constitutions, 1:352, 354 consumption and consumer culture, 1:359360 criminal code, 1:304 European relations with, 1:538 explorers, 1:4041 extraterritoriality, 1:543 film, 2:39 fishery competition, 1:23 foreign investment, 2:75 historiography, 2:222 history scholarship, 2:224 investment in China, 2:7778 kindergarten, 1:476, 477 Li Hongzhang, 2:462 Liang Qichao, 2:467 Liuqiu Islands, 2:522 Manchuria, 2:548549 militarism, 2:591 mining and mineral rights, 2:603, 604 Morrison, George E., 2:632 nationalism, 3:12 official development assistance, 2:334 oil, 3:602 Pan-Asianism, 3:7273 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 Russo-Japanese War, 4:63 scramble for concessions, 3:344345 silk, 3:402403 Sino-Japanese War, 3:406408 sinology, 3:410 socialism, 3:453 Southeast Asia, invasion of, 1:238 Taiwan, 3:529 textbook issue, 3:5, 13 treaty ports, 3:613 Wang Jingwei, policy of, 4:4950 Wang Zhen, 4:55 war crimes, 4:5657 Westernization, 4:73 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Yuan Shikai, 4:134 See also Anti-Japanese War; Art, Japanese influence on Japan Youth Federation, 2:376 Japanese colonialism boycott, 2:295 literature, 2:507 radio, 3:244 Shandong, 3:371372 Shenyang, 3:392393 Taibei, 3:518 Taiwan, 3:528529 Japanese Communist Party, 1:405
Japanese expansionism Chiangs territorial concessions, 1:209 East Asia, 2:350 Inner Mongolia, 2:324325 Korea, 2:406 Manchukuo, 2:545547 Manchuria, 2:194 Marco Polo Bridge incident, 2:559560 Nationalist government, accommodation policy of the, 3:15 Russia, relations with, 3:318 Taiwan, 3:527 warlord era, 4:58, 59 Japanese literature, 4:45 Japanese occupation Anhui, 1:33 art, 1:105 Cairo Declaration, 4:220 commercial elite, 1:322 Dalian, 1:382 domestic trade, 1:427 famine, 2:16 foreign trade, 2:8687 Hainan, 2:168 Harbin, 2:178180 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350 industrial labor, 4:98 Manchuria, 2:549550 mining and mineral rights, 2:604 Nanjing, 3:2 printing, 2:509 Qingdao, 3:236 Shandong, 3:373 Shanghai, 2:379, 3:375 Shenxin cotton mills, 3:289 smuggling, 3:415416 Taiwan, art in, 1:109110 Yangzhou, 4:128 Yu Dafu, 4:131 Zhejiang, 4:159 See also Anti-Japanese War Jardine Matheson, 2:77 Jehangir, 1:506 Jesuits, 1:170, 3:232 Jesus Family, 3:202, 570 Jewish communities and refugees, 2:376380, 379 Jews, 3:75, 375 Ji Cheng, 2:111 Ji Xian, 3:138 Ji xiao duzhe (Bingxin), 1:145 Ji Zheng, 3:53, 483 Jia Chunwang, 3:143 Jia Lanpo, 1:53 Jia Pingwa, 2:380381, 3:224 Jia Qinglin, 1:183 Jia Zhangke, 2:45, 47
Jia Zuoguang, 1:384 Jiajing, 2:289290 Jian Youwen, 2:496498 Jian Zhen, 4:128 Jiang Baoling, 1:98 Jiang Bibo, 3:348 Jiang Bingzhi. See Ding Ling Jiang Biwei, 1:195, 4:114 Jiang Feng art policy, 1:115 Chinese Artists Association, 1:116 graphic arts, 1:105 New Print movement, 3:32, 33 propaganda art, 3:189 socialist realism, 3:457 Stars painting group, 3:490 Jiang Haicheng. See Ai Qing Jiang Jingguo democratization, 3:474 Li Denghui, succession by, 2:459 mausoleum, 2:484 reunification proposal, 2:8384 Taiwan politics, 3:530, 531 Jiang Menglin, 1:284, 2:473 Jiang Qing All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 arrest, 1:409 Chinese painting, 1:264 Cultural Revolution, 2:557 fashion, 2:24 film, 2:41 Gang of Four, 1:373 gender relations, 2:116 Hu Yaobang, criticism of, 2:261 Li Fengmian, denouncement of, 2:488 liberalism, attack on, 1:288 model operas and ballets, 2:618619 oil painting, 3:49 opera, 3:87 painting, 3:324 party leadership, 1:327 peasant painting, 3:194 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 radical left, 1:327 Shanghai, 3:377 Tiananmen Incident, 3:571 The Winking Owl (painting), criticism of, 1:106 women and politics, 4:89 Wutai jiemei (film), 4:110 Yangming Jingshe, 1:3 Zhu De, accusations toward, 4:169 Jiang Renjie, 3:515 Jiang Tingfu, 1:284, 2:224 Jiang Wen, 2:151, 4:110 Jiang Wenye, 2:647, 649
451
Index
Jiang Xiaoyan, 2:485 Jiang Xin, 1:83, 105 Jiang Yanyong, 3:360 Jiang Yingfang, 2:162 Jiang Zemin, 2:381384, 382 Agricola Medal, 2:337 armed forces grades and ranks, 3:110 Beijing Olympics, 3:55 Central Military Commission, 1:188, 189 Chinese Communist Party leadership, 1:329, 330 Chinese Marxism, 1:234 Deng Xiaoping, replacement of, 1:411 development of the west, 3:206, 211 education policy, 1:470 Elizabeth II, visit with, 4:6 Falun Gong, suppression of, 2:3 foreign policy, 2:362 France, relations with, 2:92 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449450, 4:106 Hong Kong, return of, 4:7 Hu Jintao, work with, 2:257 India, relations with, 2:300 military enterprises, 3:114 municipality representation, 3:211 opera, 2:71 patriotic education campaign, 2:646 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:107 political control, 3:144, 146 political succession, 3:158 presidency, 1:186 public ownership, redefinition of, 3:497498 secret police, 3:143 Shanghai, 3:376, 377 study abroad, 3:508 Three Represents theory, 1:324, 3:31 Wen Jiabao, association with, 4:70 Yangzhou, 4:128 Zhu Rongji, work with, 4:170 Jiang Zhaohe, 1:103, 264 Jiang Zilong, 3:335336 Jianghua Island Incident, 2:462 Jiangnan Arsenal, 2:461, 4:141 Jiangsu, 2:384389, 386, 387, 3:401 Jiangxi, 2:389394, 391 Jiangxi Communist Labor University, 2:393 Jiangxi Program, 1:355 Jiangxi Soviet drug policies, 1:433 government administration, 2:140 history, 2:215
military enterprises, 3:112 Nationalist military campaigns against, 3:15 physical education, 3:128 Red Army, 3:104 Jianzhu xinfa (Zhang), 1:60 Jiao Xun, 4:96 Jiao Yaoming, 3:35 Jiaobinlu kangyi (Feng). See Essays of Protest (Feng) Jiaqing emperor. See Yongyan Jidi Majia, 2:612 Jiefang Ribao (newspaper), 2:20, 3:221 Jieshan County Colloidal Products Factory, 3:592 Jilin, 2:394396, 395, 396 Jilin Petro-Chemical Corporation, 2:394, 395 Jimei, 1:242 Jin Bin, 2:319 Jin-Cha-Ji huabao, 3:126 Jin Cheng art history, 1:103 Chinese painting, 1:263 Japanese influence, 1:112 literati painting, 2:501 minority nationalities, 2:609 National Essence movement, 1:114 Jin Guidi, 3:51 Jin He, 3:136 Jin Jialun, 1:110 Jin Mao Tower, 1:66 Jin Nong, 1:101 Jin Shangyi, 3:49 Jin Yong, 4:53 Jin Yunmei, 2:579, 4:80 Jin Zhaofeng, 2:222223 Jinan, 2:396398 Jinan Anti-U.S. Brutality Alliance, 3:505 Jinan University, 3:505 Jing Cheng, 1:114 Jing-Jin-Ji Economic Zone, 2:193 Jing Jinrui, 2:25 Jing-luo theory, 2:575 Jing Xing, 3:610 Jing Zhiyuan, 1:189 Jingbao. See Peking gazette Jingfang school of medicine, 2:576 Jingshi. See Beijing Jinling Kejing Chu. See Jinling Sutra Carving Society Jinling Sutra Carving Society, 1:154 Jinsha Museum, 1:205 Jinshan, 3:196 Jinshi Jiangsu residents, 2:386387 Ruan Yuan, 3:292
Suzhou, 3:514 See also Examination system Jintian poets, 1:393, 395 Jiusan Society, 1:404405 Joffe, Adolf, 1:310, 3:512 Johnson, Rafer, 3:483 Joint Communique, 2:373 Joint Communique on Arms Sales to Taiwan, 4:279280 Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Peoples Republic of China and the United States of America, 4:268269 Joint Declaration, 1:119, 2:237238, 241 Joint military exercises, 2:301 Foreign Affairs Bureau, 1:190 Pakistan, 3:69, 3:70 sino-Indian, 2:300301 Joint science publications, 3:343 Joint-stock companies, 1:321 Joint ventures automobile industry, 1:121122, 2:190, 394 Big Four banks, 1:134 commercial elite, 1:321 company forms, 1:343345 higher education, 1:486 law, 1:344, 345 mining, 2:603604 mobile communications technology, 2:203 money and banking, 2:622 ports, 3:600 private enterprise, 3:178 private schools, 1:501 special economic zones, 3:475 United Kingdom, 4:7 See also Foreign investment Jordan, 2:421422 Journalism, 2:398400, 399 human rights, 2:270 newspapers, 3:3739 Western interpretation, 2:366 Journalistic photography, 3:126127 Journalists Fan Changjiang, 2:1920 Ge Gongzhen, 2:113 Liu Binyan, 2:511512 Morrison, George E., 2:631632 Snow, Edgar, 3:416417 Journals archaeology, 1:50 architecture, 1:60 socialism, 3:453 See also Specific titles Journey to the West (cartoon), 1:314 Ju Chao, 1:102, 262
452
Index
Ju Lian Chinese painting, 1:262 Lingnan school, 2:496498 technique, 1:102 Judges, 2:407, 3:379 Judicial review, 2:443 Juilliard School of Music, 2:539 Jus in bello, 4:5556 Jus sanguinis principle, 1:239, 240, 250, 260 Justice system. See Criminal justice system
K
Kafka, Franz, 1:166 Kahn, Ida, 2:183, 577 Kai-Min Shengwan, 2:97 Kaifang de yishushi congshu, 1:88 Kaifeng Jews, 2:376 Kailan Mining Administration, 2:515516, 603604 Kairov, Ivan, 1:468 Kalian Sales Agency, 2:516 Kam rebellion, 2:162 Kampf, Arthur, 4:116 Kan Yue-Sai, 1:150, 1:151 Kang Baiqing, 3:137 Kang Keqing, 1:26, 4:89 Kang Sheng Chen Yun, work with, 1:202 inspection and audit, 2:327 secret police, 3:142 Shandong, 3:373 Kang Xiaoguang, 1:288 Kang Youwei, 2:401402 aesthetic ideal in calligraphy, 1:100 anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:65 art history, 1:8586, 87 Buddhism, 1:154 calligraphy, 1:103 Chinese overseas, relations with, 1:237 Confucianism, 1:348, 3:160 Confucius as a reformer, 1:281282 education reform, 1:464 exile of, 4:133 gender relations, 2:115 Gong Zizhen, influence of, 2:127 Guangdong, 2:154 Guangxu, memorial of, 2:276 Guangzhou, 2:160 historiography, 2:221222 Li Keran, influence on, 2:464, 465 Liang Qichao, association with, 2:467 literati painting, 2:500 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 music, 2:643
New Text school, 1:281 poetry revolution, 3:136 queue (hairstyle), 2:169 reform, 1:275, 3:251 religion, 3:259 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:274 socialism, 3:453 Westernization, 4:74 Xu Beihong, mentorship of, 4:114 Yan Fu, influence of, 4:121 Zhang Zhidong, association with, 4:151 Kang Zuyi. See Kang Youwei Kangxi Catholicism, 1:170 Forbidden City, 2:289290 Qing dynasty, 3:231, 232 salt trade, 3:331 weights and measures, 4:68 Kangxi zidian, 2:457 Kano Naoki, 4:47 Kao pan yu shi (Tu), 2:98 Kaogu (periodical), 1:50 Kaogu Xuebao (periodical), 1:50 Kaohsiung, 2:402404 Karakoram Highway construction, 3:6970 Kashmir conflict, 3:66, 68 Kates, George, 2:99 Katsushika Hokusai, 2:32 Kawabata Academy of Painting, 1:104 Kazaks, 2:369 Ke Shaomin, 2:222 Keating, Paul, 1:120 Kejia, 2:173 Kejijie, 3:341342 Kerr, John Glasgow, 2:577 Kexue fazhan guan. See Scientific outlook on development Key cities, 4:102 Key-point schools, 1:473474, 496 Khafiya order, 2:106, 652 Khrushchev, Nikita Chinese civil war, 1:272 international relations, 2:355 Mao Zedong, relations with, 3:318320 On Khrushchevs Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World (Mao), 4:240241 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413 Stalin, Joseph, denunciation of, 2:277 Kidner, William, 1:68 Kim Il Sung, 2:406407, 3:95, 481 Kim Jong Il, 2:405
Kindergarten, 1:476479, 477t, 478, 501, 3:559561 King, F. H., 2:366 Kingsmill, Thomas, 1:68 Kinoshita Itsuun, 2:318 Kinship guanxi, 3:2628 social classes, 3:421422 state-owned enterprises, 3:494 Kirchner, Nestor, 2:435 Kirgiz, 2:369 Kishida Ryusei, 2:319 Kissinger, Henry, 1:327, 4:8 Kitchen God, 2:7 Knowledge Innovation Program, 3:23, 267, 338 Knowledge transfer international development programs, 2:334 joint ventures, 1:344 service sector, 3:356 Koizumi Junichiro, 2:374 Kokonor. See Qinghai Kollwitz, Kathe, 1:117, 2:464, 3:188 Kominka literature, 2:507 Kong family, 2:62 Kong Guangsen, 1:278 Kong Jiesheng, 3:290 Kong Xiangxi monetary policy, 1:362 silver export duty, 2:149 Song Ailing, marriage to, 3:461 study abroad, 3:507 Kongzi gaizhi kao (Kang), 2:401 Koo, Wellington, 2:352 Koolhaas, Rem, 1:67 Korea, 2:404405, 405 ASEAN+3, 1:119 comfort women, 1:39 North Korean nuclear program, 4:11 nuclear weapons, 2:347, 358 Sino-Japanese war, 4:63 Zhou Enlai, 4:163 Korean Communist Party, 2:406407 Korean community in China, 2:405406 Korean War, 2:406408 border disputes, 4:66 containment policy, 2:82 foreign trade, 2:87 international relations, 2:355 Mao Zedong, 2:556 nationalism, 3:12 Peng Dehuai, 3:95 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:103 Sino-Soviet alliance, 2:216 Taiwan, 3:530
453
Index
Korean War, continued United States, relations with, 4:8 Zhu De, 4:169 Korean Workers Party. See Korean Communist Party Kosugi Hoan, 2:319 Kosygin, Aleksey, 3:320 Kozlov, Petr, 1:40 Kreisler, Fritz, 2:647 Kropotkin, Peter, 1:2829, 128 Kublai Khan, 2:278279, 4:128 Kucha, 2:653 Kulian (Bai), 1:129 Kun Opera, 3:86 Kuroda Seiki, 1:104, 111, 3:47 Kusakabe Meikaku, 2:319 Kuznets curve, 2:297 Kwan, Violet. See Guan Zilan Kwang-chih Chang, 1:56 Kwantung Army, 2:545
L
Labor, 2:409423 All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 coolie trade, 1:243246, 2:235 coolies, 1:235, 239 emigration, 1:255 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 Great Leap Forward, 3:304 heavy industry, 2:189 high technology, 2:204 industrial workers, 4:9698 joint ventures, 1:344 Koreans, 2:406 Macau, 2:542 migrant workers, 2:590 migration agents, 1:254 nationalism, 3:11 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 peasantry, 3:77 private enterprises, 3:178 reform era, 2:414416 strikes, 3:501503 transport workers, 1:424 women workers, 4:83 work points system, 3:298 work-related-injury insurance, 3:446 xiafang, 4:107 Labor, division of, 3:535, 4:81, 84 Labor, education and reform through, 1:501502 Labor Contract Law, 2:590 Labor insurance, 3:441442, 443, 451 Labor mobility, 2:416417 Labor policy agrarian to industrial transition, 2:409410 job security, 2:418
labor market, 2:414415, 415416 migrant workers, 2:589590, 590 social security and unemployment insurance, 2:420 social welfare, 3:502 strikes, 3:503 trade unions, 2:413414 Labor productivity, 2:304f, 306, 3:298 Labor unions. See Trade unions Lacquer furniture, 2:97 Lai Caishan, 3:132 Lai Changxing, 4:170 Lai Man-wai, 2:47 Lai Shengchuan, 3:135 Laibin B power plant, 1:157 Lake Palaces, 2:68 Lake Society, 1:114, 115, 4:91 Lakes, 1:525, 526 Lamaism, 2:609 Lan Ling, 1:287 Land Administration Law, 2:426, 442, 4:26 Land Border Treaty, 4:35 Land Contract Law, 2:248 Land disputes. See Territorial disputes Land Management Law, 2:426 Land-person ratio, 1:12, 3:171173 Land policy Agrarian Reform Law, 2:425426, 3:301 agricultural production, 1:1415 Anhui, 1:33 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326, 2:140 civil law, 1:305 collectively owned property, 2:430 confiscation and redistribution, 2:428 development zones, 4:2325 domestic violence, 1:431 drug policies, 1:433 Hong Kong, 2:235236 household responsibility system, 2:248249 housing, 2:252 land reform law, 2:216, 3:300301 The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom, 4:192193 land tenure, 2:423425 land use initiatives, 3:317 lineage, 2:494 Mao Zedong, 2:556 Miao uprisings, 2:582 peasantry, 3:80, 81 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217, 219 poverty, 3:172, 173 public finance, 3:219 Qing dynasty, 2:424425
real estate management, 4:26 reform era, 2:442 Republican era, 2:425 rice production, 1:18 rights transfers, 2:426 Shandong, 3:373 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:379383 social welfare, 3:441, 452 standard of living, 3:486 Taiwan, 3:534535, 540 unemployment, 2:418 urban areas, 4:12 urban planning, 4:21 women, status of, 4:84 Xinjiang, 4:113 Yanan, 4:122123 Land productivity, 1:1213 Land reclamation Pearl River Delta, 3:284 Zhang Jian, 4:145 The Land System of the Heavenly Kingdom, 4:192193 Land tenure, 2:423427 lineage, 2:492495 peasantry, 3:77 Qing dynasty, 2:427 Republican era, 2:428 Land to the tiller reform, 2:428 Land use, 1:529, 2:427431, 429 environment, 1:527 forestry and timber trade, 1:2123 grassland degradation and desertification, 1:294295 Guangzhou, 2:160 illegal land transfers, 2:476, 3:313 law, 2:442 policy initiatives, 3:317 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:379383 Landholding data, 3:486 Landless rural households, 3:452 Landlords Agrarian Reform Law, 3:301 land tenure, 2:424425 Landscape painting Hong Kong art, 1:110 Li Keran, 2:464 Zhang Daqian, 4:143144 Lang, William M., 1:392 Lang Jingshan, 3:118, 119 Lang Ping, 3:484 Lange, Dorothea, 3:122 Language and language policy, 2:431433, 432 Bai, 2:612 Cantonese, 1:166 Chinese overseas, 1:235236 cultural policy, 1:370 dialect groups, 1:415417 examination system, 1:541 Fujian, 2:97
454
Index
Guangdong, 2:153 Hakkas, 2:173174 Hokkien, 2:230232 Huihui, 2:608 international students, 2:362 lexicography, 2:457458 literacy, 2:287 literature, 2:446, 447 Manzu, 2:608 Miao, 2:609 mother-tongue teaching, 2:240 nationalism, 3:12 Republican era literature, 2:504 Shanghai, 3:374 Sichuan, 3:400401 social sciences, 3:439 Taiwan, 3:539540 Tibetan people, 2:609 Uygur, 2:608 Wade, Thomas, 4:4344 Wenzhou, 4:72 Language art, 3:35 Language Development Law, 3:539 Lantern Festival, 2:36 Lanyi She. See Blue Shirt Society Lao Gui. See Ma Bo Lao She, 2:433435 ethnic minorities, 2:612 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 local language in literature, 2:432 plays, 3:134 Laos, 3:467 Laozi, 2:196 Laski, Harold, 4:109 Lassalle, Ferdinand, 1:198 Late Maoism, 1:224 Late Qing dynasty architecture, 1:5960 army and politics, 1:78 Chinese painting, 1:261262 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275276 classical scholarship, 1:279282 clothing, 1:298, 300 constitutionalism, 1:352353 employment of women, 4:80 flag and anthem, 3:6 Fuzhou, 2:101 government administration, 2:131132 Grand Canal, 2:145 higher education, 1:479 history, 2:211 legal reform, 1:303304 libraries, 2:474 literature, 2:503504 marriage laws, 2:563564 monetary system, 1:361 opium, 3:5859
penal system, 3:8991 political culture, 3:147148 railways, 3:603 religious policies, 3:257258 Richard, Timothy, 3:273274 social classes, 3:421423 sports, 3:479480 textbooks and moral education, 1:466467 wars, 4:6364 women, status of, 4:8283 women artists, 4:9091 See also Qing dynasty reforms Latin American states, 2:435438 coins, 1:361 coolie trade, 1:243244 Mao Zedong thought, 1:224 Maoist art, 2:321 Latinxua script, 2:431 Lattimore, Owen, 1:212 Lau, Jeffrey, 3:36 Lau, Peter, 2:25 Laufer, Bernard, 3:410 Law, 2:442446 anticorruption, 1:366 central-local relationships, 1:191 child protection, 4:130 codified law, 1:302304 corporate law, 1:342343 customary law, 1:376377 domestic trade, 1:429 heritage protection, 1:50 law courts, 2:438439 marriage laws, 2:563565 National Peoples Congress, 1:185 parent-child relationships, 4:130 See also Codified law; Qing Code Law courts, 2:438440, 439 Law of Commercial Banks, 2:55 Law of Compulsory Education, 1:493494 Law of Criminal Procedure, 3:92 Law of Sports, 3:480 Law of the Peoples Bank of China, 2:55 Law of the Sea Convention, 3:465 Law of Vocational Education, 4:40 Law on Population and Planned Parenthood, 3:361 Law on Regional National Autonomy, 3:207208 Law on the Administration of the Exit and Entry of Citizens, 1:254 Law on the Preservation of Ancient Objects, 1:308 Law on the Promotion of Private Education, 1:501 Law on the Protection of Minors, 1:433
Law on the Protection of Women and Children, 2:440441, 4:85 Law on the Rights and Interest of Women, 1:432 Law on Township Enterprises, 3:593 Law on Urban Real Estate Administration, 2:442 Law schools, 2:450451 Lawmaking Law, 1:191 Lawsuits comfort women, 1:39 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:378382 Lawyers education, 1:490 legal training and the legal profession, 2:450451 Rights Defense movement, 3:276 Lay, Horatio Nelson, 1:217, 4:43 Layoffs, 1:255, 4:31 Le Coq, Albert von, 1:41 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446447 formation, 2:499500 Hu Feng, 2:254255 literature of national defense, 2:502503 Mao Dun, 2:553 revolutionary literature, 2:504 translation of foreign literature, 3:597 Zhou Yang, 4:165166 League of Leftist Artists, 1:25, 115 League of Nations Ge Gongzhen, reporting of, 2:114 Manchukuo, 2:546 relations with the, 2:343 Lean to one side policy foreign policy, 2:8182 imperialism, 2:296 Soviet Union, relations with the, 3:318 treaties, 2:361 Learning of the Way, 1:539 Leased territories. See Foreign concessions, settlements, and leased territories Leasing land-use rights, 4:26 Lee, Ang, 1:194, 2:51, 2:447449 Lee, Bruce, 2:48 Lee, Russell, 3:122 Lee Teng-Hui. See Li Denghui Left-behind children, 4:129 Left-wing intellectuals Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829 film, 2:39 music, 2:644 Suzhou, 3:515
455
Index
Legal reform civil law, 1:305 death penalty, 1:390 late Qing dynasty, 1:303304 legal training and the legal profession, 2:450 Legal Tender Act, 2:627 Legal Tender Reform, 2:624 Legal training, 1:490, 2:450451 Legalizers, 1:279 Legge, James, 2:366, 451452, 3:409 Legislative Council, Hong Kong, 2:244 Legislative Yuan, 1:504, 3:14 Lehar, Franz, 2:638 Lei Feng, 1:492, 2:593 Lei Zhen, 3:530 Leisure, 2:452455, 453, 454 Leisure travel. See Tourism Leith-Ross, Frederick, 1:362 Lend-Lease program, 2:353 Lenin, Vladimir, 1:335 Chen Duxiu, view of, 1:198 Comintern, 1:309 economic policy, 3:604 individual rights, 2:302 Lenin suits, 2:24 Leninism communist thought origins, 1:335 European Union, relations with the, 1:537 Liu Shaoqi, 1:232 Nationalist Party, 3:20 Lenovo, 1:149, 150 Lesbians, 2:232 Lester, Henry, 1:68 Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria (Lin), 4:189190 Letter paper, 4:9495 Letters of a Chinaman to English Readers (Foote), 4:197202 Letters to Young Readers (Bingxin). See Ji xiao duzhe (Bingxin) Leung, Tony, 2:49 Leung Ping-kwan. See Liang Bingjun Lexicography, 2:457458 Lhasa, 3:576, 577, 581 Li, 1:276, 2:167168 Li, Jet, 2:49 Li An. See Lee, Ang Li Bin, 3:333 Li Bing, 3:285 Li Boyuan, 2:398, 503 Li Bozhao, 4:154 Li Changchun, 2:471472, 3:185 Li Chun, 1:143 Li Da, 1:323, 334 Li Datong, 1:174
Li Dazhao Chiang Ching-kuo, relationship with, 1:206 Chinese Communist Party founding, 1:323 Chinese Marxism, 1:286 Comintern, 1:309, 310 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:334 intellectualism, 1:284 libraries, 2:475 May Fourth movement, 2:567 New Culture movement, 2:566 pan-Asianism, 3:73 prostitution, 3:198 xiafang, 4:107 Young China Association, 2:643 Li Denghui, 2:458460, 459 cross-strait relations, 3:544 election of, 3:2122 February 28 apology, 3:539 Nationalist Party, 3:20 New Taiwanese, 3:540 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:107 Taiwan politics, 3:532, 533 unification policy, 2:84 United States, relations with the, 4:10 vice presidency, 1:208 Li Dongping, 2:620 Li Duanfen, 1:464 Li Fen, 4:52 Li Guoding, 3:534 Li Guojie, 1:215 Li Guyi, 2:641 Li Hanqiu, 2:551 Li Hanxiang, 2:50 Li Hanzhang, 2:561 Li Hongzhang, 2:460463, 461 Anhui Army, 1:391 arsenals, 2:311 Beiyang Army, 1:143 Beiyang fleet, 1:391392 China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:213215 Cixi, association with, 1:273, 275, 276 Gordon, Charles, work with, 2:127128 Hart, Robert, relationship with, 2:181 Nian Uprising, 3:40, 4:141 peasant uprisings, suppression of, 4:63 railways, 3:603 recovery of Xinjiang, 4:174 regionalism, 3:252253 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:273
salt trade, 3:332 Self-strengthening, 2:210, 3:250 Shanghai Cotton Mill, 3:563 Shen Baozhen, collaboration with, 3:389 Sino-French War, 3:406 Sun Yat-sen, work with, 3:510 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 Taiping Uprising, 1:3032, 507, 2:30, 208, 4:140 ti-yong relationship, 1:281 Tianjin Naval Academy, establishment of the, 4:59 Wade, Thomas, negotiations with, 4:44 Xinjiang, 2:653 Zeng Guofan, work with, 4:141 Zhang Zhidong, relationship with, 4:150, 151 Li Hongzhi Falun Gong, 2:13, 3:143 Jilin, 2:395 qigong, 3:230 Li Hua, 2:463464 graphic arts, 1:105 Japanese influence, 1:113 New Print movement, 3:32, 33 Li Ji archaeology, 1:47 ethnic groups classification, 1:5556 oracle bones excavation, 1:43 social sciences, 3:438 Li Jianqiang, 3:276 Li Jinai, 1:189 Li Jinfa, 1:105, 2:504, 3:345 Li Jinghan, 3:438 Li Jinhui, 2:640, 643 Li Kenong, 3:142 Li Keqiang Communist Youth League, 1:337 Liaoning, 2:472 political succession, 3:159 Li Keran, 1:264, 2:464465, 2:488 Li Keyu, 2:25 Li-Lan rebellion, 3:398 Li Lianjie. See Li, Jet Li Liejun, 3:512 Li Liewen, 2:502 Li Lili, 3:482 Li Lisan central party leaders, 1:324325 Changsha, 1:196 Deng Xiaoping, influence on, 1:407 Jiangxi, 2:393 military strategy, 4:167 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Li Ming, 2:641
456
Index
Li Minghui, 2:144 Li Ning, 3:483 Li Peng Agenda 21, 1:216 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:456, 457 India, relations with, 2:300 prodemocracy movement, 4:156 State Council, 1:187 study abroad, 3:508 Wang Dan, confrontation with, 3:184 Zhou Enlai, adoption by, 4:162 Li Pingshu, 1:114, 3:345 Li Qi, 3:192 Li Qingling, 3:353 Li Qiujun, 1:99, 4:91, 101 Li Rui, 2:465466 Li Ruihuan, 3:185, 211 Li Ruiqing, 4:142 Li Ruzhen, 2:65 Li Shan, 1:101, 3:50, 153 Li Shangyin, 4:51 Li Shanlan, 3:234 Li Shaoyan, 3:326 Li Shenzhi, 1:288 Li Shiming, 3:51 Li Shizeng, 1:29, 127, 334 Li Shizhen, 2:574 Li Shuang, 1:393, 3:491, 4:93 Li Shunda Builds a House (Gao), 3:336 Li Shutong art education, 1:97 commercial art, 1:311312 graphic arts, 1:316 modernist art, 2:619 music, 2:643 nude models, 2:514 oil painting, 3:4748 Pan Tianshou, study with, 3:71 Western art, 1:104, 111 Li Shuxian, 2:21 Li Tieying, 1:457 Li Weihan, 4:5 Li Wenjun, 3:597 Li Xiande, 3:317 Li Xianglan, 2:466 Li Xiannian finance ministry, 1:187 Hua Guofeng, support of, 1:409 Jiang Zemin, appointment of, 2:381 presidency, 1:186 Li Xianting art exhibitions, 1:82 cynical realism, 3:153 Stars painting group, 3:490
Li Xiaobin, 3:124 Li Xiaolong. See Lee, Bruce Li Xifan, 1:287 Li Xing, 2:50 Li Xiongcai, 2:498 Li Xubin, 4:140 Li Xuyi, 4:140 Li Yaotang. See Ba Jin Li Yimin, 4:154 Li Yinghai, 3:550 Li Yishi, 1:97 Li Youcai Banhua (Zhao), 2:536 Li Yu, 2:62 Li Yuanhong, 3:272, 512 Li Yunchang, 4:125 Li Yuru, 1:169, 2:581 Li Yuying, 1:407 Li Zehou, 4:75 Li Zhengdao, 4:126 Li Zhengsheng, 3:124 Li Zhenguo, 2:560, 561 Li Zhongsheng, 2:620 Li Zhujin, 1:89 Li Zicheng, 3:231 Li Zongren Eighth Red Army, defeat of the, 1:407 Guangxi, 2:157 military, 2:596 peace negotiations, 3:17 Yan Xishan, alliance with, 1:284 Lian Qichao, 1:42 Lian Zhan, 2:460 Liang Bingjun, 2:507 Liang Dingming, 1:313 Liang Guanglie, 1:189 Liang Heng, 2:367 Liang-Jiang, 3:389 Liang Qichao, 2:467468 ancient Chinese history, 2:223 anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:6566 art history, 1:87 Buddhism, 1:154 Chinese overseas, relations with, 1:237 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:334 constitutional monarchy, 1:285 constitutionalism, 1:352, 3:151 cultural history, 1:58 democratic ideas, 1:396 diaspora, 1:250 East-West cultural relations, 1:283 exile of, 4:133 federalism, 2:27, 28 gender relations, 2:115 on Gong Zizhen, 2:126
Guangzhou, 2:160 Hundred Days Reform, 1:348 identity and belonging, 2:282 individual rights, 2:303 journalism, 2:398, 399 Kang Youwei, association with, 2:401 liberalism, 2:472 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 merchants, 3:404 military reform, 2:599 music, 2:643 nationalism, 2:211212, 3:10 Peking Union Medical College, 2:579 poetry, 2:503, 3:136 political reform, 2:222, 276 Qiu Jin, association with, 3:240 reforms, 1:281, 2:210, 3:251 revolutionary movements, 4:64 Shanghai Art Academy, 3:48 socialism, 3:453 spiritual humanism, 1:286 Yan Fu, influence of, 4:121 Zhang Binglin, association with, 1:285 Zhang Junmai, association with, 4:146 Liang Shiqiu, 2:473, 499 Liang Shuming Confucianism, 1:348 Cultural Revolution, 1:350 Democratic League of China, 1:403 education, 1:466, 468 feudalism, 1:227 guanxi, 3:27 May Fourth movement, 2:567 New Culture movement, 2:566 spiritual humanism, 1:286 Westernization, 4:75 Liang Sicheng, 2:469470 architectural history, 1:5859, 61, 63 Lin Huiyin, relationship with, 2:489 Peoples Heroes Monument, 3:346 urban planning, 4:15 Liang Siyong, 1:53, 56 Liang Xiaobin, 3:139 Liang Xiaosheng, 3:290 Liang Xihong, 2:620 Lianghuai salt syndicate, 3:330332 Liangyou huabao, 3:130 Lianhuanhua. See Picture books Lianxiang, 1:150 Liao Bingxiong, 1:314 Liao Chengzhi, 1:186 Liao Ping, 1:281, 2:401 Liao Xilong, 1:189
457
Index
Liao Zhongkai, 3:7, 18 Liaodong Peninsula, 1:382, 3:407 Liaoning, 2:470472, 471 Liaoshen campaign, 2:486, 3:17 Liberal Party, 2:243244 Liberalism, 2:472474 Chu Anping, 1:266267 intellectual debate, 1:288 Li Rui, 2:465466 Maos experiment with, 2:217 May Fourth movement, 2:567 New Left opposition to, 3:30 Liberation movements, 3:116117 Libraries, 2:474476, 475 Lidai zhulu huamu (Fu), 1:86 Lien Chan. See Lian Zhan Lifan Yuan, 2:295 Life cycle, 2:476486 Life expectancy elderly population, 2:10 Mao era, 3:430 one-child policy, 2:1314 rural areas, 4:36 standard of living, 3:487, 488 United Nations Development Programme Report, 1:451 Life sciences, 3:269 Lifelong learning. See Adult education Ligeti, Gyorgy, 2:651 Light industry Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Zhejiang, 4:160 Lijiang, 2:612 Lijin tax reform, 3:249 regionalism, 3:252 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 unpopularity of, 3:552 LiLang, 2:25 Limited liability companies, 1:340, 341, 3:178 Limited Views: Essays on Ideas and Letters (Qian). See Pipe and Awl Collection (Qian) Lin, Brigette, 2:49 Lin, Justin Yifu, 2:342 Lin, Maya Ying, 2:489 Lin, Phyllis. See Lin Huiyin Lin, Thomas Yun, 2:34 Lin Biao, 2:486487 Chinese Marxism, 1:233 civil war, 1:272 constitutions, 1:356 Cultural Revolution, 1:374 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 Little Red Book, 1:375
Manchuria, 2:550 Mao Zedong, relationship with, 1:327, 2:557558 On the Social Basis of the Lin Biao Anti-Party Clique (Yao), 4:256257 party criticism of, 1:231 political succession, 3:157 presidency, effort to restore, 1:185 Red Guards, attack by the, 3:246 removal of, 2:593 Zhu De, accusations toward, 4:169 Lin Biao incident, 2:487 Lin Cheng-sheng. See Lin Zhengsheng Lin Chun, 3:35 Lin Dan, 3:481 Lin Fengmian, 2:487489 Ai Qing, encouragement of, 1:25 Central Academy of Fine Arts, 1:97 Chinese painting, 1:103 modernism, 2:619 oil painting, 3:48 Shanghai Art Academy, 1:97 Western art style, 1:104, 106 Xu Beihong compared to, 4:117 Lin Hao, 3:56 Lin Huaimin, 2:649 Lin Huiyin, 2:489490 architectural history, 1:58, 61 Liang Sicheng, relationship with, 2:469 Xu Zhimo, relationship with, 4:119 Lin Hwaimin, 1:386 Lin Liguo, 2:487 Lin Miaoke, 3:57 Lin Qiaozhi, 4:80 Lin Qing, 4:77 Lin Shengshih, 2:648 Lin Shu, 2:551, 3:596 Lin Shuangwen, 3:350 Lin Tianmiao, 4:93 Lin Wenzheng, 2:488 Lin Whei-yin. See Lin Huiyin Lin Xiling, 1:421, 2:278, 3:183 Lin Yilin, 1:91 Lin Yong, 1:264 Lin Yutang, 2:490491 The Analects (periodical), 3:388 diet, 2:62 essays, 2:504 leisure, 2:452 plays, 3:133 Xiamen, 4:108 Lin Zexu, 2:491492 Confucianism, 1:347 drugs and narcotics, 1:434 Guangzhou, 2:160 maritime crisis, 4:44
opium legalization, opposition to, 3:249 opium policy, 1:279 Opium Wars, 1:506, 3:57, 61 Shen Baozhen, influence on, 3:388 Zuo Zongtang, work with, 4:173 Lin Zhaotang, 2:516 Lin Zhengsheng, 2:51 Lindsay, Michael, 4:123 Lineage, 2:492495 Agrarian Reform Law, 3:301 Chinese overseas, 1:252253 Fujian, 2:9596 social classes, 3:421422, 423 Lines and blocks, 1:178179, 2:309 Ling Fupeng, 2:495 Ling Shuhua, 2:495496 Ling Yun, 3:143 Lingnan macroregion, 2:120 Lingnan school of painting, 2:496498, 497 Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Guangzhou, 2:160 Japanese influence, 1:112 Lingshan (Gao), 2:110 Linguistics. See Language and language policy Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo, 2:223 Lissitzky, El, 3:125 Literacy. See Illiteracy and literacy Literary criticism Hu Feng, 2:254256 Qian Zhongshu, 3:228 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 Wang Shuo works, 4:53 Zhu Ziqing, 4:172 Literary scholarship Lu Xun, 2:534 New Culture movement, 2:566 Zhou Yang, 4:166 Literary societies, 2:498501, 3:615616 Literati calligraphy, 1:536 early reform, 3:249 examination system, 1:539542 merchant gentry, fusion with the, 3:422, 423 political culture, 3:147 rural administration, 2:134135 Literati painting, 2:500502 Japan, 1:112, 2:318320 National Essence movement, 1:114 Wu Changshi, 1:263, 4:99 Literature, 2:503508 cultural policy, 1:369371 domestic violence, 1:430 ethnic minorities, 2:611612
458
Index
Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:2829 Hangzhou, 2:177 Hokkien, 2:231 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446447 Liangs theory of fiction, 2:468 local language, 2:432 love and friendship, 2:529530 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:550552 Qing dynasty, 3:232 root-searching literature, 3:290291 Scar literature, 3:335336 Shaanxi, 3:370 Trotskyism, 3:615616 xiafang, 4:107 See also Specific types Literature, translation of foreign, 3:596598, 597 Literature of national defense, 2:502503, 3:133 Lithography and modern printing, 2:508509 art history, 1:102 Major, Ernest, 2:544 publishing industry, 3:221 Litigation masters, 2:450 Little, Alicia, 2:65, 510511 Little Flock, 3:202, 570 Little Red Book, 1:375, 2:487, 3:115, 4:252253 Littre, Emile, 2:457 Liu Bang, 2:101 Liu Binyan, 2:511512 Cultural Revolution literature, 2:506 dissidents, 1:421 journalism, 2:400 xiafang, 4:107 Liu Bocheng, 1:408 Liu Boliang, 1:317 Liu Changchun, 3:51, 480, 482 Liu Changle, 3:562 Liu Chenggan, 4:96 Liu Chunhua, 3:190 Liu Dehua, 2:641 Liu Di, 1:423 Liu Dunzhen, 1:5859, 61 Liu E, 1:43, 2:503 Liu Fenglu Gong Zizhen, work with, 2:126 New Text studies, 1:278 Wei Yuan, association with, 1:278, 4:66 Liu Fu, 2:58 Liu Fuzhi, 3:143 Liu Guochang. See Ah Mon, Lawrence
Liu Guosong, 1:110, 2:512513 Liu Haisu, 2:513515 art exhibitions, 1:80 art history, 1:86 art societies, 1:98 bunjinga painting, 2:319 Chinese painting, 1:103 exhibitions, 1:83 oil painting, 3:48, 49 Shanghai Art Academy, 1:97, 104, 4:114 Shao Xunmei, association with, 3:387 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 Xu Beihong compared to, 4:117 Liu Hongsheng, 1:322, 2:515517 Liu Huan, 2:641, 3:56 Liu Huaqing, 1:189, 3:97 Liu Junning, 1:288 Liu Kaiqu, 3:346 Liu Kunyi, 1:303, 4:152 Liu Kuo-sung. See Liu Guosong Liu Meng, 2:524 Liu Mingchuan, 3:603 Liu Mingkang, 4:170 Liu Qi, 3:56 Liu Shaoqi, 2:517521, 519 arrest of, 2:199 Changsha, 1:196 Chinese Marxism, 1:232 conspiracy against, 2:58 constitutions, 1:356 first front, 2:557 Great Leap Forward, 2:219 Jiangxi, 2:393 Mao Zedong, attack by, 1:287 National Defense Council, abolishment of the, 1:188 National Peoples Congress, 1:184 New Fourth Army, 3:103 overthrow of, 3:320 party leadership, 1:326327, 408 political succession, 3:157, 158 presidency, 1:181, 185 rehabilitation of, 1:328 State Council, 1:187 xiafang, 4:107 Liu Shifu, 1:29, 334 Liu Shipei anarchism, 1:28 Dai Zhen, influence of, 1:277 Warning of Russian Issues, 1:314 Liu Suola, 1:125 Liu Tianhua, 2:548 Liu Wang Liming, 4:88, 89 Liu Wei, 3:154155 Liu Xian, 3:33 Liu Xiang, 2:535, 3:398, 483
Liu Xiaobo, 1:423, 2:521522 Liu Xiaodong, 3:154 Liu Xiaoqing, 2:151, 4:110 Liu Xiji, 3:405 Liu Xin, 2:401 Liu Xinwu, 3:335 Liu Xizai, 1:3 Liu Xujie, 1:59 Liu Xun, 3:490 Liu Yan, 3:35 Liu Yandong, 1:188, 4:89 Liu Yang, 2:25 Liu Yiling, 3:35 Liu Ying, 4:52 Liu Yizheng, 2:224 Liu Yongfu, 3:526 Liu Yongxing, 1:523 Liu Yulian, 3:333 Liuqiu Islands, 2:522 Liuyue Fabric Factory, 3:592 Live-event rituals, 2:78 Livelihood, 3:514 Livestock, 1:1921 Living in This Moment (exhibition), 1:85 Living space, per capita, 4:19 Living standard. See Standard of living Liyuan Xiaodi, 2:612 Loans agricultural banking, 3:313314 credit cooperatives, 3:307308 international development aid, 2:331 land tenure, 2:424 microfinancing, 2:584 See also Banking; Credit; Foreign loans Local administration, 2:133134 Local banks, 2:622, 3:220 Local councils, 1:503 Local dialects, 1:416417 Local elections, 3:530 Local gazetteers, 2:523 Local government. See Provincial and subprovincial government Local languages, 3:539 Local militias. See Militias Local state corporatism, 3:315 Local war under conditions of informationalization policy, 1:74 Locke, Gary, 1:252 Locust plagues, 2:523526 Logistics industry, 1:429, 4:25 London, 1:81 London Missionary Society health care, 2:183 higher education, 1:486
459
Index
London Missionary Society, continued history, 2:614 Morrison, Robert, 2:633 Long Draft Record, 1:71 Long March, 2:526528, 527 Chen Yun, 1:202 Deng Xiaoping, 1:407 Fan Changjiang, coverage by, 2:20 Hu Yaobang, 2:261 Mao Zedong, 2:555 military, 2:596 Peng Dehuai, 3:94 Red Army, 3:102 Zhou Enlai, 4:162 Zhu De, 4:168 Long March Project, 2:60 Long Yingtai, 2:400 Long Yun, 3:59 Longjing tea, 2:177 Longshan culture, 1:48 Loo, C. T., 1:308 Looting, 2:200 Los Angeles Olympics, 3:51, 5354 Lost generation, 3:353 Lou Jiwei, 2:76, 4:170 Lou Ye, 2:45, 4647 Love and friendship, 2:528531 Love River, 2:403 Lower Yangzi macroregion, 2:119 Lu, Annette, 1:201, 3:531 Lu, Marina, 2:539 Lu Ban, 2:98 Lu Ban Guan, 2:99 Lu Ban jing (Lu), 2:98 Lu Bannong, 3:137 Lu Bicheng, 2:505 Lu Dabai, 3:137 Lu Dingyi, 2:276277 Lu Dongbin, 1:387 Lu Erkui, 2:457 Lu Gan, 3:276 Lu Guoji, 2:534 Lu Hao, 1:337 Lu Haodong, 3:7 Lu Hui, 1:263 Lu Ji, 2:643, 644, 645 Lu Jianying, 3:332 Lu Jingren, 1:317 Lu Kun, 3:249 Lu Rongting, 1:143, 2:157 Lu Shaofei, 1:314 Lu Shengzhong, 2:60 Lu Shoukun, 1:110, 2:501, 4:92 Lu Sifu, 3:122 Lu Wenfu, 2:61 Lu Xiaoman, 4:91, 119
Lu Xinhua, 3:335 Lu Xun, 2:531534, 533 anti-Confucianism, 1:348 art societies, 1:99 childhood, 2:477, 478 Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 classical poetry, 3:136 fallen people, 3:359 filial piety, 2:37 Gao Xingjian compared to, 2:110 graphic arts, 1:105, 316 hairstyles, 2:171 Hu Feng, influence on, 2:254, 255 intellectualism, 1:284 Japanese influence, 1:112, 113 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446, 499, 4:165 Li Hua, relationship with, 2:463 libraries, 2:474 Lin Yutang, writings of, 2:490 literature of national defense, opposition to the, 2:502 New Culture movement, 2:566 New Print movement, 3:32, 33 plays, 3:133 prostitution, 3:198 romantic love and literature, 2:529 Ruan Lingyu, eulogy of, 3:292 Shanghai, 2:72 Soviet influence, 1:117 sports, 3:480 study abroad, 3:507 Tao Yuanqing, work with, 1:316 translation of foreign literature, 3:596597 two slogans debate, 2:447 vernacular language literature, 2:504 Wang Shuo, comments of, 4:53 woodcuts, 3:188 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Yu Hua compared to, 1:124, 4:132 Lu Xun Academy, 2:648 Lu Yan, 2:25 Lu Yanshao, 2:151 Lu Yanzhi, 1:61, 2:628 Lu Yue, 2:25 Lu Zhengxiang, 1:284 Lu Zhenyu, 2:224 Lu Zhiwei, 3:137 Lu Zune, 1:53 Lu Zuofu, 1:265, 2:534536 Lucerne Peace Conference, 3:274 Lunar calendar, 1:162164, 163 Lunar festivals, 2:3536 Lunchuan Zhaoshangju. See China Merchants Steam Navigation Company Luo Dayou, 2:640641
Luo Ergang, 3:352 Luo Fu, 1:407, 3:138 Luo Gongliu, 2:536537 New Print movement, 3:33 oil painting, 3:49 picture books, 1:318 socialist realism, 3:457 Soviet training, 1:117 Luo Guangda, 3:126 Luo Hongyu. See Gu Hua Luo Jialun, 3:596 Luo Longji anti-rightist campaign, 1:401, 404 Chu Anping, influence on, 1:266 constitutionalism, 1:353 liberalism, 2:473 reversal of the verdict, 2:278 Luo Xianglin, 2:173174 Luo Xuegu, 2:319 Luo Zhenyu art collecting, 1:307 bunjinga painting, 2:319 Eastern Language Institute, 4:47 oracle bones, 1:42, 43 Luo Zhongli art exhibitions, 1:84 oil painting, 3:50 rustic realism, 3:325, 326 Luo Zhufeng, 2:458 Luo Zonghli, 3:325 Lushan Conference, 2:217 Lushan National Park, 2:393 Lushan Plenum, 3:95 Lutostawski, Witold, 2:651 Lytton Commission, 2:114
M
Ma, Hsiao-Tsun, 2:539 Ma, Yeou-Cheng, 2:539 Ma, Yo-Yo, 2:539540 Ma Bo, 4:125 Ma Desheng, 1:393, 3:490, 491 Ma family, 2:108109, 3:237239 Ma Fuxiang, 3:43 Ma Guiyuan, 2:652 Ma Hefu, 3:43 Ma Heng, 1:47 Ma Hongbin, 3:43 Ma Hongkui, 3:43 Ma Hualong, 2:652, 653, 4:173 Ma Jianmin, 4:125 Ma Jianzhong, 2:462 Ma Ke, 2:25, 644 Ma Laichi, 2:651652 Ma Lianliang, 3:87 Ma Mingxin, 2:106, 652 Ma Sicong, 2:29
460
Index
Ma Wanfu, 2:370 Ma Weidu, 1:93 Ma Wen, 1:188 Ma Wenlu, 2:652 Ma Xiangbo, 4:122 Ma Xiangdong, 2:471 Ma Xinyi, 4:141 Ma Xulun, 1:403 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Ma Ying-jeou, 2:358, 437, 4:11 Ma Yingbiao, 3:403405, 4:79 Ma Yingjiu, 1:201, 3:533, 541 Ma Yingyiu, 2:84 Ma Yuan, 1:123 Ma Zhanao, 2:652, 653 MacArthur, Douglas, 2:407 Macartney, George, 2:348, 366, 3:232233 Macau, 2:540543, 542, 543, 4:14 coolie trade, 1:243, 245 international relations, 2:358 tourism, 3:589 World Heritage Sites, 3:581 Mackay Treaty, 1:543 MacLehose, Murray, 2:648, 3:473 Macro-situations, 1:449 Macroregions, 1:424, 2:118121, 4:1516 Maddison, Angus, 3:459460, 484, 485 Made in China products, 1:149, 3:405 Magazines graphic arts, 1:316 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:551 modernist art, 2:620 National Products movement, 3:9 pictorial magazines, 3:129131 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:644645 propaganda photography, 3:127 Magical realism, 1:124 Magiciens de la Terre (exhibition), 1:82 Magistrates, 1:305, 2:438, 450 Maglev technology, 3:605 Magnanimous policy, 2:373 Mah-jongg, 2:104105 Mahler, Gustav, 2:639 Mahoney, Rosemary, 2:367 Mai Lanfang, 1:383 Mai Ruao, 4:57 Mainland Affairs Council, 3:544 Mainlanders in Taiwan, 3:539540 Maitland, Andrew W., 2:622 Major, Ernest, 1:511, 2:398, 543544 Major marriages, 2:480
Maksimov, Konstantin, 1:117, 3:49 Malacca, 1:486 Malaysia, 3:466 Malraux, Andre, 2:366 Malthus, Thomas R., 2:15 Malthusian equation, 2:15 Management joint ventures, 1:344, 345 Rong Zongjing, 3:288 Sincere Department Store, 3:404 special economic zones, 3:475 township and village enterprises, 3:592 Manager Qiao Assumes Office (Jiang), 3:336 Manchu imperial city, 2:292 Manchu language documents, 1:73 Manchukuo, 2:545547 Anti-Japanese War, 4:64 Chiang Kai-shek, 2:140 collections and collecting, 1:307 establishment of, 2:215 Heilongjiang, 2:194 Palace Museum antiquities, 2:68 Russian emigres, 3:323 trade, 2:86 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 See also Manchuria Manchuria, 2:547550, 548, 549 Chinese civil war, 1:272 Harbin, 2:178 industrialization, 2:314 Lin Biao, 2:486 migration, 2:328 military, 2:596 mining and mineral rights, 2:604 Shenyang, 3:392 Soviet influence, 3:318 Soviet invasion, 3:76 Manchus clothing, 1:300 history and culture, 2:608 imperialism, 2:295 Manchuria, 2:547 Qing dynasty, 3:231 Qiu Jin, anti-Manchu activism of, 3:241 queue (hairstyle), 2:169170 Taiping Uprising, 3:522 Mandarin Cantonese compared to, 1:167 examination system, 1:541 literacy, 2:287 nationalism, 3:12 as second language, 2:431 Taiwan, 3:539 Mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:504, 550552 Mandarin gown, 1:300
Mandatory distribution system, 1:428 Mang Ke, 3:138 Manhua, 1:313315, 2:32 Manifesto of Chinese Literature and Art Workers, 2:502 Manifesto of the Communist Party of China, 1:323 Manned spaceflight program, 3:471 Manshukoku Kyowakai, 3:323 Manufacturing and production armaments, 1:76 automobiles, 1:121123 brands, 1:150 central planning, 1:179180 collectives, 1:341342 data collection, 2:310 domestic trade, 1:426427 dual-track pricing, 1:457458 factory industry, 2:312f foreign investment, 2:79 handicrafts, 2:174176 heavy industry, 2:186190 Hong Kong, 2:236 Hubei, 2:274 industrial development, 2:303307 industrial workers, 4:9698 industrialization, 2:311315 Jiangsu, 2:385386, 387 Jilin, 2:394, 395 labor, 2:409410 migrant workers, 2:589 peasants, 3:83 Peoples Communes, 3:303 private enterprises, 3:177182 product design, 1:319320 rural industrialization, 3:314316 salt, 3:332 Shenzhen, 3:476 silk, 3:401403 Taiwan, 3:536 telecommunications equipment, 2:203, 204, 3:609 Tianjin, 3:572 township and village enterprises, 3:593 urban employment, 4:28 urbanization, 4:19 Wuhan, 4:102103 Xian, 4:106 Manying Studio, 2:39 Manzu. See Manchus Mao Dun, 2:552554 Association of Chinese Literary Artists, 2:502 Bingxin, 1:144 Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:28, 29 Gao Xingjian compared to, 2:110
461
Index
Mao Dun, continued League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446, 500 leftist literature, 2:504 New Culture movement, 2:566 plays, 3:133, 134 Shanghai, 2:72 Soviet Union, visit to the, 4:126 Mao era Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci (Deng), 4:272276 army and politics, 1:79 art, 1:107 art history, 1:106107 art photography, 3:119, 121 central planning, 1:177180 class, 1:225226 collectives, 1:341342 consumption and consumer culture, 1:359360 cross-strait relations, 3:544 cultural policy, 1:369370 dazibaos, 1:393, 395 death penalty, 1:389390 democratic ideas, 1:397398 desertification, 1:413 documentary photography, 3:122124 drug policies, 1:434 Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth from Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future (Deng), 4:262268 film, 2:4041 housing, 2:249, 4:12 international relations, 2:355357 Jinan, 2:397 leisure, 2:453 marriage laws, 2:564 medical care, 2:569570 Middle Eastern states, relations with, 2:585 migration, 2:329330 militarism, 2:593 Nanjing, 3:2 nationalism, 3:12 nepotism and guanxi, 3:2728 oil painting, 3:49 political control, 3:144 political succession, 3:158 Protestantism, 3:202 public finance, 3:216 Resolutions on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China, 4:276277 rural cooperative medical systems, 3:294295 service sector, 3:354355 sexuality, 3:365
social policy programs, 3:430 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 sports figures, 3:482483 tea cultivation, 3:559 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:568569 urbanization, 4:1819 village education and health care, 4:36 village government, 3:213 women, employment of, 4:81 women, status of, 4:84 xiafang, 4:107 Zhejiang, 4:159 Mao Goes to Anyuan (Liu), 3:190 Mao Jianguo, 2:25 Mao Lizi, 3:491 Mao suit, 1:301, 2:24 Mao Xuhui, 1:108, 3:35 Mao Yisheng, 3:507 Mao Yuanxin, 2:194, 470, 3:571 Mao Zedong, 1:335, 2:554559, 556, 4:168 agricultural collectivization, 1:18 anarchism, 1:29 Answers to the Italian Journalist Oriana Fallaci (Deng), 4:272276 Anti-Japanese War, 4:65 anti-rightist campaign, 1:404 archived documents, 1:70 armaments, 1:73 armed forces grades and ranks, 3:110 army and politics, 1:79 on art collections and collecting, 1:307 art policy, 1:115, 117 assimilationist ethnic policies, 3:207 Buck, Pearl S., opinion of Mao, 1:153 central-local relationships, 1:190 Central Military Commission, 1:188 Changsha, 1:195, 196 Chen Duxiu, on the leadership of, 1:198 Chen Yun, support of, 1:202 Chinese Communist Party leadership, 2:215, 216 Chinese Marxism, 1:220 Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference, 1:183 Chu Anping, anti-rightist campaign against, 1:266 class, 1:225226 collectives, 1:341342 collectivization, 3:302 Comintern, 1:310, 311 communes, 2:198
Communist Youth League, 1:337 Constitution, 1:184 consumption and consumer culture, 1:359360 cross-strait relations, 3:544 cultural policy, 1:369 Cultural Revolution, 1:374 cynical realism depictions, 3:155 Dalai Lama, 1:379, 381 Daqing oil field, 2:308 democratic ideas, 1:397398 democratic parties, 1:401 Deng Xiaoping, association with, 1:409, 410 dissidents, 1:420421 Dixie Mission, 1:212 early party leadership, 1:324 epistle-style calligraphy, 1:165 Fan Changjiang, interview by, 2:20 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 fighting imperialism, 2:282 film, 2:40 First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, 1:323 furniture makers, 2:98 Great Leap Forward, 2:19, 217, 219, 3:304306 hairstyles, 2:171 Hangzhou, visit to, 2:177 health care policy, 1:4 higher education, 1:482483 Hu Feng eulogy, 2:256 Hu Yaobang, association with, 2:261 Hua Guofeng, backing of, 2:262263 Hunan Self-study University, 1:3 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 international relations, 2:354357 Japanese reparations, 2:373 Jiangxi, 2:393 Korean War, 2:407408 Khrushchev, Nikita, relations with, 3:318320 Li Rui, association with, 2:465 liberalism, 2:472 liberalism experiment, 2:217 literature, role of, 2:505 Little Red Book, 1:375 Liu Shaoqi, work with, 2:517518, 520 on Lu Xun, 2:531 Lu Zuofu, work with, 2:536 Mao Dun, work with, 2:553 mass line, 1:229 mass movements, 1:230232 mausoleum, 2:70 May Fourth movement, 2:567 militarism, 2:591
462
Index
military doctrine, 3:110 militias, 2:601 model operas and ballets, 2:618 Mongolian independence, 2:627 monuments, 2:628629 nationalism, 3:12 Nationalist government, negotiations with the, 3:17 New Democracy, 3:2830 newspapers, 3:37 Ningxia, 3:43 Nixon, Richard, visit by, 4:8 nuclear doctrine, 3:111 Olympics, 3:5253 party history, revision of, 1:331332 peasantry, 3:7980 peasants role in the revolution, 3:82 Peng Dehuai, relationship with, 3:9495 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:103, 107 photography, 3:127 political succession, 3:157 politics of archaeology, 1:56 population policy, 3:164, 167 presidency, 1:181, 185 principled particularism, 3:27 prodemocracy movement, 3:182183 propaganda, 2:399 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:644645 propaganda art, 3:189 publishing industry, 3:221 Red Guards, 3:246247 revolutionary romanticism, 3:457 revolutionary theories, 1:336 secret police, 3:142 sent-down educated youth, 3:352, 353 Seventh National Congress, 1:325326 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413 Snow, Edgar, interviews with, 3:417 social sciences, 3:439 socialist ideology, 3:455 socialist realism, 3:456 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 sports, 3:481 Tan Kah Kee, meeting with, 1:242 Third Front program, 3:399 Three Worlds theory, 1:440 Tiananmen Incident, 3:571 tomb of, 2:484 truth, debate on the issue of the, 1:287288 Ulbricht, Walter, meeting with, 2:123 united front work, 4:45
Wang Shiwei, rehabilitation of, 4:52 Western interpretation of the revolution of, 2:366367 Westernization, 4:75 xiafang, 4:107 Yanan Conference on Literature and Art, 1:96 Yanan model, 3:369 Yanan Talks on Literature and Art, 1:97, 4:124 Yanan thought reform, 4:123124 Yang Zhenning, visit with, 4:127 Young China Association, 2:643 Zhao Dan, condemnation of the art of, 4:153 Zhou Enlai, association with, 4:162164 Zhu De, relationship with, 4:167169 See also Cult of Mao; Mao era; Mao Zedong thought Mao Zedong at Mount Jinggang (painting), 2:537 Mao Zedong Memorial Hall, 2:629 Mao Zedong Museum, 1:197 Mao Zedong thought, 2:321 art influence, 2:320322 Chinese Marxism, 1:221224 cult of Mao, 3:115117 Cultural Revolution, 1:372374 feudalism, 1:227228 higher education, 1:483 Little Red Book, 1:375 New Democracy, 3:2930 party history, revision of, 1:331333 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 socialist ideology, 3:455 Western interpretation, 2:366367 Maoism. See Mao Zedong thought Maotai, 1:148 Maps Anhui, 1:31 Fujian, 2:96 Gansu, 2:107 Grand Canal, 2:146 gross regional product, per capita, 1:447 Guangdong, 2:153 Guangxi, 2:159 Guizhou, 2:163 Hainan, 2:168 Hebei, 2:192 Heilongjiang, 2:195 Henan, 2:197 HIV/AIDS cases, 2:227 Hong Kong, 2:235 Huai River, 3:282 Hubei, 2:274
Hunan, 2:273 Inner Mongolia, 2:325 Jiangsu, 2:386 Jiangxi, 2:391 Jilin, 2:395 land use, 1:22 Liaoning, 2:471 linguistic groups, 1:416 locust plagues, 2:524 Long March, 2:526 Macau, 2:542 Manchuria, 2:548 Miao uprisings, 2:583 Muslim uprisings, 2:652 Nian Uprising, 3:41 Ningxia, 3:44 Pearl River Basin, 3:284 Peoples Liberation Army Air Force, 3:102 Peoples Liberation Army ground force units, 3:98 Peoples Liberation Army Navy units, 3:101 Shaanxi, 3:367 Shandong, 3:371 Shanghai, 3:374 Shanxi, 3:386 Taiping Uprising, 3:523 Taiwan, 3:528 Tibet, 3:575 Xinjiang, 4:112 Yangzi River Basin, 3:278 Yellow River, 3:281 Yunnan, 4:136 Zhejiang, 4:158 Marco Polo Bridge incident, 1:36, 2:559560, 596 Margary, Augustus, 2:560, 4:44 Margary affair, 2:182, 560561, 4:44 Margin of error and data quality, 3:498 Marginalia of Life (Qian), 3:227 Marine Corps, 3:100 Maring, G., 1:309, 323, 335 Maritime customs. See Customs Maritime disputes, 4:3334 Maritime piracy. See Piracy, maritime Market economy art exhibitions, 1:85 banking, 1:130131 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:457 corporate law, 1:343 domestic trade, 1:425426, 427 European Union, 1:538 financial markets, 2:5254 forestry and timber trade, 1:2223 Hong Kong, 2:238 intellectual debate, 1:288 labor, 2:410
463
Index
Market economy, continued Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 real estate management, 4:26 Skinnerian model of urbanization, 4:1516 small towns, 4:27 social security, 3:308 status as, 2:310 status of China as, 1:453 transition from central planning, 1:180 urban planning, 4:21 youth, 4:129130 Zhu Rongji, 4:169 See also Economic competition; Socialist market economy; Transition economy Marketing. See Advertising and marketing Marriage, 2:561563, 562t delayed marriage and childbirth, 2:477 filial piety, 2:37 gender relations, 2:115 history, 2:5 life cycle, 2:479481 lineage, 2:494 love, 2:529530 rape, 3:245 rituals, 2:78 Taiwan, 3:540 Tibetan people, 2:609 transsexuals, 3:610 Marriage law, 2:563565, 4:293298 bigamy prohibition, 2:562 domestic violence, 1:432 family, 2:67 filial piety, 2:38 gender relations, 2:115 marriage reform Law, 2:37 Peoples Republic of China, 2:216 women, status of, 4:84 Marriage-resistance sisterhoods, 2:115 Marshall, George C. civil war, 1:272 Fifteenth Army, 1:212 liberalism, 2:473 Marshall mission failure, 2:141, 215, 354 Nationalist government, negotiations with the, 3:17 Stilwell, Joseph, work with, 3:499500 Martial arts films, 2:48, 448, 448449, 3:36, 4:149 sports, 3:479, 480 Martial law, 3:20, 529530
Martial spirit. See Militarism Martin, Kingsley, 4:109 Martin, W. A. P., 1:303 Marx, Karl, 1:335 Marxism accumulation, 2:303 architectural history, 1:59 central planning, 1:177 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:333335 education through labor, 1:501 historiography, 2:223224, 225 humanism and alienation debate, 1:288 Trotskyism, 3:615616 xiafang, 4:107 Zhou Yang, 4:165166 See also Chinese Marxism Masqud Sabri, 4:113 Mass art, 3:196197 Mass education, 1:465466 Mass line, 1:228229, 4:123 Mass marketing. See Advertising and marketing Mass media. See Media Mass mobilization, 1:374375, 3:82 Mass mobilization music, 2:642647 Mass movements, 1:230232, 230t, 373 Mass organizations, 2:142 Mass print culture, 3:220221 Mass Songs, 2:640 Matchmakers, 2:562 Mateer, Calvin, 1:487 Material culture, 1:4041 Material-realism, 3:456 Maternal mortality, 2:476 Matsui Iwane, 2:376 Matsuoka Yoshimasa, 1:305 Mauritius, 2:421 Maurois, Andre, 2:495 Maximov, Konstantin, 3:457 May Day celebration, 2:218 May Fourth movement, 2:565569, 568 anarchism, 1:29 Anti-Christian/anti-missionary sentiment, 1:3435 art history, 1:87 Bingxin, 1:144 Comintern, 1:309 communist thought, 1:334 Confucian family ideal, 2:481482 Confucianism, 1:348 Ding Ling, 1:418 education, 1:465466 gender relations, 2:115 Hangzhou, 2:177
higher education, 1:481 historiography, 2:223 history, 2:213 Hu Feng, 2:255 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446 literature, 2:504 Lu Xun, 2:531 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:550 Mao Dun, 2:552 music, 2:643 nationalism, 2:352, 3:11 physical education, 3:128 political culture, 3:149 prostitution, 3:198 public art, 1:105 Qingdao, 3:236 romantic love, 2:529530 social sciences, 3:438 socialist ideas, 1:322323 student activism, 3:505 teacher education, 3:559 textbooks, 1:467 translation of foreign literature, 3:596597 Wang Guowei, 4:48 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 women, 1:283, 4:8889 womens education, 1:493 womens rights, 4:80, 82 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Yu Dafu, 4:130131 May Seventh cadre schools, 1:116 May Thirtieth incident, 1:35, 310 Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 1:25 Maze, Frederick, 1:219 McCarthy, Joseph, 1:212, 3:417 McCarthyism, 3:417 McGill, Anthony, 2:539 McMahon Line, 3:104 Me Yanfang, 2:640641 Meadows, Thomas Taylor, 2:366 Means-tested assistance, 3:442, 447 Measurement income, 2:297298 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 standard of living, 3:484488 unemployment, 2:418 Meat consumption and production, 1:1921, 2:63 Mechanical irrigation, 2:369 Medhurst, Walter, 2:634 Media Beijing, 1:142 censorship, 1:172174
464
Index
Chinatowns, portrayals of, 1:250 party-state control over, 2:216217 propaganda, 3:187 Rights Defense movement, 3:275 Medical education community care, 1:338 Nationalist government, 2:185 traditional medicine, 2:574, 575 Western medicine, 2:577, 579 women, 4:80 Medical trust funds, 1:510 Medicine, traditional, 2:574577, 576 acupuncture, 1:45 Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party, 1:404 qigong, 3:229231 Western medicine, influence of, 2:580 See also Health care Medicine, Western, 2:577579, 579580 Chinese women doctors, 4:80 drug addiction, 3:58 Jiusan Society, 1:405 sexual dysfunction, 3:364 traditional medicine vs., 2:574 See also Barefoot doctors; Health care Medium- to Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology research, 3:266, 269 science and technology policy, 3:337 scientific exchanges, 3:344 Mega engineering programs, 3:266 Mega-science program, 3:269 Mei Baojiu, 2:581 Mei Guangdi, 2:567 Mei Lanfang, 2:29, 581582, 3:87 Mei Qiaoling, 2:581 Mei Yi, 3:597 Meilidao Incident, 2:403 Meishu, 1:9495, 112 Meishu congshu (Huang and Deng), 1:86 Mekong River, 3:285 Memoir literature, 2:367, 4:107 Memorandum of Understanding on Defense Cooperation, 2:300 Men friendship, 2:530 queue (hairstyle), 2:169171 surplus males, 3:363 Mencius, 2:37, 302 ` Mendes-France, Pierre, 4:163 Mendicancy, 1:137138 Meng Dingsheng, 1:43 Meng Jinghui, 3:135
Meng Luding, 3:34 Meng Sen, 2:222 Meng Xuenong, 3:360 Mental disorders, 2:233, 3:446 Menus of Suiyuan. See Suiyuan shidan (Yuan) Mercado, Orlando, 3:468 Mercantile nationalism, 2:352 Merchant gentry, 3:422 Merchants commercial elite, 1:320322 compradors, 1:345346 domestic trade, 1:424 Parsis, 3:75 salt trade, 3:331332 sea transport experiment, 2:147 Sincere Department Store, 3:404 social lasses, 3:423 urban employment, 4:28 Mergers, brand, 1:150, 152 Merkel, Angela, 2:124 A Message to Compatriots in Taiwan, 3:472, 4:269270 Metallic mineral resources, 3:25 Metallurgy. See Mines and metallurgy Metric system, 4:69 Metropolitan Library of Beijing, 2:474 Mian Mian, 2:506 Miao Guizhou, 2:163 history and culture, 2:608609 horn style, 2:172 Shen Congwen, 3:390 Miao uprisings, 2:162, 582584, 583, 605606 Microfinancing, 2:584585 Mid-Autumn Festival, 2:36 Middle class, 2:72, 253, 3:429 Middle Eastern states, 2:585587, 3:66 Middle Yangzi region, 2:119, 328 Midnight (Mao), 2:553 Midwives, 2:476 Migrant workers, 2:587590, 589 child protection, 4:129 clans, 4:36 diet, 2:62 dropout rate, 1:474 employment share, 2:410 floating population, 2:330 Fujian, 2:95 gender relations, 2:117 human rights issues, 2:270271 internal migration, 2:329 labor mobility, 2:416417 Liaoning, 2:470471 Macau, 2:542 Manchuria, 2:547 peasantry, 3:80 peasants, 3:83
rural development, 3:310 Shenzhen, 3:476 Sichuan, 3:399 small towns, 4:27 social classes, 3:426 social welfare, 3:451 special economic zones, 3:478479 standard of living, 3:488 urban employment, 4:28 urban labor market, 3:313 women, 4:86 Migration, internal. See Internal migration and colonization Militarism, 2:590593, 592, 599 Military, 2:593597, 4:5962 actual use of force, 3:111112 administration, 2:135136, 3:108t armaments, 1:7377 army and politics, 1:7780 Beiyang clique, 1:143 Chinese Communist Party control of, 1:324 clothing, 1:301 command structure, 3:108110, 108t, 109t, 110t Confucian gentry leaders, 2:208209 defense, 1:390392 defense planning, 1:267268 examination system, 1:539540 fashion, 2:24 Flying Tigers, 1:37 Guangxi, 2:157 Hu Jintao, 2:258 industrial policy, 2:309 Mao Zedong thought, 1:223 modernization, 2:258 Nanjing, 3:4 Nationalist Party, 3:19 officer grades and ranks, 3:109t production, 2:461462 Qing restoration, 3:234235 social classes, 3:424, 425 space program, 3:470471 sports, 3:479480 Taiwan, 3:547548, 548 urban employment, 4:28 Vietnam, joint initiatives with, 4:35 warlord era, 4:58 Yuan Shikai, 2:137 See also Peoples Liberation Army Military Affairs Commission, 3:110 Military aid Pakistan, 3:68 Taiwan, 4:8 Military culture and tradition, 2:597601 Military Defense Army, 4:61 Military doctrine, 3:110112
465
Index
Military education Beiyang Army, 2:598 military academies, 2:593 naval academies, 1:392 New Army, 4:6061 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:96 Qing dynasty, 4:61 Taiwan military training in the United States, 3:547 Military enterprises and industry, 3:112115 Military exams, 2:597 Military exchanges, 2:300301 Military exercises, 3:544 Military farms, 3:299, 352353 Military funding foreign loans, 2:80 military enterprises, 3:112115 Qing dynasty, 3:552, 553 reform, 3:249 Zuo Zongtang, 4:174 Military history, 4:67 Military-industrial complex, 1:7476 Military leaders Giquel, Prosper, 2:125 Lin Biao, 2:486487 Peng Dehuai, 3:9495 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:107 Stilwell, Joseph, 3:499500 Zeng Guofan, 4:139141 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 Military logistics, 4:174 Military reform armaments, 1:74 defense, 1:391 espionage, 3:143 funding, 3:553 Hu Jintao, 2:258 Hundred Days Reform, 2:275276 Korean War, 2:408 Qing dynasty, 2:598, 3:10, 249, 250, 4:5961, 63 research, 3:270 Self-strengthening, 3:250 Self-strengthening movement, 2:210 Shen Baozhen, 3:389 Soviet assistance, 2:408 Zhu De, 4:168169 Zuo Zongtang, 4:174, 175 Military regions, 3:99 Military relations, 2:375 Military strategy armaments, 1:7374 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:97 Zhu De, 4:169 Military strongmen Yuan Shikai, 4:132134
Military style, 2:171 Militias, 2:601602 defense, 1:391 late Qing dynasty, 1:78 military culture and tradition, 2:597598 Peoples Militia, 3:97 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 Militias, local, 1:137, 4:59 Mill, J. S., 1:285 Millenarianism, 3:303 Millennium Declaration, 2:335 Millennium Development Goals, 2:334, 340 Miller, Jean-Francois, 3:326 Mills, Robert, 4:127 Min. See Hokkien Min dialect, 2:102 Min sheng (periodical), 1:29 Min shisan zhi gugong, 3:122 Minban education, 1:472, 497 Minbao (periodical), 3:511 Mineral resources, 2:193, 3:25 Mines and metallurgy, 2:602604, 602t, 603f coal, 1:515517 mining concessions, 2:80 uranium, 1:521 Ming dynasty archives, 1:70 Beijing architecture, 1:141 civil society, 1:269 classical scholarship, 1:277 Forbidden City, 2:67 funerals, 2:483484 furniture, 2:97, 100 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:349 letter paper, 4:94 taxation, 3:551 Ming Taizu, 3:2 Minimal deterrence strategy, 3:111 Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System, 3:434435, 451 Ministries administrative code, 1:303 central state organs, 1:186188 higher education, 1:482483 late Qing government administration, 2:132 Ministry of Agriculture, 2:337, 584 Ministry of Civil Affairs, 3:418, 4:26 Ministry of Commerce, 1:429, 2:331, 340 Ministry of Communications, 3:604 Ministry of Construction Engineering, 1:267 Ministry of Control, 2:327
Ministry of Culture archaeological research oversight, 2:200 art exhibitions, 1:8485 censorship, 1:173174 propaganda, 3:187 Some Suggestions for Reforming Repertoire Companies, 1:371 Ministry of Education creation, 1:465 establishment of, 1:495 higher education, 1:483 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 textbooks and moral education, 1:467 Zhang Zhidong, 4:152 Ministry of Environmental Protection, 1:513 Ministry of Finance, 1:132, 2:341, 624 Ministry of Health, 1:534, 2:570 Ministry of Information Industry, 3:608 Ministry of Labor and Social Security, 2:420, 421 Ministry of National Defense, 3:109 Ministry of Personnel, 2:412 Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, 3:608 Ministry of Public Security, 3:142, 143 Ministry of Railways, 3:604605 Ministry of Science and Technology, 3:337, 338 Ministry of State Security, 3:142, 143 Ministry of Supervision, 1:531 Ministry of Water Resources, 3:277, 284287 Minning Grand Canal, 2:145 opium trade, 3:61 reforms, 2:205, 3:248249 rule of, 1:505506 Minor marriages, 2:480481 Minority nationalities, 2:604614 autonomous regions, government in, 3:207209 Central Asian states, 1:176 Chinese Communist Party membership, 3:208t cultural policy, 1:370 education, 1:471472 ethnic music, 2:642 Fujian, 2:93 Guangdong, 2:153 Guizhou, 2:162163 Hainan, 2:169 hairstyles, 2:172 handicrafts, 2:176 Hebei, 2:190191 HIV/AIDS, 2:227
466
Index
Hong Kong, 2:236, 241242 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 identification and belonging, 2:281282 identity, 2:283284 Inner Mongolia, 2:323324 Islam, 2:369372 Manchuria, 2:549550 marriage, 2:562 marriage laws, 2:565 migration, 2:330 nationalism, 3:10, 13, 148 Ningxia, 3:4344 politics of archaeology, 1:55 population policy, 3:162163 rural development, 3:310 Sichuan, 3:397, 399 united front work, 4:5 Xinjiang, 4:113 Yunnan, 4:135136, 137t See also Ethnic relations; Identity; Race Minsheng Shipping Company, 2:534535 Mints, 2:626 A Mirror to Analyze the World (installation art), 1:108 A Miserable and Shabby Official (Ren), 3:383, 383 Miss Sophies Diary (Ding), 1:418 Missiles, 3:101102 Missing females, 2:13 Mission schools, 1:487, 492, 2:239 Missionaries, 2:614617 Anhui, 1:32 anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:65 benefits, 2:212 Catholic, 1:170172 cookbooks, 2:63 Fujian, 2:95 health care, 2:183184 higher education, 1:464, 486487 imperialism, 2:294 international students, 2:362 Legge, James, 2:451452 libraries, 2:474 Macau, 2:541 Morrison, Robert, 2:633634 newspapers, 2:398 printing, 2:508509 Protestantism, 3:201202 Qing dynasty, 3:232, 235 Richard, Timothy, 3:273274 Shanxi, 3:384 study abroad, 3:507 Taiping Uprising, 3:521524 teacher education, 3:559 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:567568 Western medicine, 2:577, 579 woodblock printing, 4:93
Mr. Science and Mr. Democracy, 3:507 Misty poetry, 3:138139 Mitterrand, Francois, 1:26 Mixed media. See Art in new media Miyajima Eishi, 2:319 Miyajima Saichiro, 2:620 Miyazaki Torazo, 3:7273, 453, 511 Miyazaki Yazo, 3:511 Mizuno Sobai, 2:319 Mo Yan, 2:617618 avant-garde fiction, 1:123, 124 root-searching literature, 2:506, 3:291 Mobile telecommunications, 2:203, 3:608609 MOCA Taipei, 1:110 Model learning theory of moral education, 1:492 Model operas and ballets, 2:618619, 645, 3:87 Modern art exhibitions, 1:83, 85 history, 1:89 Shanghai Art Academy, 2:513 Modern Chinese Comics Exhibition, 1:314 Modern dance, 1:386 Modern Pictorial (periodical), 3:387 Modern poetry, 3:136138 Modern Standard Chinese, 1:416417 Modern Woodcut Society, 2:463 Modernism architecture, 1:6263 Gao Xingjian, 2:110 misty poetry, 3:139 music, 2:649 photography, 3:119 Modernist art, 2:619621 art history, 1:104 Japanese influence, 1:111 Li Keran, 2:464 Lin Fengmian, 2:487489 oil painting, 3:48 Pang Xunqin, 3:7374 Stars painting group, 3:490 Taiwan, 1:110 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 Modernity architecture, 1:5960 fashion, 2:22, 25 foreign settlements, 2:72 gender relations, 2:117 May Fourth movement, 2:213 Sincere Department Store, 3:404 Westernization, 4:75 Modernization art, 1:111112 banking, 2:623
Beijing, 1:141 brands, 1:149 Changsha, 1:196 economic reform, 1:453 foreign trade, 2:89 Fuzhou, 2:101 Hankou, 2:272 health care, 2:185 industrial development, 2:306 intellectual debate, 1:288 legal reform, 2:450 Manchuria, 2:549, 550 minority nationalities, 2:607 moral campaigns, 1:492 moral education, 1:492 nationalism and music, 2:642643 Peoples Liberation Army, 2:358 political culture, 3:149, 151 Protestantism, 3:202 punishments, 1:304 Self-strengthening movement, 2:210 service sector, 3:356 Shen Baozhen, 3:389 small welfare, 3:432 social sciences, 3:439440 study abroad, 3:506508 Sun Yat-sen, 3:510, 514 Taibei, 3:518 treaty ports, 3:613614 Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles (Deng), 4:270272 urban areas, 4:14 Western Sinology, 2:224225 Zhang Jian, 4:145 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150152 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 Money and banking, 2:621624 Money and monetary policy, 2:624627, 626t compradors, 1:345346 copper and silver, 1:361363 financial markets, 2:52 foreign currency reserves, 2:7374 International Monetary Fund, 2:339 Nationalist government, 3:15 Nationalists, 2:624 nineteenth century, 2:206 opium trade, 3:60 Peoples Bank of China, 1:132 Mongolia, 2:121, 324325, 627628 Mongols history and culture, 2:609 Inner Mongolia, 2:323324 Qinghai, 3:237 Xinjiang, 4:111 Monogamy, 2:564 Monopolies, 1:130 Monroe Doctrine, 2:437 Monsoons, 1:289, 3:22
467
Index
Montero, Gabriela, 2:539 Montreal Olympics, 3:53 Monument to the Peoples Heroes, 2:469, 628, 2:629 Monuments, 1:60, 2:628629, 629, 3:510 Moral education, 1:462, 466468, 491492 Morality, 2:630631 childhood, 2:477 classical scholarship, 1:279 Falun Gong, 2:1 government and Confucian ethics, 3:248 Lui Xiaobo, 2:521 political culture, 3:149 sexuality, 3:365 socialization and pedagogy, 3:459 Mori, Hanae, 2:25 Morita Tsunetomo, 2:319 Morohashi Tetsuji, 2:458 Morrison, Alastair, 2:632 Morrison, George E., 2:366, 631633 Morrison, Hedda, 2:632 Morrison, Robert, 2:633634 higher education, 1:486487 missionaries, 2:614 Protestantism, 3:201 Western medicine, 2:577 Morrison Education Society, 2:239 Mortality rates, 3:165f child mortality, 4:129 demographic trends, 3:166 Great Leap Forward, 3:305 mining, 2:604 See also Infant mortality Mortgages, 4:26 Mortise-and-tenon joinery, 2:98 Moscow conference, 3:412 Mosher, Steven W., 2:367 Moshinsky, Elijah, 3:324 Most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 Britain and the Treaty of the Bogue, 3:62 imperialism, 2:294 international relations, 2:349 unequal treaties, 2:360 United States, 4:9 Mosuo, 2:613 Mother/son relationships, 2:4 Mother-to-infant HIV/AIDS transmission, 2:228 Mother-tongue teaching, 2:240 Mou Suyun, 2:495 Mou Zongsan, 1:350 Mount Tai Shan, 3:372
Mountain Resort for Escaping the Heat, 2:292 Mourning, 2:7, 37, 483 Moxibustion, 1:45, 2:576 Mr. Wang (comic), 1:314 Mu Dan, 3:137, 138 Mu Ouchu, 2:315 Mu Suixin, 2:471 Muckraking, 2:511512 Mukden Incident, 3:392393 Mulberry tree and fish pond system, 1:23 Muller, F. Max, 2:451, 452 Multilateralism, 2:347 Multinational corporations engineering research, 3:266 migrant workers, 2:590 science and technology research and development, 3:338339 Zhu Rongji, 4:170 Multiple cropping, 1:17, 2:430 Municipalities under central control, 3:210211 county-level, 3:210 local government, 3:205 prefecture-level, 3:207 Murakami Kagaku, 2:319 Murata Kokoku, 2:319 Murphy, Henry K., 1:6061, 68, 3:2 Murray, Hugh, 1:511 Museums, 2:635638, 637 art market, 1:93 Forbidden City, 2:68, 70 furniture, 2:99, 100 heritage protection, 2:199202 International Dunhuang Project, 1:72 Nanjing, 3:34 Palace Museum, 2:68 Music, 2:144 connoisseurship, 1:351 gramophones and records, 2:143144 Hokkien, 2:231 Shaanxi, 3:369370 Music, impact in the West, 2:638639, 647 Music, popular, 1:368, 2:639642 Music, propaganda and mass mobilization, 2:640, 642647 Music, Western and Russian influence on, 2:647651, 650 Music Discussion Society, 2:643 Music education, 2:648649 Musical instruments, 2:647 Musical theater, 3:134 Musicians Cui Jian, 1:368 Ma, Yo-Yo, 2:539540
Muslim uprisings, 2:651653, 652 as foreign assault, 2:207 Gansu, 2:106108 history, 2:370 Muslim Panthay Rebellion, 2:207 Zuo Zongtang, 4:173174 Muslims, 2:606 Hui, 2:608 Ningxia, 3:44 Pakistan, relations with, 3:6667 Qinghai, 3:237239 See also Islam Mutinies, 1:244 Mutual aid Chinatowns, 1:248 Chinese overseas, 1:237 rural development, 3:302, 307 Mutual Defense Treaty, 3:530 My Country and My People (Lin), 2:452, 490491
N
Na Ying, 2:641 Nagai Unpei, 2:319 Nagao Uzan, 2:319 Nagasaki, 2:318 Nail house incident, 2:364 Naito Konan, 1:112, 2:319, 3:410 Nakabayashi Gochiku, 2:319 Nakamura Fusetsu, 1:86, 111, 2:319 Nakasone Yasuhiro, 2:374 Names, 1:139 Nanbei shupai lun (Ruan), 1:100 Nanchang Uprising, 1:324, 3:104, 4:167, 169 Nangang, 1:2 Nanjing, 3:14, 3, 14, 4:57 Nanjing decade banking, 2:623624 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:209210 clothing, 1:300 commercial elite, 1:322 film, 2:39 government administration, 2:139140 history, 2:214215 law courts, 2:438439 legal training, 2:451 Liu Hongsheng, 2:516 military culture and tradition, 2:600 Nanjing, 3:2 police, 3:142 urban employment, 4:28 Zhejiang, 4:159 Nanjing Massacre, 3:45, 5 casualties, 1:36 Nanjing, 3:2, 3 Tiananmen Incident, influence on the, 3:570571
468
Index
Nanjing Museum, 3:3, 4 Nanjing Road, 3:375, 377, 584 Nanjing University students, 1:464 Nanjing Urban Planning Institute, 3:4 Nanjo Bunyu, 1:154 Nankai University, 3:572 Nanking. See Nanjing Nanking Treaty, 2:207 Nanotechnology, 2:202, 3:269 Nansha Islands, 3:105106 Nantong, 4:14, 145 Nantong Museum, 2:635 Nanyang Industrial Exposition, 1:319 Napoleon III, 2:125, 3:125 Narcotics. See Drugs and narcotics Nation building, 1:78, 2:222 Nation-state, 2:467 National Administration of Industry and Commerce, 1:360 National Agricultural Research Bureau, 2:428 National Anti-Japanese Salvation Association, 4:4 National Aquatics Center, 1:67 National Art Exhibition, 1:8384, 103, 4:91 National Art Gallery, 1:84, 3:195 National Art Museum, 3:334, 489 National assemblies, 1:239, 352, 355, 503, 504 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 1:153 National Auditing Administration, 2:327 National Bureau of Statistics, 3:497 National Central University Art Department, 1:97 art education, 1:97 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 Xu Beihong, 4:116 National Christian Conference, 3:568 National City Bank, 2:77 National City Planning Bureau, 1:267 National Commission for Brand Promotion, 1:148 National Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities, 1:308 National Compendia of Water and Soil Conservation Monitoring, 3:287 National Conference on City Development, 1:268 National Conference on Science and Technology, 3:336337 National Construction Committee, 1:59
National Day, 3:12, 585 National defense. See Defense; Military National Defense Law, 3:96 National defense music, 2:644 National Defense Student program, 3:96 National Development and Reform Commission, 1:515, 521, 2:57, 3:433434, 497 National Economic Reconstruction Movement, 2:22 National Education Development Conference, 3:546 National educational standards, 1:495 National elections, 3:530531 National Essence Movement. See Art, National Essence Movement in National Fine Arts Exhibition, 3:345 National flags and anthems, 3:6, 68 class representation, 3:29 Liang Sicheng, 2:469 mass mobilization music, 2:643 nationalism, 3:10, 11 National Flood Relief Commission, 2:17 National Hangzhou Art College, 1:104, 105 National Hangzhou Arts Academy, 2:488 National health insurance system, 1:510511 National Institute of Metrology, 4:69 National Land Commission, 3:486 National literature, 2:468 National Military Education movement, 2:22 National Nianhua Awards, 3:192 National Palace Museum, 2:636 National Parks of China, 2:113 National Peoples Congress central state organs, 1:180181, 184185 constitutions, 1:356 Cultural Revolution, 1:187 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217 political representation, 3:156 special administrative regions, 3:472474 National Peoples Party, 1:504 National Plans of Action for Children, 4:129 National Political University, 4:147 National Products movement, 1:359, 3:89 National Products Preservation Association, 1:149
National Revolutionary Army, 2:594 Anti-Japanese War, 3:105 Chiang Kai-shek, 2:139 history, 2:594595 Northern Expedition, 3:45 politics, 1:78 National Salvation Association, 3:1112, 463, 4:88 National Social Security Fund, 3:450 National Southwest Associated University, 2:473 National sovereignty. See Sovereignty National Sports Games, 3:481 National style architecture, 1:63 National Theater, 1:67 National Training Center for General Practitioners, 1:338 National Unification Council, 3:544 National Urban Sculpture Art Committee, 3:348 National Voluntary Labor movement, 2:22 National Womens and Childrens Salvation Society, 3:198 National Working Conference on Education, 4:41 National Youth Exhibition, 1:84 Nationalism, 3:913 anti-Christian/anti-missionary movements, 1:3435 anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:65 anti-imperialism, 3:18 archaeology, 1:54 architecture, 1:60 art, 1:113115 birth of, 2:211212 brands, 1:149150 Chinese Marxism, 1:224 Chinese overseas, 2:286 diaspora and homeland, 1:250251 education policy in the early Peoples Republic of China, 1:468469 emigration, 1:255 extraterritoriality, 1:543 famine relief, 2:17 fashion, 2:2224 foreign policy, 2:83 gender relations, 2:114115 higher education, 1:481 historiography, 2:225226 imperialism, as reaction to, 2:295296 India, 2:320 intellectual debate, 1:285 international relations, 2:351352 pan-Mongolian, 2:628 peasants, 1:79 political culture, 3:148, 150151
469
Index
Nationalism, continued product design, 1:319 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:642646 Protestantism, 3:202 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 railways, 3:603604 Renaissance movement, 2:2122 The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth (Chiang), 4:211214 Sino-French War, 3:406 sports, 3:480 sports figures, 3:482483 textbooks, 1:467 Three Principles of the People, 3:513 treaty ports, 3:613 warlord era, 3:253, 4:5859 Xinjiang, Turkic nationalism in, 4:112113 Zhongguo, 4:161 Nationalist government, 3:1318 anti-Christian/anti-missionary movements, 1:34 Anti-Japanese War, 1:3638, 4:65 anti-superstition campaign, 3:160 Antiquity Preservation Law, 1:46 Army, 1:78 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:219 Chinese overseas, 1:237, 239 Chu Anping, criticism by, 1:266 civil war, 1:271273 clothing, 1:300 Comintern, 1:309311, 323 commercial elite, 1:321322 constitutions, 1:354355 corporate law, 1:343 democratic ideas, 1:396397 diaspora and homeland, 1:251252 Dixie Mission, 1:212 domestic trade, 1:427 drug policies, 1:433 economic policy, 3:164 education, 1:466 elections, 1:504 film, 2:3940 Forbidden City, 2:68 foreign loans, 2:81 gender relations, 2:115 government administration, 2:139140 Great Depression, 2:148150 health care, 2:185186 higher education, 1:481 historiography, 2:222223, 224 intellectuals, 1:284 legal training and the legal profession, 2:451 leisure, 2:452453
Li Denghui, 2:458460 Lingnan school of painting, 2:496 literature, 2:506507 Lu Zuofu, 2:535 Ma family, 2:109 Ma Muslims, 3:239 marriage laws, 2:564 military, 2:596 militias, 2:601 monetary reform, 1:362363 money and banking, 2:623624 Nanjing, 3:2 National Products movement, 3:89 nationalism, 3:11 national flag and anthem, 3:67 newspapers, 2:399, 3:38 opium suppression, 3:59 peasantry, 3:79 police, 3:141142 power politics in East Asia, 2:352354 propaganda photography, 3:125126 radio, 3:244 religious policy, 3:259 Revolution of 1911, interpretation of the, 3:273 Revolutionary Committee of the Nationalist Party, 1:405 rural-urban relations, 4:18 Russia, relations with, 3:318 sex ratio, 3:362 sishu schools reform, 1:463 social classes, 3:424 social sciences, 3:438 socialism, 3:454 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 Song Ziwen, 3:463465 sports, 3:480 Sun Yat-sen, 3:512513 Taiwan Democratic SelfGovernment League, opposition of the, 1:405 teacher education, 3:560 treaties, 2:360361 unit, 4:12 United Front, 1:335 united front work, 4:4 Westernization, 4:75 womens rights, 4:83 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Xinjiang, 4:113 Yijiangshan campaign, 3:103104 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150 Nationalist Party, 3:1822, 20t Academia Sinica, 1:1 Chen Duxiu, 1:197 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:207
Democratic Progressive Party, opposition of the, 3:549 early Republican era, 3:151152 economic policy, 3:534535 extraterritoriality, 1:543 factions, 3:152 Hainan, 2:168 labor unions, suppression of, 4:98 Manchuria, 2:550 military, 3:547548 Olympics, 3:5152 Paris group, 1:29 The Struggle with Communists Is a Struggle Over Lifestyle (Jiang), 4:283 Sun Yat-sen, 3:567 Taibei, 3:518 Taiwan politics, 3:529533 united front work, 4:4 United States, relations with, 4:11 Wang Jingwei, 4:49 Warlord era, 2:213 women in politics, 4:8788 Wuhan, 4:101 Xinjiang, 4:112113 Yuan Shikai, reaction of, 2:137138 Zhang Junmai, opposition of, 4:146147 Nationality law, 1:237, 239, 250, 260 Nationalization banking, 1:132 timber, 1:2122 Native-place identities, 2:284 Native-place organizations, 2:328 Native soil painting, 3:34 Natong, 3:140 Natural disasters climate-related, 1:293 cosmology, 1:367 diaspora and homeland, 1:252 earthquakes, 1:437438 famine, 2:1415 Henan, 2:196 nineteenth century, 2:206 Natural foot movement, 2:6567, 510 Natural-gas pipeline, 3:240 Natural redness theory, 1:226 Natural resources, 3:2226 African states, 1:9, 10 Anhui, 1:33 environmental issues, 1:527 Gansu, 2:109 Hebei, 2:193 minority nationalities, 2:607 small welfare, 3:433 Natural springs, 2:396397 Nature reserves, 1:514 Nature tourism, 3:580 Naval academies, 1:392
470
Index
Naval Aviation Force, 3:100 Navigation dams, 1:520 Grand Canal, 2:145147 Huai River, 3:283 Jiangsu, 2:388 Pearl River, 3:283 Three Gorges Dam, 1:519 Navy civil war, 1:272 defense, 1:391392 naval development, 4:59 Peoples Liberation Army Navy, 3:9798 Sino-Indian joint military exercise, 2:300301 Zaitian, reign of, 1:508 Navy Board, 1:391 Navy yards. See Shipbuilding Naxalites, 2:322, 558 Naxi, 2:613 Nee, Watchman, 3:202 Nehru, Jawaharlal Dalai Lama, 1:379 ideology, 2:299 Zhou Enlai, talks with, 4:163 Neibu circulation, 3:223 Neighborhoods, 3:214215 Neiwufu. See Imperial Household Department Neo-Buddhism, 1:154155 Neo-Confucianism academies, 1:23 classical scholarship, 1:276277 Han learning, 1:347 liberalism, attack on, 1:288 ti-yong relationship, 1:281 Neolithic period, 1:48, 49, 52 Nepal, 2:322, 3:30, 574 Nepotism and guanxi, 1:364, 3:2628, 429 Nervi, Pier Luigi, 1:63 Nesmelov, Arsenii, 3:324 New Acumoxa Studies (Zhu), 1:4 New Age, 2:34 New Army creation, 2:593 demise of imperialism, 1:392 establishment of, 1:78, 4:6061 militarism, 2:591 military profession, 4:6162 Yuan Shikai, 4:133 New Century United Front, 4:5 New China, 3:421 New China Publishing House, 3:221 New Cinema, 2:51 New Coastal District, 3:573 New Company Law, 1:343
New Confucianism, 1:350, 4:147 New Culture movement Anhui, 1:32 Bingxin, 1:144, 145146 Boxer Uprising, 1:148 communist thought origins, 1:334 Confucianism, 1:348 gender relations, 2:115 higher education, 1:480 Hu Shi, 2:259260 intellectual debate, 1:285286 liberalism, 2:472473 libraries, 2:474 literature, 2:504 May Fourth movement, 2:565566 music, 2:643 nationalism, 2:352, 3:11 prostitution, 3:198 translation of foreign literature, 3:596 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 Westernization, 4:7475 See also May Fourth movement New Democracy, 3:2830 central planning, 1:177 Chinese Marxism, 1:220 Ma Yinchu, 3:164 Mao Zedong thought, 1:223 revolutionary theory, 1:336 social class, 1:225 socialism, 3:454, 455 united front work, 4:4 Zhou Enlai, 4:162 New Democratic Youth League. See Communist Youth League New Era United Front, 4:5 New Fourth Army, 1:33, 3:103 New Generation (Liu), 3:154155 New Guidelines on Lawyers, 3:276 New Humanism, 2:567 New Ink Painting movement, 4:92 New Left, 3:3031 influences abroad, 2:323 intellectual debate, 1:288 Westernization, 4:75 New liberalism, 2:473 New Library movement, 2:474475 New Life movement Chiang Kai-shek, 1:210 Confucianism, 1:348, 350, 2:215 filial piety, 2:37 Nationalist Party, 3:19 police, 3:142 Renaissance movement, 2:22 The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth (Chiang), 4:211214 spiritual humanism, 1:286 womens roles, 4:80, 8384
New Literature, 2:498499, 3:390 New media, art in. See Art in new media New Media Art Department, 1:91 New Model Operas, 4:75 New Music, 3:550 New Music Theater, 3:134 New National Painting, 1:112 New nianhua, 3:191192 New Party, 2:459, 3:2122, 532 New Policies, 2:210211, 3:140, 160, 4:159 A New Population Theory (Ma), 4:230240 New Print movement, 3:3133 New Sensationists, 2:504 New socialism, 1:332333 New Space Exhibition, 3:35 New Spring Art Exhibition, 3:74 New-style art, 1:106 New Taiwanese, 3:540 New Territories, 2:234 New Text scholarship classical scholarship, 1:277281 Gong Zizhen, 2:127 historiography, 2:221222 Ruan Yuan, 3:293 New Wave movement, 3:3336, 4:93 art in new media, 1:90 art societies, 1:98 Cai Guo-Qiang, 1:161162 composers, 3:550 music, 2:639, 649 New Year celebrations, 2:3536, 453 New Year pictures, 4:95 art history, 1:106 folk art, 2:5960 propaganda art, 3:191, 191192, 194 New Years Day march, 3:505506 New Years movies, 3:3637 New Zealand, 1:247248, 258 Newborn Generation, 3:139 News agencies, 3:222 Newspapers, 3:3740, 38 advertising, 1:311 censorship, 1:174 famine, 2:17 Fan Changjiang, 2:1920 graphic arts, 1:316 journalism, 2:398400 Major, Ernest, 2:544 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 publishing industry, 3:221, 222 Ngapo, 1:379 Ni Yide Japanese influence, 1:111 modernism, 1:104, 2:619, 3:74
471
Index
Ni Yide, continued oil painting, 3:48 Storm Society, 1:99 Nian Uprising, 3:4041, 41 Anhui, 1:3032 foreign assaults, 2:207 migration, 2:328 Muslim uprisings, influence on, 2:652 White Lotus roots of, 4:77 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Nianhua. See New Year pictures Nie Er, 2:644 Nie Rongzhen, 1:408 Nihilism, 1:128 Nihon Nanga, 2:319 Nihonga, 1:112, 2:496 Nine-Power Treaty, 1:543, 2:360 973 Program, 3:268 Nine-Star fengshui, 2:33 921 earthquake, 1:438 1982 Constitution, 1:356357 1946 Constitution, 1:355 1978 Constitution, 1:356 1975 Constitution, 1:356 Ningbo, 3:4243 finance, 4:158 Hangzhou, rivalry with, 2:178 Shanghai, effect of the rise of, 4:17 Ningbo Economic and Technological Development Zone, 3:42 Ningbo rebellion, 2:125 Ningpo. See Ningbo Ningxia, 1:437, 3:4345, 44, 44t Ninth Paris Biennial Exhibition, 3:195 Nixon, Richard, visit of, 2:357 Buck, Pearl S., 1:153 Chinese Communist Party rebuilding, 1:327 history, 2:357 Mao Zedong, 2:558 realpolitik, 1:233 The Red Detachment of Women (play), 2:619 Reston, James, acupuncture treatment of, 1:5 Sino-Korean relations, 2:404 Snow, Edgar, 3:417 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 Nobel Prize Buck, Pearl S., 1:153 Dalai Lama, 1:381 Gao Xingjian, 2:109111 Yang Zhenning, 4:126127 Nobility, 3:423 Noh plays, 4:45
Nomads Inner Mongolia, 2:323324 Qing dynasty, 3:232 Xinjiang, 4:113 Nomenklatura cadre system, 1:160 central planning, 1:179 elite, 3:428 political control, 3:146 state-owned enterprises, 3:496 Non-Marxist socialism, 3:454 Nonagricultural production, 3:315 Nonaligned Movement, 2:355 Noncompetitive elections, 3:213 Nonferrous minerals, 2:603 Nongovernmental channels of outmigration, 2:421 Nongovernmental organizations AIDS-related work, 2:229 All-China Womens Federation as, 1:26, 28 child protection, 4:129 education in Hong Kong, 2:239240 environmental issues, 1:533 human rights organizations, 2:270 microfinancing, 2:584 operations in China, 2:333334 rape, 3:245 research, 3:270271 social and community organizations, 3:418420 welfare services, 3:445 women and children, protection of, 2:441 World War I aftermath, 2:343 Noninterference policy, 1:9, 2:270, 358 Nonmetallic mineral resources, 3:25 Nonperforming loans, 1:134136, 2:54 Nonregistered enterprises, 3:180 Normal education. See Teacher education Normalization of relations France, 2:91 Japan, 2:374 Russia, 2:296, 358, 3:320 United States, 4:89, 268269 Vietnam, 4:34 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1:441 North China famine, 2:17 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368 macroregion of, 2:118 Nian Uprising, 3:41 smuggling, 3:415416
North China Shelterbelt program, 1:413 North Korea. See Korea North school of medicine, 2:576 Northeast China heavy industry, 2:186187 industrial workers, 4:97 macroregion, 2:120121 migration, 2:328329 Soviet military entry into, 3:17 See also Manchuria Northern Art Group, 3:35 Northern Expedition, 3:4546 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:208, 2:213 Guomindang, 4:58 launch of, 2:139 Mao Dun, 2:553 military, 2:596 Nationalist Party, 3:18 Northern Wei script, 1:100, 535 Northwest China, 2:20, 118119 Northwest Muslim Rebellion, 2:652 Northwest Wind, 2:641 Nu River Dam, 3:24 Nuclear assistance to Pakistan, 3:6869 Nuclear power, 1:521 Nuclear test ban treaties, 3:413 Nuclear weapons development of, 2:355 Iran, 2:587 Korea, 2:405 Korean War aftermath, 2:408 military doctrine, 3:111 North Korea, 4:11 Second Artillery Force, 3:101102 Nude models, 2:514, 3:72 Number (linguistics), 2:231 Number 1 Central Document, 3:317 The Numerous Guises of the Gibbons (Qian), 1:314 Nuns, 3:261 Nurhachi, 2:547 Nutritional transition, 2:65 Nyerere, Julius, 2:323
O
Obama, Barack, 2:539 Objective idealism, 3:456 Obscenity laws, 2:440 Occupation. See Japanese occupation; Russian occupation Occupation of Qingdao, 3:236 Offenbach, Jacques, 2:638 Office for the Development of the West, 1:449 Office of Chinese Language Council International, 2:363 Office of Foreign Propaganda, 3:187
472
Index
Office of Strategic Services, 4:123 Official development assistance, 2:334 Official gazettes, 2:398 Offshore defense strategy, 3:97 Offshore oil exploration, 1:518 Oga Seiun, 1:86 Ohira Masayoshi, 2:374, 3:432 Oil and natural gas Central Asian states, 1:175176 Daqing oil field, 2:194 domestic trade, 1:428 imports and exports, 3:602t Middle Eastern states, 2:586587 ownership, 1:515 production and consumption, 1:517518 shipping, 3:601602 Sudan, 1:10 Xinjiang, 2:122 Oil painting, 3:4750 Japanese influence, 1:111 Mao era, 1:106 Soviet influence, 1:117118 Okada Asataro, 1:304 Okada Kosho, 2:318 Okakura Tenshin, 2:319 Okuhara Seiko, 2:319 Old age. See Elderly Old and Dilapidated Housing Program, 2:279 Old Beijing, 1:142 Olympics, 3:5054, 52 sports, 3:480482 sports figures, 3:482483 See also Beijing Olympics Omura Seigai, 1:86, 112 On Art and Literature (Mao), 4:217218 On Khrushchevs Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World (Mao), 4:240241 On New Democracy (Mao), 1:369 On Problems Concerning Humanism and Alienation (Hu), 1:288 On the Art of Poetics (Qian), 3:228 On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (Mao), 4:228230 On-the-job training, 1:490 On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons and On the Adoption of Western Learning (Feng), 4:196197 On the New Democracy (Mao), 1:397398 On the Question of Intellectuals (Zhou), 1:233
On the Social Basis of the Lin Biao Anti-Party Clique (Yao), 4:256257 One-child policy, 2:13 adoption, 1:68 All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 child protection, 4:129 childhood, 2:478479 domestic violence, 1:432 education, effect on, 1:470 family, effects on the, 2:7 family-based care, 3:443 future of, 2:14 gender roles, 4:38 goals and implementation, 2:12 impact, 2:1214 infanticide, 2:1112 political control, 3:146 population control, 2:16 population growth, effect on, 3:167 population policy, 3:165, 168170 rural areas, 4:130 rural development, 3:310311 women, status of, 4:85 One-China policy African states, 1:10 East Central European relations, 1:440441 foreign policy, 2:8384 Germany, 2:123 nationalism, 3:12 Shanghai Communique, 4:253255 Taiwan, 3:544 United States, 4:8 One country, two systems policy, 2:8384 cross-strait relations, 3:544 Hong Kong, 3:473 The Taiwan Question and the Reunification of China, 4:291293 United Kingdom, 4:6 Open-Door Note, 3:345 Open-door policy art education, 1:9798 Dalian, 1:382 foreign investment, 2:78 high technology, 2:203 international students, 2:362363 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155 Open-door rectification campaign, 2:277 Opening and reform. See Reform era Opening ceremonies, Olympic, 3:56 Opera, 3:86, 88 dance, 1:383384 film, 2:41 Forbidden City, 2:71
gramophone records, 2:143 hairstyles, 2:171 picture books, 1:317 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:645 Shaanxi, 3:370 Westernization, 4:75 See also Model operas and ballets; Peking Opera and regional operas Operation Allied Force, 4:10 Operation August Storm, 2:324 Operation Ichigo, 1:37 Opinion on the Structural Reform of Urban Secondary Education and the Development of Vocational Education, 4:40 Opinions for Further Implementation of Chinas Agenda 21, 1:216 Opinions on Further Strengthening Vocational Education, 4:41 Opium, 3:5759, 58 classical scholarship, 1:279 drug policies, 1:433, 434 East India Company, 1:442 Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria (Lin), 4:189190 Lin Zexu, 2:491492 Morrison, George E., 2:631 Parsis, 3:75 policy reforms, 3:248249 smuggling, 3:414415 Opium Wars, 3:6063, 61, 4:60 consequences, 4:63 extraterritoriality, 1:543 Hong Kong, 2:234 international relations, 2:349 military culture and tradition, 2:597 militias, 2:601 Minning, 1:506 New Territories, cession of the, 2:234 piracy, 3:131 reforms, 3:249 Tianjin, 3:572 unequal treaties, 2:360, 614 urbanization patterns, 4:17 Wade, Thomas, 4:43 Wei Yuan, 4:67 Oracle bones, 1:45 archaeology, 1:43 foreign holdings, 1:72 Guo Moruo, 2:165 politics of archaeology, 1:54 Qing dynasty antiquarianism, 1:42 script, 1:100 Wang Guowei, 4:48 Oral folk literature, 2:435 Orchard area, 1:17
473
Index
Organic Law of Macau, 2:542 Organization of American States (OAS), 2:435 Organized crime, 3:350352 Organized labor. See Labor Orientation and urban design, 4:13 Orphanages, 1:6, 8, 3:446 Orr, Boyd, 4:5 Orthographic systems. See Writing systems Orthopraxy, ritual, 3:257 Osborn, E. G., 3:243 Ostrovsky, Nikolai, 2:256, 3:597 Otaka Yoshiko. See Li Xianglan Otani Kozui, 1:41 Out-of-pocket health expenses, 2:570, 571, 572 Outbound tourism, 3:588590, 589t, 590f Outcasts, 3:423 Outer Court, 2:129130 Outer Mongolia, 2:324325 Outline on National Eco-environment Protection, 1:514 Outline on Planning for the Protection and Utilization of National Species Resources, 1:514 Outline on Reform and Development of Education, 4:41 Outmigration, 2:420423 Ouyang Jian. See Ouyang Jingwu Ouyang Jingwu, 1:154, 155 Ouyang Yuqiang, 1:383384 Ovechkin, Valentin, 2:400, 511 Overcrowding, 2:279280 Overgrazing, 1:413 Overseas Chinese. See Chinese overseas Overseas study. See Study abroad Owens, Jesse, 3:51 Ownership city planning, 1:268 collectives, 1:341342 financial markets, 2:54 private enterprises, 3:177182 public ownership, redefinition of, 3:497498 state-owned enterprises restructuring, 3:494 township and village enterprises, 3:315, 591, 593 Ozone depleting substances, 1:527
P
Pacific Ocean air mass, 1:289 Pacification Army, 4:60 Pacifying within to resist without policy, 3:16
Pai Ching-jui. See Bai Jingrui Painters. See Artists; Women artists Painting. See Art; Oil painting Pakistan, 3:6570, 70 Palace Memorial System, 2:130 Palace Museum collections, 2:635636 establishment, 2:292 Forbidden City, 2:68, 70, 71 heritage protection, 2:199200 Palaces. See Imperial palaces Paleography, 2:165 Paleolithic age, 1:53 Pan-Asianism, 3:7273 Pan Cun, 2:319 Pan Dehai, 3:35 Pan Guangdan, 3:438 Pan Guxi, 1:59 Pan Jingshu, 4:99 Pan-Mongolian nationalism, 2:628 Pan-Pearl River Delta Regional Cooperation Project, 1:268 Pan Tianshou, 3:71 art history, 1:87 demotion, 1:116 Ningbo, 3:42 Shanghai school of painting, 1:102, 3:384 Wu Changshi, influence of, 1:103 Pan Yuliang, 3:48, 49, 72, 4:91 Panch Sila affirmations, 4:163 Panchen Lama, 1:379, 381, 3:150 Panchsheel Agreement, 2:299 Pandemics, 1:533 Pang Tao, 4:91 Pang Xunqin, 3:7374 European modernism, 1:104 modernism, 2:619 oil painting, 3:48 Storm Society, 1:99 Pang Yuanji, 1:85 Paper cuts, 2:5960, 3:35 Parallel prose, 2:551 Parallel trading systems, 1:428 Parcheesi, 2:104 Parent-child relationships, 4:130 Paris art exhibitions, 1:80, 82 Paris group, 1:2829 Paris Peace Conference, 2:352 Parker, Peter, 2:183, 577 Parkes, Harry, 4:43 Parks. See Gardens and parks Parliaments, 1:503504, 4:152 Parsis, 3:75 Partisan newspapers, 3:3839 Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, 1:537
Party leaders Chen Yun, 1:202204 Deng Xiaoping, 1:406412 elite, 3:428 Hu Jintao, 2:256258 Hu Yaobang, 2:260262 Hua Guofeng, 2:262265 Jian Zemin, 2:381384 leadership struggles and prodemocracy movements, 3:182183 Liu Shaoqi, 2:517520 Mao Zedong, 2:554559 princelings, 3:427 provincial representation, 3:206, 207 Wen Jiabao, 4:6971 Zhao Ziyang, 4:154156 Zhou Enlai, 4:161164 Zhu De, 4:166169 Party politics, Taiwan, 3:2122 Party rule, 1:227 Party-state system, 1:182t183t propaganda, 3:185186 reforms, 2:216217 social and community organizations, 3:420421 Passenger railways, 3:605606 Passports. See Travel documents Pastures, 1:294295, 3:25 Patents, 1:152, 3:337 Patriarchal kinship myth, 2:610 Patriarchy, 2:114115, 3:363 Patrilineage, 2:1011 Patrilineal land succession, 2:424 Patriotic Catholic Association, 1:172 Patriotic education, 2:646, 3:579 Patriotic religious associations, 3:569 Patriotic United Front, 1:401, 4:5 Patronage systems, 3:312 Patten, Chris, 2:245, 4:67 Pauley, Edwin W., 3:76 Pavilions, 1:62 Peace Hotel, 2:377 Peace settlement, World War II, 3:7576, 4:220, 225226 Peaceful reunification policy, 3:544 Peaceful-rise theory, 2:359 Peacekeeping forces, 1:11, 2:332, 3:97 Pearl River, 3:132, 283284, 284 Peasant Movement Training Institute, 3:79 Peasant painting, 3:195 folk art, 2:60 propaganda art, 3:194196 Shaanxi, 3:369 Peasant rebellions historiography, 2:224 late Qing dynasty, 4:63
474
Index
militarism, 2:591 Nian Uprising, 3:4041 political culture, 3:147 Peasantry, 3:7678, 7881 Peasants, 3:8183 Agrarian Land Reform Law, 2:425426, 3:301 Cultural Revolution art products, 3:197 democratic ideas, 1:397 discrimination, 3:300 feudalism, 1:227228 folk art, 2:59 gender relations, 2:115 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 Jiangsu, 2:386387 Mao Zedong thought, 1:221222, 2:554 nationalism, 1:79, 2:295296, 3:150 Nationalist government, 3:1415 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217 poverty, 3:170174 propaganda art, 3:188, 189, 191192 scientific development, 2:257 sent-down educated youth, attitude toward, 3:353 social and community organizations, 3:419420 social classes, 3:425426 socialist realism, 3:456 taxation, 3:556 two-stage theory of revolution, 1:336 women, status of, 4:84 Pedagogy, 3:457459, 560 Pei, I. M., 1:65, 3:8385, 84, 515 Pei Wenzhong, 1:47, 53 Peiligang culture, 1:49 Peking Field Force, 2:136 Peking gazette, 2:398 Peking Gazette, 2:130131 Peking Man, 2:191 Peking Man (Cao), 1:168169 Peking Opera and regional operas, 3:8689, 88 Beijing, 1:142, 3:8687 dance, 1:383 gramophone records, 2:143 model opera, 2:618 Peking Union Medical College, 2:185, 579 Peking University archaeology, 1:47, 48, 50 Graduate Institute of National Studies, 1:3 opening, 1:465 reform, 1:486
Pelliot, Paul, 1:41, 42, 307 Penal systems, 3:8991, 90, 9194, 93 Peng Dehuai, 3:9495 Changsha, 1:196 Deng Xiaoping, replacement by, 1:408 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 Great Leap Forward, 2:217, 557, 593, 3:305 Hai Rui Dismissed from Office (Wu), 1:373 Korean War, 2:407 Lin Biao, replacement by, 2:487 Mao Zedong, relationship with, 1:287, 326, 2:19 Peoples Liberation Army, 4:169 Red Army reconstruction, 4:168 Red Guards, targeting by the, 3:246 rehabilitation, 1:328 Peng Pai, 3:82 Peng Shuzhi, 3:615 Peng Wenying, 2:278 Peng Yulin, 4:140 Peng Zemin, 1:404 Peng Zhen Deng Xiaoping, differences with, 1:411 Mao Zedong, attack by, 1:287 Red Guards, targeting by the, 3:246 Pengtoushan culture, 1:49 Pensions, 2:483, 3:442, 447, 449450 Pentatonic romanticism, 2:649 Pentecostal churches, 3:202 People First Party, 3:22 Peoples Bank of China, 1:130133, 2:52, 55, 75 Peoples Bank of China Law, 1:132 Peoples communes canteen system, 2:63 central planning, 1:179180 Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 collectivization as leading to, 3:302 famine, 2:18 gender roles, 4:38 Great Leap Forward, 2:557, 3:305 Henan, 2:198 land use, 2:430 rural credit cooperatives (RCCs), 2:584 rural development, 3:303304 townships, replacement of, 3:209, 212 urban areas, 3:215 Peoples congresses, 3:156 Peoples Democratic United Front, 4:4 Peoples diplomacy, 3:542543 Peoples Education Press, 1:468469
Peoples Heroes Monument, 3:346 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:95115, 96, 98, 100t, 106 Bai Hua, 1:129 Central Military Commission, 1:188, 189, 190 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328 civil war, 1:272273, 326 Cultural Revolution, 1:374375 grades and ranks, 3:109110, 109t, 110t history, 2:596597 Lin Biao, 2:487 militarism, 2:593 military culture and tradition, 2:600 military enterprises, 3:114115 militias, 2:601 politics, 1:7980, 3:143144 Qamdo, invasion of, 3:576 Quemoy, 3:547 research, 3:270 Vietnam, attack on, 2:358 Xinjiang, 4:113 Zhu De, 4:169 Peoples Liberation Army Air Force, 3:100101, 102 Peoples Liberation Army Navy, 3:101 Peoples Republic of China archaeology, 1:4853 birth of, 2:215 border wars, 4:66 Chinese overseas, 1:239 Chinese painting, 1:263265 Christian universities and colleges, 1:488489 civil society, 1:270271 constitutionalism, 1:353 constitutions, 1:355357 county government, 3:209 cross-strait relations, 3:544 Daoism, 1:388 death penalty, 1:389390 diaspora and homeland, 1:251252 dissidents, 1:420423 domestic violence, 1:431433 encyclopedias, 1:512 family law, 2:67 Forbidden City, 2:68, 7071 foreign trade, 2:8789 geographic regions, 2:118 government-organized nongovernmental organizations, 2:141143 Grand Canal, 2:146147 graphic arts, 1:316317 Henan, 2:197199 history, 2:216219 Inner Mongolia, 2:325326
475
Index
Peoples Republic of China, continued international organizations, relations with, 2:344348 international relations, 2:354359 Jews, 2:379380 land use, 2:428430 language policy, 2:432433 law, 2:442445 literature, 2:505506 medical care, 2:569573 minority nationalities, 2:606607 museums, 2:636637 national flag and anthem, 3:78 Olympics, 3:5254 physical education, 3:129 picture books, 1:318 plays, 3:135 police, 3:141142 popular music, 2:640 poverty, 3:173174 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:644646 religious policy, 3:260 returned overseas Chinese, 1:261 Rights Defense movement, 3:274276 secret police, 3:142144 sex education, 3:361 sports, 3:480482 standard of living, 3:486488 Taiwan, economic relations with, 3:537538 teacher education, 3:560561 Tibet, 3:576578 treaties, 2:361362 United Kingdom, recognition by the, 4:5 United States recognition, 4:89 urban employment and unemployment, 4:2932 urbanization, 4:1820 village education and health care, 4:36 Western and Russian musical influence, 2:649651 women artists, 4:9192 women in politics, 4:89 See also Mao era; Reform era Peoples war, 1:233, 3:111 Peredvizhniki, 1:118 Pereleshin, Valerii, 3:324 Performance art, 1:91, 4:117 Performance Workshop, 3:135 Periodicals art, 1:95 Comintern, 1:309 graphic arts, 1:315 Periodization art history, 1:8687 Cultural Revolution, 1:373374 Perlman, Itzhak, 2:539
Permanent Court of International Justice, 2:343 Persecution, 1:370 Personal relations, 3:436 Personal-care workers, 3:445 Personality cults, 2:264, 3:115118 See also Cult of Mao Personnel administrations, 2:412413 Peru coolie trade, 1:245246 Mao Zedong, influence of, 2:558 New Democracy, 3:30 Shining Path, 2:322 Petro China, 2:394 Petroleum. See Oil and natural gas Petty bourgeoisie, 3:29 Petty capitalist mode of production, 4:1617 Peugeot, 1:122 Pharmaceuticals, 2:580 Phelps, Michael, 3:57 Philanthropy, 2:183 Philippines New Democracy, 3:30 South China Sea islands dispute, 3:465466, 467468 Philosophy Buddhism, 1:154 Hu Shi, 2:259260 Three Principles of the People, 3:513514, 566567 Waley, Arthur, 4:45 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 Phoenix, 3:562 Phonetic symbols, 2:431 Photography, 3:118127, 120, 123, 126, 129131 Phuntsok Wangyal, 1:379 Physical care for the aged, 3:448 Physical education, 3:127129, 128, 479481 Physicians community care, 1:337 private practice, 2:572 Western medicine, 2:577, 579 women, 4:80, 4:83 See also Barefoot doctors Physicists Fang Lizhi, 2:2021 Yang Zhenning, 4:126127 Pi Xirui, 1:281 Piaohao, 2:621 Picasso, Pablo, 4:144 Pictorial magazines, 3:129131 Pictorialism, 3:118119 Picture books, 1:317318, 3:333 Pig farming, 1:19 Ping-Pong, 3:482483
Ping-Pong diplomacy, 2:649, 3:53, 483 Pingdingshan, 2:545 Pingjiang, 3:85 Pingjin campaign, 2:486 Pinyin, 2:432 Pipe and Awl Collection (Qian), 3:228 Piracy, maritime, 3:131133, 132 Piracy, publishing, 3:224 Pisarev, Dimitri, 3:457 Pius XI, Pope, 1:171172 Pius XII, Pope, 1:170, 172 Planned economy art market, 1:93 domestic trade, 1:428429 gradualism, 1:458461 price system, 3:175176 small towns, 4:27 state-owned enterprises, 3:496 Plantations coolie trade, 1:245246 Hainan, 2:167 tea, 3:558 Play. See Games and play Plays, 3:133135, 134 Cao Yu, 1:168169 Lao She, 2:434 Pleasure retreats, 2:290292 Plekhanov, Georgy, 1:198, 3:189 Pneumonic plague, 2:578 Poetry, 3:135139 Ai Qing, 1:2526 Bai Hua, 1:129 Bingxin, 1:145 Gong Zizhen, 2:127 Guo Moruo, 2:165 Hu Feng, 2:255256 late Qing dynasty, 2:503 Lu Xun, 2:534 Qiu Jin, 3:241 Shao Xunmei, 3:387 translations, 4:45 Xu Zhimo, 4:119120 Poetry revolution, 3:137 Poetry stationery. See Letter paper Polder development, 3:284 Police, 3:139142, 141 household registration, 2:247 local administration, 2:135 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:380 Police, secret, 3:142144 Policy banks, 2:5253 Policy line, 3:157159 Policy research, 3:270 Politburo Deng Xiaoping, 1:408 municipal representation, 3:211 provincial representation, 3:206, 207
476
Index
Politburo Standing Committee, 4:170 Political activists Kang Youwei, 2:401402 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 Song Qingling, 3:461463 See also Student organizations and activism Political advertisements, 1:201 Political art, 2:321 Political cartoons, 1:105 Political control, 3:144146, 145 Political corruption. See Corruption Political culture, 3:146148, 148151 Political dissidents. See Dissidents Political economics, 4:1617 Political elite, 3:428 Political groups, 3:152 Political parties, 3:151153 Hong Kong, 2:242244 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:276278 representation, 3:156 Taiwan, 3:530534, 532t, 533t Political pop, 1:109, 3:153155, 154 art, 1:108 influences abroad, 2:322 oil painting, 3:50 Political prisoners, 1:502 See also Detention Political reform Chinese Communist Party, 1:328 Hu Yaobang, 2:262 Liang Qichao, 2:468 Yan Fu, 4:121122 Political representation, 3:155157 municipalities under central control, 3:211 provincial representation, 3:206, 207 village government, 3:213214 Political succession, 3:157159, 4:48 Political theory democratic ideas, 1:395396 Liang Qichao, 2:467 Three Principles of the People, 3:513514, 566567 Politicians Chen Shuibian, 1:201202 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:206208 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:206208 Deng Xiaoping, 1:406412 Jiang Zemin, 2:381384 Li Denghui, 2:458460 Li Hongzhang, 2:460463 Lin Biao, 2:486487 Mao Zedong, 2:554559 militarism, 2:591592 Song Ziwen, 3:463465 study abroad, 3:507
Wang Jingwei, 4:4850 Zhang Junmai, 4:146147 Zhou Enlai, 4:161164 Zhu De, 4:166169 Politics Beiyang clique, 1:143 cadre system, 1:159161 Chinatowns, 1:248 Chinese overseas, 1:237238 commercial elite, 1:320, 321 of death, 2:484 Democratic Progressive Party, 3:548549 diaspora, 1:250 East Asia, 2:361 economic reform, 1:454 emigration, 1:255 entrepreneurs, 1:523525 famine, 2:16 foreign loans, 2:8081 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449 Guangdong, 2:154155 Guangzhou, 2:160 Hong Kong, 2:242246 Kaohsiung, 2:403 literature, 2:504 mining, 2:603604 nationalism, 2:211212 native roots, 2:285 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 peasants, 3:78, 82 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:106107 pictorial magazines, 3:130 poetry, 3:138 Qing dynasty, 3:232233 Qing renewal, 2:206 Qing restoration, 3:234 regionalism, 3:253 rural development policy, 3:296 Russia, relations with, 3:322 Taiwan, 3:529533, 532t, 533t united front work, 4:35 Vietnam, relations with, 4:3435 villages, 3:310311 Wuhan, 4:101102 See also Army and politics Politics, women in. See Women in politics Politics of archaeology. See Archaeology, politics of Pollution air quality, 1:526527, 528 coal burning, 1:516517 electricity generation, 1:522 urban areas, 4:20 water, 1:525526 Xian, 4:106 Pollution of death, 2:483 Polo, Marco, 2:101
Polychromy, 1:57, 4:94, 95 Polygyny, 2:481 Pomfret, John, 2:367 Pond Society, 3:35 Ponosov, V. V., 3:324 Pooling, pension, 3:450, 452 Poor persons education, 1:471, 498 five guarantees, 3:308 housing, 2:249 Pop art, 1:375 Popular culture dance, 1:385386 ethnic minorities, 2:611612 fashion, 2:25 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:550552 militarism, 2:590 New Years movies, 3:3637 picture books, 1:317318 sexuality, 3:365 Westernization, 4:75 Popular education, 1:462 Popular Front, 4:123 Popular music. See Music, popular Popular religion, 3:159162 Popular sovereignty, 1:355, 2:302 Population Bai, 2:612 Beijing, 1:139140 Changsha, 1:197 city planning, 1:269 elderly, 2:10t Fujian, 2:93 Guizhou, 2:162163, 163t Hangzhou, 2:177 Harbin, 2:178179, 180 Hebei, 2:190191 Heilongjiang, 2:194 Hunan and Hubei, 2:272 Inner Mongolia, 2:324 Jilin, 2:395 Korean community in China, 2:405406 Lingnan, 2:120 Lower Yangzi macroregion, 2:119 Middle Yangzi macroregion, 2:119 migration, 2:328 Nanjing, 3:2 Ningxia, 3:4344, 44t North China, 2:118 Northeast macroregion, 2:121 Northwest China, 2:119 Qingdao, 3:236 Qinghai, 3:237, 238 racial distribution and global migration patterns, 1:258 sex ratio, 2:563t, 3:362363 Shanghai, 3:374 Sichuan, 3:397
477
Index
Population, continued Southeast Coast, 2:120 Taibei, 3:518 Tibet, 2:122 Xinjiang, 2:122 Yunnan, 4:135, 137t Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau macroregion, 2:120 Population aging birth-planning policy, 3:170 community care, 1:337 elderly, role of the, 2:10 family-based care, 3:443444 filial piety, 2:38 Taiwan, 3:538 Population control adoption, 1:6 famine, 2:16 household registration, 2:248 marriage laws, 2:565 A New Population Theory (Ma), 4:230240 one-child policy, 2:1214 sex education, 3:361 Population growth, 3:163, 165f agricultural performance, 3:300 demographic trends, 3:165166 desertification, 1:413 famine, 2:1516 Gong Zizhen, 3:249 housing, 2:251 land use, 2:427428 nineteenth century, 2:205 peasantry, 3:79 poverty, 3:170171 projections, 3:166167, 167f Qing dynasty, 2:207, 3:233 Shanghai, 4:17 Shenzhen, 3:476 urban areas, 4:12 urban employment, 4:28 urban planning, 4:2122 urbanization, 4:18 villages, 4:36 Zhejiang, 4:157 Population policy, 3:162170 autonomous regions, 3:208 sex ratio, 3:362363 See also Birth-planning policy; One-child policy Populism anarchism, 1:28 Hu Jintao, 2:257 xiafang, 4:107 Porcelain, 2:316, 317, 390, 391 Port Arthur, 2:354, 3:318 Port cities Christian universities and colleges, 1:487 foreign investment, 2:78 See also Treaty ports
Portman, John, 1:69 Ports, 3:600t infrastructure, 3:599600 Macao, 2:540541 Shanghai, 3:373374 Portugal Macau, 2:540542, 3:474 trade, 2:293294 Positivism, 2:259260 Possession ritual, 1:146 Post-Mao era. See Reform era Post-World War II era foreign trade, 2:87 Hong Kong schools, 2:239 Manchuria, 2:550 Postal Remittances and Savings Bank, 2:624 Postal services, 3:608609 Postcolonial theory, 2:225 Postcommunist transitions, 3:594596 Posters, 3:193 advertising, 1:312 Maoism, influence of, 2:321 propaganda art, 3:190, 192194 Postgraduate education, 1:495 Postmodernism art photography, 3:121 historiography, 2:225 Xu Bing, 4:117118 Postmortem succession, 3:157 Postrevolutionary Marxism, 1:232234 Potala Palace, 2:292 Potsdam Declaration, 3:76, 529 Pottinger, Henry, 2:239 Poultry, 1:125126 Poverty, 3:170175, 3:174t agricultural production, 1:15 beggars, 1:137138 elderly, 2:482483 five guarantees, 3:308 Guizhou, 2:164 hutongs, 2:279 literacy, 1:473 medical care, 2:572 private enterprise, 3:178 rural development, 3:310 rural-urban disparities, 3:316317 scientific development, 2:257 social welfare, 3:451 standard of living, 3:487, 488 urban areas, 4:20 western China, 1:450 Yunnan, 4:137 Poverty Alleviation Office, 2:584 Poverty loan program, 3:314 Poverty reduction agricultural banking, 3:314 Asian Development Bank, 2:336 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434
Gansu, 2:109 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 international development programs, 2:334 microfinancing, 2:584 migrant workers, 2:589 reform era, 3:173174 SOEs, 3:430 standard of living, 3:488 United Nations Development Programme, 2:340 World Bank, 2:341342 Power brokers. See Broker politics Precedent, legal, 1:303 Precipitation, 1:289293, 292f, 293f, 294f, 3:22 Predictions, earthquake, 1:438 Preface to Quotations by Chairman Mao, 4:252253 Prefects, 2:133, 3:207 Premiers Hua Guofeng, 2:262265 Wen Jiabao, 4:6971 Zhao Ziyang, 4:154156 Zhou Enlai, 4:161165 Zhu Rongji, 4:169171 Premortem succession, 3:157 Prenatal sex determination, 3:363 Preparatory Office of the National Central Museum, 1:58 Preretired workers, 2:189 Preservation. See Heritage protection President and vice president, offices of, 1:185186 Presidents Chen Shuibian, 1:201202 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:206208 Jian Zemin, 2:381384 Li Denghui, 2:458460 Yuan Shikai, 2:213, 4:134 Press. See Journalism Prevention epidemics, 1:533535 HIV/AIDS, 2:229230 preventive health care, 2:569 Price system, 3:175176, 4:71 Prices art market, 1:93 automobiles, 1:122123 central planning, 1:179 Chinese art, 1:108 Chongqing government, 1:427 consumer price inflation, 1:453f crops, 1:13, 3:310 domestic trade, 1:428 dual-track pricing, 1:180, 457458 grain exports, 1:425 Great Depression, 2:149150
478
Index
housing, 4:23 industrial development, 2:303 rural areas, 3:297 silver, 2:149f Primary schools. See Elementary schools Princelings, 3:427 Principal legal codes, 1:302 Principled particularism, 3:27 Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China, 2:200 Principles of the Constitution, 1:352, 354 Printing Japanese influence, 1:112113 pictorial magazines, 3:129 propaganda art, 3:193 publishing industry, 3:220221 Prison Law, 3:93 Prisoners of war, 2:407 Prisons, 1:501502, 3:380 Privacy, 3:176177 Private emigration agents, 1:254 Private enterprises, 3:177182, 179 social classes, 3:427 Wenzhou, 4:73 Zhejiang, 4:160 Private practice physicians, 2:572 Private property corruption, 1:364 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:220 socialist market economy, 3:455 Private schools, 1:497t elementary schools, 1:462 higher education, 1:485, 497 Hong Kong, 2:239 reform era, 1:500501 regulation, 1:497 sishu schools, 1:463 Private secretaries, 2:134 Privatization banking, 2:623 China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:215 domestic trade, 1:429 economic reform, 1:453 health insurance, 1:511 heavy industry, 2:189 higher education, 1:485 housing, 2:253 layoffs, 1:255 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:220 Shenyang, 3:394 state-owned enterprises, 3:495 transition economy, 3:596 urban housing, 4:2223 Privy Council, 2:132
Procedure, legal, 1:303, 305 Processed fruit industry, 1:17 A Proclamation against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi (Zeng), 4:193195 Prodemocracy movement, 3:182185, 183 Another Discussion of One Party Autocracy, 4:283284 Charter 08, 4:301304 dissidents, 1:422 Fang Lizhi, 2:21 Hong Kong, 2:243244, 3:473, 474 Hunger Strike Manifesto (Liu), 4:285287 International Labour Organization, 2:411 Liu Xiaobo, 2:521 organizations, 2:142 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219220 political pop and cynical realism, 3:153 Rights Defense movement, influence on the, 3:275 social and community organizations, 3:418 Stars painting group, 3:490 strikes, 3:501502 United States, relations with, 4:9 Zhao Ziyang, sympathy of, 4:154, 156 Producer goods, 2:313 Product branding, 1:151152 Product design, 1:319320 Product safety, 4:11 Production and Construction Corps, 3:299 Production teams, 3:302, 305 Productive-forces theory, 1:332 Productivity. See Labor productivity Professional continuing education, 1:490 Professional organizations, 1:98, 3:341342 Professionalization kindergarten teachers, 1:477478 military, 2:598 sports, 3:482 Western medicine, 2:579, 580 Profits, unit, 4:2 Programme of the United Opposition, 3:614615 Project Hope, 1:475 Projections, population growth, 3:166167, 167f Proletarian consciousness, 1:222 Pronatalism, 3:298
Pronunciation, 1:415, 2:458 Propaganda, 3:185188, 186 Bai Hua, 1:129 censorship, 1:173 education policy, 1:469 film, 2:51 international influence, 2:322323 journalism, 2:399 nationalism, 3:12 plays, 3:133134 Xiao Qian, 4:109 Zhou Yang, 4:166 Propaganda art, 3:186, 188197, 191, 193, 195 folk art, 2:60 graphic arts, 1:105 Luo Gongliu, 2:536537 Maoist art, 2:321322 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Propaganda Department cultural policy, 1:369370 on the Little Red Book, 1:375 newspapers, 2:399400 Propaganda music, 2:642647, 648 Propaganda photography, 3:125127, 126 Property rights civil law, 1:305 companies, 1:340 marriage laws, 2:565 peasantry, 3:81 reform era, 2:442443 rural development, 3:313 socialist market economy, 3:455 township and village enterprises, 3:592, 593 Prosecution corruption, 1:366 Law of Criminal Procedure, 3:92 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:380 Prostitution, 3:197201, 329330, 4:81, 85 Protestantism, 3:201204, 203 missionaries, 2:577, 614617 secret police activities against, 3:143 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:568 Provinces food-for-work scheme, 3:434 pension pooling, 3:450, 452 provincial map, 3:205 Provincial and subprovincial government, 3:204216 administration, 2:133134 administrative code, 1:303 assemblies, 1:352, 503504 budgetary and economicdevelopment autonomy, 2:187
479
Index
Provincial and subprovincial government, continued build-operate-transfer contracts, 1:156157 central-local relationships, 1:190192 Chengdu, 1:204 development zones, 4:24 environmental issues, 1:530 federalism, 2:2728 fiscal relations, 1:455456, 3:554555 heavy industry, 2:187 Hebei, 2:190 Hong Kong, 2:238, 244246 Jiangsu, 2:385 law courts, 2:438439 Peoples Communes, 3:303304 public finance, 3:216220 structure, 1:186188 Taiping Uprising, 2:207208 township and village enterprises, 3:592 urban-rural relations, 4:1718 Wuhan, 4:102 Yangzhou, 4:128 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150151 See also Central-local relationships Provisional Action Committee, 3:152 Provisional Constitution for the Tutelage Period, 1:355 Provisional Regulation on the Management of Outbound Travel by Chinese Citizens at Their Expense, 3:589 Provisional Regulations on Foreign Investment Build-Operate-Transfer Projects, 1:157 Pu Xinyu, 1:110 Public archives. See Archives, public Public art. See Sculpture and public art Public audiences, 2:129 Public education footbinding, 2:6566 funding, 1:498t girls, 1:465, 493 Public finance, 3:216220, 217f, 384 Public health air quality, 1:526527 avian influenza, 1:125126 diet, 2:65 epidemics, 1:533535 HIV/AIDS, 2:226, 229230 missionary medicine, 2:183 Republican era, 2:185 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 3:360361 Public housing, 2:251253, 4:2223 Public Interest Party. See China Zhigong Party
Public libraries, 2:474 Public-private partnerships, 1:156157 Public property, 1:364 Public Record Office, London, 1:7273 Public sector employers, 2:253 Public sphere, 1:270 Public squares, 2:113 Public utilities, 1:156157 Publications, official, 2:130131 Publications, scientific, 3:337 Publishers Association of China, 3:222 Publishing, 3:220225, 223 cuisine, 2:64 Deng Shi, 1:113114 encyclopedias, 1:511 graphic arts, 1:315317 literary societies, 2:499 lithography and modern printing, 2:508509 local gazetteers, 2:523 Major, Ernest, 2:543544 Meilidao Incident, 2:403 pictorial magazines, 3:129131 picture books, 1:317318 propaganda, 3:187 qigong, 3:230 Shao Xunmei, 3:387388 textbooks, 1:467, 468469 woodblock printing, 4:9396 Yang Shenxiu, 2:402 Puccini, Giacomo, 2:639 Pudong, 1:66, 268 Punishment civil law, 1:305 codified law, 1:304 criminal law, 2:444445 lineage, 2:493 penal system, 3:8994 for rape, 3:244 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:380 slavery as, 3:359 xiafang, 4:107 Puppet governments, 1:3738 Purchasing quotas, 1:428 Pure Land school, 1:154 Purges art world, 1:115 Fan Changjiang, 2:20 Hu Yaobang, 2:261 Red Guards, 3:246 See also Anti-rightist campaign Putin, Vladimir, 3:321 Putonghua. See Modern Standard Chinese Putonghua, 2:432433 Puyi, 1:508 Anti-Japanese War, 4:64 diet, 2:62
emperors, 1:509 Forbidden City, 2:6768 Manchukuo, 2:545546, 546 Wang Guowei, support of, 4:48
Q
Qamdo, 3:576 Qi cosmology, 1:366367 fengshui, 2:33 Qi Baishi calligraphy, 1:165 Chinese ink painting, 1:106 Chinese painting, 1:263264, 264 epigraphic school, 2:464 Japanese influence, 1:112 Li Keran, association with, 2:464 Parish art exhibition, 4:116 Shanghai influence, 1:102 Wu Changshi, influence of, 1:103 Qi Jiguang, 2:591 Qi Kang, 2:629 Qi Lei, 2:47 Qi Rushan, 2:581, 3:87 Qian Binghe, 1:314 Qian Huian, 1:114 Qian Juntao graphic arts, 1:105, 316 Japanese influence, 1:112 Qian Mu, 1:279, 350, 2:224 Qian Qichen, 2:362 Qian Shoutie, 2:319 Qian Songling, 2:464 Qian Songyan, 1:264 Qian Xiaodai, 1:318 Qian Xingcun, 2:446 Qian Xuantong, 1:197 Qian Xuesen, 3:470 Qian Zhongshu, 3:227229 Qianlong antiquarianism, 1:42 archives, 1:71 art collection, 1:306307 British trade demands, rejection of, 2:348 Forbidden City, 2:289290 Heshen, association with, 2:205 library, 4:93 militarism, 2:591 opera, 3:86 rural prosperity, 3:232 White Lotus Rebellion, 4:76 Qiantang River, 4:156 Qianzhuang, 2:621622, 624 Qiao Guanhua, 2:345 Qiaojuan, 1:238, 260 Qiaowu, 1:238239 Qigong, 2:13, 3:229231, 230, 249
480
Index
Qijin Island. See Cijin Island Qin Benli, 1:174 Qin dynasty, 1:49 Qin Hui, 1:227, 288 Qin Shi Huangdi, 3:220, 4:105 Qin Shihuang, 1:327 Qin Shouou, 2:552, 3:134 Qin Zihao, 3:138 Qing, 2:528529 Qing, Prince Cixi, association with, 1:276 Commission for Army Reorganization, 4:61 education, 4:152 Qing Bang, 4:98 Qing Code customary law, 1:376377 domestic violence, 1:430 land tenure, 2:423 legal training and the legal profession, 2:450 marriage, 2:564 penal system, 3:8990 poverty, 3:172 religious policies, 3:257 Qing court, 3:271272 Qing dynasty, 3:231233 antiquarianism, 1:42 archives, 1:7071 Beijing, 1:141 Boxer Uprising, 1:146148 Buddhism, 1:154 Chinese overseas, relations with, 1:237 civil law, 1:305 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:273276 classical scholarship, 1:276280 codified law, 1:302304 compradors, 1:345346 constitutions, 1:354 cosmology, 1:367 dance, 1:383384 defense, 1:390393 domestic trade, 1:423425 East India Company, 1:442 education reform, 1:464 emigration policy, 1:236, 239 examination system, 1:539542 famine prevention and relief, 2:17 Feng Guifen, 2:31 foreign debt, 2:622 foreign loans, 2:7980 foreign trade, 2:8486 funerals, 2:483484 furniture, 2:97, 100 geographic regions, 2:117 Gong Zizhen, 2:126127 government administration, 2:128136
Hainan, 2:167 health care, 2:182184 Hebei, 2:191 historiography, 2:221222 history overview, 2:205208 Hundred Days Reform, 2:275276 imperial collections, 1:306307 international relations, 2:348351 land tenure, 2:423425 land use, 2:427428 language policy, 2:431 Liuqiu Islands, 2:522 militarism, 2:591 military culture and tradition, 2:597598 militias, 2:601 money and banking, 2:621623 money and monetary policy, 2:624626, 626t Muslim uprisings, 2:106108, 651653 Muslims, policy toward, 2:370 nationalism, 3:10 newspapers, 3:3738 official history of, 2:222223 opium smuggling, 3:414415 Opium Wars, 3:6063 peasantry, 3:7678 penal system, 3:8991 police, 3:139140 political culture, 3:146148 poverty, 3:171172 prostitution, 3:197198 publishing industry, 3:221 Qinghai, 3:237 rape, 3:244 regionalism, 3:252253 salt, 3:330332 scramble for concessions, 3:344345 servile statuses, 3:356359 sex ratio, 3:362 socialization and pedagogy, 3:457458 standard of living, 3:485 state cult, 3:491493 study abroad, 3:507 Taiwan, 3:527528 taxation and fiscal policies, 3:551553 tea, 3:557558 teacher education, 3:559 textiles, 3:563564 Tibet, 3:574575 treaty port system, 2:294 urban employment, 4:2728 Wang Guowei, loyalty of, 4:48 wars, 4:6263 Xinjiang, conquest of, 4:111112 Yuan Shikai, betrayal by, 4:132133
Zhejiang, 4:157 See also Late Qing dynasty Qing dynasty, wars and the military during the, 4:5962 Qing dynasty reforms, 3:247252 banking, 2:622623 Changsha, 1:196 commercial elite, 1:321 customary law, 1:376 imperialism, as reaction to, 3:10 legal reform, 2:450 Liang Qichao, 2:467 physical education, 3:127128 public finance, 3:216 Tibet, 3:575 Qing restoration, 3:233235 Essays on Qing Imperial Statecraft (He), 2:206 Self-strengthening, 3:250 Shen Baozhen, 3:388389 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Qingcheng zhi lian (Chang), 1:193 Qingdai tongshi (Xiao), 2:222 Qingdao, 1:150, 2:397, 3:235237 Qinghai, 3:237240, 238, 239 Qingming, 2:486 Qingming (periodical), 1:315 Qingming Festival, 2:8, 35 Qingyi Garden, 2:291 Qingyun ge (anthem), 3:6 Qiongzhou. See Hainan Qipao, 1:150, 2:2324, 25, 3:462 Qishan, 2:145, 4:67 Qiu Chun, 2:167 Qiu Di, 1:104, 2:619 Qiu Jin, 1:493, 3:240241, 4:87 Qiu Ling, 1:317 Qiu Ti, 3:74, 4:90, 91, 92 Qiye jituan. See Enterprise groups Qiying, 3:249 Qu Leilei, 3:491 Qu Qiubai Bolshevik Communism, 1:334 Comintern, 1:310 Deng Xiaoping, work with, 1:407 Latinxua script, 2:431 League of Left-Wing Writers, 2:446, 447, 499, 4:165 propaganda art, 3:189 propaganda music, 2:644 prostitution, 3:198 revolutionary theories, 1:336 social sciences, 3:439 socialist realism, 3:456 Xiang Zhongfa, replacement by, 1:325 Qu Xiaosong, 2:639, 3:550 Qu Yuan, 2:36
481
Index
Quality of life, 3:433 Quality standards in welfare institutions, 3:445 Quan Shanshi, 3:49 Quanxue pian, 1:348 Quanzhen Daoists, 1:387388 Queen Mary Hospital, 3:609 Quemoy, 3:547 Queue (hairstyle), 1:298, 300, 2:169171 Qunyan (periodical), 1:404 Quotations from Chairman Mao Tsetung, 1:375
R
Race Hakkas, 2:173 Indonesia, 1:235 racial distribution and global migration patterns, 1:258 See also Minority nationalities Rachmaninoff, Sergei, 2:647, 648 Racial identity, 2:283 Radek, Karl, 1:206 Radical left, 1:327 Radio, 3:187, 3:243244 Radio Corporation of China, 3:243 Raffarin, Jean-Pierre, 2:92 Railway Construction Corps, 3:113 Railways, 3:605 domestic trade, 1:425, 426 foreign loans, 2:80 Fuzhou, 2:102 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 Harbin, 2:178 Hebei, 2:191 industrialization, 2:313314 infrastructure, 3:603606 Jiangsu, 2:388 Jiangxi, 2:390 Jinan, 2:397 Lhasa, 3:576 Manchuria, 2:550 migration, 2:328329 Nanjing, 3:1 Northeast macroregion, 2:121 Shaanxi, 3:369 Shenyang, 3:392 Sichuan, 3:399 Sino-Japanese War, concessions after the, 3:407 Tibet, 3:578 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Raise the Red Lantern (film), 1:125, 3:387, 4:148149 Rammed dry earth, 1:64 Ranks, military, 3:109110, 109t, 110t Rao Shushi, 1:408, 2:58
Rape, 3:244245 Rape of Nanjing (Nanking). See Nanjing massacre; Anti-Japanese War Rapid economic development art history, 1:108 art in Taiwan, 1:110 Chengdu, 1:205 farmers, 3:316 Fujian, 2:95 Guangzhou, 2:161 household registration, 2:247 income, 2:299 Hong Kong, 2:236 return of overseas students, 1:255 social welfare, 3:441 Suzhou, 3:515 Taiwan, 3:531 township and village enterprises, 3:312 townships, 3:212 Wuhan, 4:103 Zhejiang, 4:160 Rapid industrialization Gansu, 2:109 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:217 Taiwan, 3:536 Rashidin Khwaja, 2:653 Ratepayers, 3:380 Rationalist style, 3:35 Rea, George Bronson, 2:399 Readers, 1:467 Reagan, Ronald, 4:9 Real estate foreign investment, 2:79 hutongs, 2:279280 management, 4:2526 Realism, 2:255 Realpolitik Chinese Marxism, 1:233 Pakistan, relations with, 3:65 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:413 Rebellions classical scholarship, 1:278 coolie trade, 1:244 Guizhou, 2:162 Li people of Hainan province, 2:178 Muslim, 2:370 Nian Uprising, 3:4041 nineteenth century, 2:206 peasantry, 3:78, 79 Qing dynasty, 2:207 religious organizations, 3:255, 256 Wuhan, 4:101102 Recapitalization programs, 1:135 Receiving countries, 2:420423 Recentralization, 1:452453
Recidivism rate, 1:502 Recognized religions, 3:259 Reconstruction era, 2:239, 4:159 Record keeping, 2:130131 Records. See Gramophones and records Recreational theme parks, 3:582 Recruitment Chinese Communist Party and Nationalists, 2:140 coolie trade, 1:243 industrial workers, 4:97 international students, 2:362363 militias, 2:601 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:9697 Qing dynasty military, 2:598 Rectification campaign Anti-Japanese War, as sole achievement of the, 1:331 army commanders, 1:79 Chinese Communist Party, 1:325 Hu Feng, 2:255 Yanan, 4:123 Zhao Ziyang, 4:154155 Zhou Enlai, 4:162 Zhu De, 4:168169 Red Army history, 2:596, 3:104 military culture and tradition, 2:600 military regions, 3:99 Nanchang military uprising, 1:324 Peoples Republic of China, 3:102 recruitment, 2:140 Twenty-eight Bolsheviks, 1:325 Zhu De, 4:167, 169 Red-Color News Soldier, 3:124 Red Cross, 4:57 Red Guards, 2:218, 592, 3:246247 art products, 3:196197 class, 1:226 Communist Youth League, 1:337 Cultural Revolution, 1:374, 375 Little Red Book, 1:375 Mao Zedong, 2:557 memoirs, 2:367 organization, 1:327 prodemocracy movement, 3:184 rustic realism, 3:325 sent-down educated youth, 3:163, 352 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 xiafang, 4:107 The Red Lantern (film), 2:41 The Red Poppy (ballet), 1:384 Red scare, 3:417 Red Sorghum (film, Mo), 2:43, 4:148149 Red Sorghum (Mo), 2:617 Red Star over China (Snow), 3:416417
482
Index
Red tourism, 2:393, 3:580, 585 Red Turban Uprising, 4:76 Redemptive societies, 3:160161 Reeducation, 3:92 Reeling, 3:401402 Reemployment centers, 2:420 Reference dictionaries, 2:458 Refining capacity, 1:518 Reflections on the Chinese Communist Party, 4:284285 Reforestation, 1:23, 527, 3:2425 Reform banking, 2:622624 beggars, 1:138139 Boxer Uprising, 1:148 Deng Xiaoping, 1:409410 health care, 2:572573 Henan, 2:199 household registration, 2:247248 Hundred Days Reform, 2:210 Kang Youwei, 2:401402 Korean relations, 2:404 New Policies, 2:210211 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219220 Qing dynasty, 2:206 queue (hairstyle), 2:169170 religious, 3:256 Revolution of 1911, 2:212 rural health care, 3:295 Self-strengthening movement, 2:210 unit, 4:2 weights and measures, 4:68 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 See also Economic reform; Qing dynasty reforms Reform and opening. See Reform era Reform era All-China Womens Federation, 1:2728 Chen Yun, 1:203204 Chengdu, 1:205 city and regional planning, 1:268 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 Forbidden City, 2:71 Fujian, 2:95 Fuzhou, 2:102 Gansu, 2:109 Guangdong migration, 2:154 Guangxi, 2:158159 Jinan, 2:397 Nanjing, 3:23 party history, revision of, 1:332 Shaanxi, 3:369 Suzhou, 3:515 Wenzhou, 4:7273 Western interpretation, 2:367 Yangzhou, 4:128 Zhejiang, 4:160 Zhou Enlai, 4:164
Reform era criminal justice system death penalty, 1:390 penal system, 3:9293 Reform era culture archaeology, 1:5051 architecture, 1:6869 art, 1:109 art history, 1:107109 art policy, 1:116 clothing, 1:301 consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 cultural policy, 1:370371 documentary photography, 3:124 fashion, 2:2425 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 film, 2:4142 folk art, 2:60 hairstyles, 2:171172 leisure, 2:454455 misty poetry, 3:138139 modern poetry, 3:138 nationalism, 3:1213 opera, 3:88 popular music, 2:640641 popular religion, 3:161 publishing industry, 3:222224 sports figures, 3:483484 women artists, 4:9293 Reform era education policy education costs, 1:497500 education policy, 1:470471 higher education, 1:483486 private schools, 1:500501 teacher education, 3:286287, 802803 Reform era foreign relations East Central European states, 1:440441 foreign policy, 2:83 Russia, relations with, 3:320322 Sino-Soviet schism, alleviation of the, 3:413 Reform era government and politics central-local relationships, 1:190192 corruption, 1:364366 democratic centralism and the mass line, 1:229 democratic parties, 1:401 government-organized nongovernmental organizations, 2:142 mass movements, 1:232 nationalism, 3:1213 political control, 3:144146 political culture, 3:150151 political succession, 3:158159 women in politics, 4:8990
Reform era health policy medical care, 2:570574 rural cooperative medical systems, 3:295 sex education, 3:361362 Reform era land policy land tenure, 2:426 land use, 2:430 Reform era law, 2:442445 Reform era military policy army and politics, 1:7980 Central Military Commission, 1:190 military enterprises, 3:114115 Reform era religious policy Catholicism, 1:172 popular religion, 3:161 Protestantism, 3:203204 Reform era science policy research organizations, 3:271 science and technology policy, 3:336341 scientific exchanges, 3:343344 social sciences, 3:439440 Reform era social policy Chinese overseas, 1:240 civil society, 1:270271 class, 1:226 diaspora and homeland, 1:252 domestic violence, 1:432433 elite, 3:428 feudalism, 1:228 gender relations, 2:117 gender roles, 4:38 housing, 2:252253 marriage laws, 2:564 migration, 2:330 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 peasantry, 3:81 peasants, 3:83 poverty, 3:173174 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:646 prostitution, 3:200 sex education, 3:361362 social policy programs, 3:430432 social welfare, 3:450453 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:569570 urban planning, 4:2122 urbanization, 4:1920 women, employment of, 4:8182 women, status of, 4:8486 Reform-through-education, 2:270 Reform through labor, 1:501502, 3:92 Reform with losers, 1:131 Reform without losers, 1:130131, 133134
483
Index
Reformers intellectuals, 1:283 Liang Qichao, 2:467468 Richard, Timothy, 3:273274 Shen Baozhen, 3:388389 Zhang Zhidong, 4:149152 Refugees artists, 1:110 civil war, 4:66 Guangxi, 2:158 Hong Kong, 2:236 Shanghai, 3:375 Tibetan, 3:578 See also Jewish communities and refugees Regional administration, 1:178 Regional armies, 2:598 Regional development alliances, 1:268 Regional development banks, 2:332 Regional differences access to medical care, 2:580 Chinese painting, 1:261262 climate, 1:289 dialects, 1:415417 economic development, 1:446449 economic reform, 1:452 education, 1:471472 financial markets, 2:54 income, 2:297 industrial policy, 2:309310 industrialization, 2:314 irrigation and water resources management, 2:367368 migrant workers, 2:588 peasant society, 3:77 provincial government, 3:206 rural areas, 3:316 rural development, 3:310 service sector, 3:355 shares of national totals, 1:448t social classes, 3:426 social policy programs, 3:431 standard of living, 3:487, 488 state-owned enterprises, 3:495 township and village enterprises, 3:315 Regional issues archaeology, 1:5455 HIV/AIDS cases, 2:226227 nationalism, 3:13 regional planning, 1:267269 rural development, 3:316 villages, 4:38 warlord era, 4:5859 Regional operas. See Peking Opera and regional operas Regionalism, 3:252254 architecture, 1:63, 6465 companies, 1:340
industrial policy, 2:309310 Qing dynasty, 2:208 Regions. See Geographic regions Registration private enterprises, 3:180 social and community organizations, 3:418 Registration, household. See Household registration Regulation for Foreign Participation in Archaeological Work, 1:50 Regulation on the Import and Export of Endangered Species, 1:513 Regulations advertising and product quality, 1:429 anticorruption, 1:366 banking, 1:132, 133 Buddhism, 1:156 Chinese medicine, 2:175 consumer protection agencies, 1:360 education, 1:495496 emigration, 1:254 endangered species protection, 1:512514 environmental issues, 1:528531 financial, 2:5556 industrial policy, 2:310 Korean War, 2:408 publishing industry, 3:222223 township and village enterprises, 3:316 Regulations for the Operation of Schools Run by Social Forces, 1:500501 Regulations on Teacher Qualifications, 3:560 Regulations on the Protection of Rare Animals and Plants, 1:512 Rehabilitation Chen Duxiu, 1:198 Liu Shaoqi, 2:520 Pan Tianshou, 3:71 reform through labor, 1:501502 Reinvestment, foreign, 2:7677 Reiss, Ludwig, 3:410 Relief work. See Disaster relief Religion anti-Christian/anti-missionary sentiment, 1:34 autonomous regions, 3:208 Bai, 2:612 classification, 3:259 diaspora and homeland, 1:253 Fujian, 2:97 healers, 2:183 Henan, 2:196197 human rights issues, 2:270 Mosuo and Naxi, 2:613
political control, 3:146 rituals, 2:7, 8 state cult, 3:492 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:567570 villages, 4:3637, 38 White Lotus, 4:7677 See also Specific religions Religion, popular, 3:159162 Religious Affairs Bureau, 3:161 Religious dance, 1:386 Religious organizations, 3:254257, 255 Religious persecution, 3:202 Religious policy, 3:158162, 257260 Religious revival, 3:161162 Religious schools, 2:239 Religious specialists, 3:260262 Remittances Chinatowns, 1:248 Chinese overseas, 1:235, 236 Guangdong, 2:154 interprovincial, 2:621 migrant workers, 2:589 sending areas, 1:241 Ren, 2:630 Ren Bonian, 4:55 Ren Guang, 2:548 Ren Jian, 3:35 Ren Jinshu, 3:264 Ren Jiyu, 1:228 Ren Qingtai, 2:38 Ren Wanding, 1:395, 3:138 Ren Xia, 4:91 Ren Xiong, 3:262264, 263 Chinese painting, 1:262 Shanghai school of painting, 1:101, 3:383 Ren Xun Chinese painting, 1:262 Ren Yi, influence on, 3:264, 265 Shanghai school of painting, 1:101 Ren Yi, 3:264265 Chinese painting, 1:262 Shanghai school of painting, 1:101, 3:383 Wu Changshi, study with, 4:98 Ren zhi chu (periodical), 3:361362 Renaissance movement, 2:2122 Renewable energy, 1:520521 Renmin de daonian, 3:124 Renmin huabao, 3:119 Renmin Ribao (newspaper), 2:20, 3:39 Renminbi (RMB), 2:339 Renshan. See Yang Wenhui Rent dual-track pricing, 1:458 housing, 2:251, 4:22
484
Index
land tenure, 2:425 land use, 2:428 Reparations, 2:373, 3:76 Repin, Ilya, 1:118 Report on an Investigation into the Peasant Movement in Hunan (Mao), 3:80, 82 Report on Secondary Education Structure Reform, 4:41 Reporters without Borders, 2:364 Reporting, rape, 3:245 Republic of China. See Taiwan Republican era archaeology, 1:54 army and politics, 1:7879 Cao Yu, writing of, 1:168169 China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:215 Chinese overseas, relations with, 1:237 Chinese painting, 1:263 civil law, 1:305 civil society, 1:269 clothing, 1:300 codified law, 1:304 constitutionalism, 1:353 constitutions, 1:354 copper and silver, 1:361 county government, 3:209 customary law, 1:376377 domestic trade, 1:425426 employment of women, 4:8081 encyclopedias, 1:512 Forbidden City, 2:6768 geographic regions, 2:117118 government administration, 2:138141 Guangzhou, 2:160 hairstyles, 2:171 health care, 2:184185 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350 Hebei, 2:191 historiography, 2:222223 history, 2:213216 housing, 2:251 individual rights, 2:302 intellectuals, 1:283284 land tenure, 2:425 land use, 2:428 law courts, 2:438439 legal training and the legal profession, 2:450451 leisure, 2:452 liberalism, 2:472473 literature, 2:504505 marriage laws, 2:564 militarism, 2:591592 money and banking, 2:623 money and monetary policy, 2:626627
national flag and anthem, 3:6 nationalism, 3:1011 newspapers, 3:3839 Ningxia, 3:43 parliaments, 1:503504 peasantry, 3:79 penal system, 3:91 Peoples Republic of China era education compared to, 1:468 photography, 3:119 pictorial magazines, 3:130 picture books, 1:317 political culture, 3:149 political parties, 3:151153 popular music, 2:640 poverty, 3:172 prostitution, 3:198 public finance, 3:216 publishing industry, 3:221 Qing dynasty legacy, 2:212 radio, 3:243244 religious policy, 3:259 servile statuses, 3:359 Shanxi, 3:385 shops, 3:395396 social classes, 3:423424 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 sports, 3:480 student organizations and activism, 3:504506 textbooks and moral education, 1:467468 Tibet, 3:575576 urban design, 4:1314 urbanization, 4:1718 wars, 4:64 women artists, 4:9091 Xinjiang, 4:112113 Republican Readers, 1:467 Republicanism, 4:133134 Reputation, right of, 3:177 Research archaeology, 1:51 medical, 2:579 natural resources surveys, 3:23 nuclear fusion, 1:521 Research and development, 3:434t agricultural production, 1:15, 16 armaments, 1:76 high technology, 2:202205 science and technology policy, 3:336341 Research in engineering, 3:265266 Research in the sciences, 3:267269, 268 Research institutes Academia Sinica, 1:12, 3 cultural projects, 1:370 engineering, 3:265 Germany, cooperation with, 2:124
Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 historiography, 2:223 science and technology policy, 3:337, 338, 341 social sciences, 3:438 Wuhan, 4:103 Xian, 4:106 Research organizations, 3:269271 Resident committees, 3:214215 Residential welfare institutions, 3:444445 Resolution 687, United Nations, 4:9 Resolution 1668, 3:542 Resolution on the Construction of Socialist Spiritual Civilization, 2:383 Resolution on the National Revolutionary Movement, 1:310 Resolutions on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of China, 1:331, 375376, 3:117, 4:276277 Resource allocation, 1:449, 2:247248 Resources Saving Society and Environment Friend Society, 3:287 The Responsibilities of Chinas Youth (Chiang), 4:211214 Restaurants, 1:460, 2:6263, 64 Reston, James, 1:5 Restoration, Forbidden City, 2:71 Restructuring. See Economic restructuring Retail sector domestic trade, 1:429 local government finance, 3:220 Nanjing Road, 3:375 shops, 3:334397, 394397 Sincere Department Store, 3:403405 tourism, 3:583584 Retirement cadres, 1:160 Chinese Communist Party leadership, 3:158, 159 family, 2:10 pensions, 3:447 Returned overseas Chinese, 1:260261 Returned students archaeology, 1:51 intellectuals, 1:283 militarism, 2:591 musicians, 2:643 physicians, 2:579 percentage of students abroad that return, 3:508 prominent leaders, 3:507 social sciences, 3:438 Zhou Enlai, 4:162
485
Index
Reunification, 3:474, 544, 4:291293, 300301 Reunification proposal, 2:8384 Revenue. See Taxation Reversal of verdicts, 2:264265, 278, 3:571 Reverse-glass pictures, 2:318 Reverse migration, 2:330 Reverse urbanization, 4:29 Revisionism Liu Shaoqi, 2:520 propaganda art, 3:190 sent-down educated youth, 3:353 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:413 Soviet revisionism, 2:557 Revitalization Chinatowns, 1:249250 Shanghai, 3:376 Revolution of 1911, 3:271273 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:208 Nanjing, 3:1 nationalism, 3:10 New Army, 4:62 queue (hairstyle), 2:170171 Sun Yat-sen, 3:512 Wuchang and Hankou as birthplace of, 2:272 Revolutionaries anarchism, 1:2829 artists, 3:49 Boxer Uprising, 1:148 democratic ideas, 1:396 fashion, 2:24 gender relations, 2:116 Henan, 2:198 intellectuals, 1:283 Jiangxi, 2:393 Mao Zedong thought, 1:221222 Maoist art, 2:321 Maoist propaganda, influence of, 2:322323 militarism, 2:591 music, 2:643 nationalism, 2:352 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 queue (hairstyle), 2:169171 Shaanxi, 3:368 social classes, 3:429 Sun Yat-sen, 3:510 women, 4:87 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124 Revolutionary Alliance, 3:151, 454, 4:4849 Revolutionary Army Tract, 4:205208 Revolutionary art, 1:9596 Revolutionary Committee of the Nationalist Party, 1:405 Revolutionary committees, 3:156
Revolutionary literature, 2:446447, 504 Revolutionary movements Changsha, 1:195, 196 cult of Mao, 3:115117 determinants, 3:421422 Mao Zedong, influence of, 2:558 political culture, 3:149 Revolutionary music. See Music, propaganda and mass mobilization Revolutionary romanticism film, 2:40 socialist realism vs., 3:457 Zhou Yang, 4:166 Revolutionary songs, 2:640 Revolutionary thought, 2:212 origins, 1:335336 Qing dynasty legacy, 2:212 Revolutionary Army Tract, 4:205208 Three Principles of the People, 4:209210 Rey Chow, 4:148 Rhetorical doctrine, 3:111 Riazanovskii, V. A., 3:324 Ribbon dance, 1:383 Ricci, Matteo, 1:170, 3:221 Rice, 2:429 agricultural production, 1:15, 18 Jiangsu, 2:385 transport, 1:213 Rice, Condoleezza, 2:540 Rice, Edward, 1:213 Richard, Timothy, 3:273274 famine relief, 2:17 journalism, 2:398 Shanxi, 3:385 Zhang Zhidong, influence on, 4:150 Richthofen, Ferdinand von, 2:164 Rickshaw pullers, 2:61 Ridgway, Matthew, 2:407 Right of reputation, 3:177 Rights, mineral, 2:603 Rights Defense movement, 3:274276 Rights-recovery movement, 2:352 Riis, Jacob, 3:122 Rio Conference of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1:532 Rishengchang Piaohao, 2:621 Risk pooling, 1:510 Rites Controversy, 1:170 Rites of Zhou, 4:13 Ritual orthopraxy, 3:257 Rituals Chinese identity, 2:284 cosmology, 1:367
cult of Mao, 3:115 death and funerals, 2:483486 family, 2:78 locust plagues, 2:524 Naxi, 2:613 purity, 3:261 religious, 3:254255 social, 3:435437 state cult, 3:491493 River commissions, 3:284285 River control, 2:17 River Elegy (television series), 3:13 River systems, 3:276287, 3:517 Roads, 1:450, 2:102, 3:607608 Roberts, Issachar Jacox, 3:521, 522, 524 Robinson, Joan, 4:5 Robles, Dayron, 3:483 Roche, Henri-Pierre, 1:195 Rock music, 1:368, 2:47, 641, 642 Rockefeller Foundation, 2:184185, 579, 3:438 Rodchenko, Alexander, 3:125 Rodin, Auguste, 3:348 Roh Tae-woo, 1:39 Romanization systems, 2:232 Romantic love, 2:529530 Romanticism, 4:123124 Rong Desheng, 3:288, 289 Rong Hong, 3:507 Rong Yiren, 1:186, 3:289 Rong Zongjing, 3:287290 Rongbaozhai, 4:94 Ronglu, 1:276 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 2:353 Cairo Conference, 2:353354, 3:538 Flying Tigers, 1:37 Nationalist government, relations with the, 3:16 Silver Purchase Policy, 1:362 Stilwell, Joseph, recall of, 3:499, 500, 4:123 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Roosevelt, Theodore, 3:274 Root-searching literature, 2:380, 506, 3:290291, 392 Root-seeking music, 2:648 Rothstein, Arthur, 3:122 Rou Shi, 3:42 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 2:126 Routine System, 2:129130 Royal chinoiserie, 2:316, 317 Royalties, 3:224 Ru Zhijuan, 4:4546 Ruan Lingyu, 3:291292
486
Index
Ruan Lingyu (film), 3:292 Ruan Yuan, 3:292293 academies, 1:23 art history, 1:86 beixue theory, 1:535 calligraphy, 1:100, 164165 classical scholarship, 1:278, 279 Guangzhou, 2:160 opium legalization, 3:249 woodblock printing, 4:93 Xuehaitang, founding of the, 3:248 Yangzhou, 4:127 Rudd, Kevin, 1:120 Rule of Avoidance, 2:133 Runners, 2:135 Runoff, 3:283 Rural areas Catholicism, 1:170 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328329 documentary photography, 3:122 economic reform, 1:453454 education, 1:469, 471t, 473476, 474, 3:429 elderly, 2:9, 482483 electricity, 1:522 family-based care, 3:443 folk art, 2:59 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 funerals, 2:486 gender relations, 2:115 gender roles, 4:38 government administration, 2:134 hairstyles, 2:172 handicrafts, 2:176 health care, 2:185, 3:80 household income, 1:444f housing, 2:252, 253 land use, 2:430 leisure, 2:455 light industry, 3:164 marriage, 2:562 mass education, 1:456 mass movements, 1:231 medical care, 2:569570, 570571, 3:447 military recruitment, 2:140 music, 2:643 nationalism, 3:12 one-child policy, 3:168, 169, 4:130 peasantry, 3:7678 poverty, 1:444f, 3:171173, 174t, 451 private enterprise, 3:177181 propaganda art, 3:189 public finance, 3:219220 reverse urbanization, 4:29 rustic realism, 3:324325 scientific development, 2:257 sent-down educated youth, 3:352353
sex education, 3:361 sishu schools, 1:463 social and community organizations, 3:419420 social classes, 3:423, 424425, 425426 social policy programs, 3:430 social welfare, 3:452 standard of living, 3:487 taxation, 3:556 teacher education, 3:561 transformed tractors, 1:123 unemployment, 2:418 urban migration, 2:587590 village government, 3:213214 Western medicine, 2:580 women, status of, 4:84 xiafang, 4:107 Xinjiang, 4:113 Zhao Yang, fiction of, 4:154 See also Peasantry; Peasants Rural basic education, 2:287288 Rural Compulsory Education Assured Funding Mechanism, 1:475 Rural cooperative medical systems, 3:294295 medical care, 2:569571 reform era, 3:308 social policy programs, 3:432 social welfare, 3:442 Rural credit cooperatives (RCCs), 2:584 Rural credit foundations, 3:355 Rural development, 3:295309, 309318, 311 economic reform, 1:443 migrant workers, 2:589 private enterprises, 3:177181 social classes, 3:426 Rural reform folk art, 2:58 peasantry, 3:81 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219 Shandong, 3:373 three rural issues, 3:316317 Rural townships, 3:212 Rural-urban divide access to medical care, 2:580 anti-epidemic policy and control, 1:534 economic development, 1:444 education, 1:471472, 473 elderly, care for the, 3:447 funerals, 2:486 government, local, 4:1718 health insurance, 2:570 household registration, 2:247 income, 2:297299 Mao era, 4:12
medical care, 3:294 medical care for the aged, 3:447 medical care spending, 2:569 medical outcomes, 2:572 migration, 4:18 peasantry, 3:81 reform period, 4:19 social classes, 3:424425 social policy programs, 3:431 social welfare, 3:452 standard of living, 3:487, 488 unemployment, 2:418 United Nations Development Programme Report, 1:451 women, status of, 4:85 Rural-urban relations class, 1:225 Mao Zedong thought, 1:222, 223 trade, 1:428 villages, 4:35 Rushdie, Salman, 2:449 Russell and Company, 1:213 Russia, 3:318322, 319 archives, 1:73 Central Asian states, relations with, 1:176 extraterritoriality, 1:543 NATO and the East Central European states, 1:441 Northeast macroregion railways, 2:121 Qing dynasty, 3:232 scramble for concessions, 3:344 sinology, 3:410 treaties and territorial concessions, 2:206207, 349 See also Soviet Union Russian civil war, 3:322323 Russian emigres, 3:322324 Russian expansionism Manchuria, 2:194, 547548 Sino-Japanese War, 3:406408 Yili, 4:174 Russian explorers, 1:40 Russian influence anarchism, 1:28 clothing, 1:301 dance, 1:384 Harbin, 2:178 Xinjiang, 4:112 Russian Jews, 2:377 Russian (language), 1:468 Russian literature, 1:128, 3:597 Russian musical influence, 2:647651 Russian occupation Dalian, 1:382 Jilin, 2:394 Manchukuo, 2:547 Russian Revolution, 1:334, 2:178
487
Index
Russian Way [Zola], 1:334 Russo-Japanese War, 1:39, 4:63 Rust belt, 2:194, 470471 Rustic realism, 3:50, 324327 Rustication program. See Sent-down educated youth
S
Sa Bendong, 3:507 Sa Benjie, 2:100 Sackler, Arthur M., 1:308 Sackville-West, Vita, 2:495 Sacred sites, 3:160, 161 Sacred Society of Lu Ban, 2:98 Sacrifices, 3:492493 Saddam Hussein, 4:9 SAFE (State Administration of Foreign Exchange), 2:75 SAFE Investment Company, 2:75 Safe sex, 2:230 Safety coal mines, 1:516 dams, 1:520 labor, 2:410 mining, 2:604 Sai Jinhua, 3:329330 Saidi Zixun. See CCID Consulting St. Denis, Ruth, 1:383 St. Johns University, 3:568 Saipan, 2:421 Salars, 2:369 Sales of official titles, 3:552 Salon style, 3:121 Salt, 3:330333, 331, 332 Jiangsu, 2:385 mines, 2:603 Sichuan, 3:400 tax, 2:138 trade, 1:427 Salt Administration, 2:80 Salzman, Mark, 2:367 San Francisco, 1:247, 406 San Francisco Conference, 2:345 San Francisco Peace Treaty, 3:76, 4:225226 San Min Zhuyi (anthem), 3:6 Sanctions, 2:91 Sang Tong, 2:650 Sanitary Bureau, 2:183 Sanitation and Epidemic Prevention Department, 1:534 Sanlian shenghuo zhoukan, 3:131 Sanmao (comic). See Three Hairs (comic) Sanminzhuyi Qinqnian Tuan. See GMD Youth Corps Sarkozy, Nicolas, 1:538, 2:92
Sassoon, Victor, 2:377 Satellites, 3:470 Satire comics, 1:314 Ding Cong, 1:315 Mo Yan, 2:617 Sato Tomiko, 2:165 Satomi Katsuzo, 1:111 Saudi Arabia, 2:587 Savings consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 credit cooperatives, 3:307 financial markets, 2:54 housing, 2:253 rural savings, 3:312 Scar art, 3:333335 Cultural Revolution, 1:107 New Wave movement, 3:34 oil painting, 3:50 rustic realism compared to, 3:325 Scar literature, 1:123, 3:139, 335336 Scar (Lu), 3:335 Scarcity, 4:36 Scelsi, Giacinto, 2:651 Schamus, James, 2:449 Schell, Orville, 2:367 Scholar gardens, 3:515 Scholar gentry, 1:320, 3:389 Scholars Gong Zizhen, 2:126127 Jiangsu, 2:386387 Lin Yutang, 2:490491 political culture, 3:147 regionalism, 3:253 Ruan Yuan, 3:292293 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 Wei Yuan, 4:6667 Zeng Guofan, 4:139141 Zhang Jian, 4:144145 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 See also Intellectuals Scholarship Changsha, 1:196 Cultural Revolution, 1:372374 furniture, 2:9899 guanxi, 3:2728 Heaven and Earth Association, history of the, 3:349350, 351352 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:552 May Fourth movement, 2:568 sinology, 3:409411 See also Classical scholarship Scholarships, educational, 2:363 Scholz, Janos, 2:539 Schoenberg, Arnold, 2:647 School buildings, 1:475
School Management Initiative, 2:240 School songs, 2:643, 647 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1:285 Schroeder, Gerhard, 4:171 Science Academia Sinica, 1:12 cosmology, 1:366367 expeditions, 1:4041 natural resources surveys, 3:23 Paris group, 1:29 qigong, 3:229 See also Research in the sciences Science and technology policy, 3:336341, 433 Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, 3:343 Scientific community, 3:341343, 342 Scientific exchanges, 3:343344 Germany, 2:123124 germany, 2:123124 study abroad, 3:508 Scientific management, 2:516 Scientific method, 1:51, 2:223 Scientific outlook on development, 1:330, 2:257 Scientific publications, 3:337 Scientists Fang Lizhi, 2:2021 Yang Zhenning, 4:126127 Scramble for concessions. See Concessions Script. See Writing systems Sculpture and public art, 1:105, 3:345348, 347 Sea transport, 3:248, 4:67 Seal carving art history, 1:103 calligraphy, 1:100 Wu Changshi, 1:536 Xiling Association of Seal Carvers, 1:102 Seating arrangements, 3:436 Second Artillery Force, 3:101102 Second Auto Works (SAW), 1:121 Second Front, 1:400 Second generation filmmakers, 2:40 Second Great Awakening, 3:520521, 521 Second Hundred Flowers campaign, 4:5 Second National Congress, 1:323 Second Northern Expedition, 3:46 Second Opium War. See Opium Wars Second Revolution, 1:229, 3:512 Second Sino-Japanese War. See AntiJapanese War Second United Front. See United Front
488
Index
Secondary education reform era, 1:470 rural areas, 1:474 sex education, 3:361 vocational education, 4:3942 Secondary legal codes, 1:302 Secondary School Place Allocation Scheme, 2:240 Secret police. See Police, secret Secret societies, 3:349352 China Zhigong Party, 1:405406 Chinatowns, 1:248 Nian Uprising, 3:40 religious element, 3:255 Secret speech (Khrushchev), 3:319 Sectarianism, 2:277 Securities Investment Fund Law, 2:56 Securities Law, 2:56, 3:593 Security armaments, 1:74 Central Asian states, relations with, 1:176 Central Military Commission, 1:190 foreign relations, 2:362 Japan, relations with, 2:375 Security bonds, 2:423 Security Treaty, Japanese-U.S., 2:375 Sedimentation, 3:280 Seeking truth from facts, 3:39, 333, 4:262268 Self-censorship, 2:364365 Self-cultivation, 1:388 Self-Employed Laborers Association. See Geti Laodongzhe Xiehui Self-employment, 2:410, 3:178 Self-government autonomous regions, 3:207209 Chengdu, 1:204 lineage, 2:493 Self-renewal, 3:91 Self-rule vs. Party rule, 1:227 Self-sacrifice, 2:303 Self-strengthening Anhui, 1:3132 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275 classical scholarship, 1:279 Confucianism, 1:347348 education reform, 1:464465 Fuzhou, 2:101 Hundred Days Reform, 2:276 Li Hongzhang, 2:461 local armies, 1:78 mercantile nationalism, 2:352 On the Manufacture of Foreign Weapons and On the Adoption
of Western Learning (Feng), 4:196197 Qing dynasty, 2:208210 railways, 3:603 reforms, 3:249250 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:273 Sino-Japanese War, 3:408 ti-yong relationship, 1:281 urban employment, 4:28 wars and the military, 4:5960 Westernization, 4:7374 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 Self-sufficiency Chinatowns, 1:248 defense planning, 1:268 energy, 1:515 Peoples Communes, 3:303 Taiwan, 3:540 Self-taught examination system, 1:490 Semicolonialism, theory of, 1:220 Semidemocracy, 3:214 Semifeudal society, 3:356 Sending areas, 1:241 Seng, Samuel, 2:474 Senggelinqin (Senggerinchin), Prince, 1:507, 3:40, 4:141 Senior facilities, 2:456 Senkaku Islands. See Diaoyu Islands Seno Masahiko, 2:620 Sent-down educated youth, 3:352354 art products, 3:197 gender relations, 2:116 higher education, 1:483 migration, 2:330 New Wave movement, 3:34 population policy, 3:163 Production and Construction Corps, 3:299 Red Guards, 3:247 rustic realism, 3:325 scar art, 3:333 unemployment, 2:418 xiafang, 4:107 Separation of powers, 2:438 Separatism Central Asian states, 1:176 Pakistan, relations with, 3:68 September 11th attacks international relations, 2:358 Islam, 2:370 Sino-American relations, 2:371 September Third Society. See Jiusan Society Sericulture, 3:401403 Series 2 no. 2 (Fang), 3:154 Service, John S., 1:212
Service Law, 3:9697 Service sector, 2:454455, 3:354356, 4:28 Servile statuses, 3:356359, 358 Seth, Vikram, 2:367 Seven Year Plan, 2:239 Seventeen Point Agreement, 1:379381, 3:576577 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 3:359361 avian influenza, 1:125 bureaucratic handling of, 2:246 government handling of, 1:534 medical care, 2:572 Tung Chee-hwa, 2:245 Sex-change operations, 3:609611 Sex clinics, 3:364 Sex Cultural Festival, 3:362 Sex discrimination, 2:67 Sex education, 3:361362 Sex ratio, 2:563t, 3:362363 All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 bachelors, 2:562 childbirth, 2:477 childhood, 2:479 infanticide, 2:11 migrant workers, 2:589 one-child policy, 2:1213, 3:168 women, status of, 4:85 Sex-selective abortion, 2:13, 3:168, 362 Sex workers HIV/AIDS transmission, 2:228 migrant, 2:422 prostitution, 3:197201, 329330, 4:81, 85 Sexual dysfunction, 3:363365, 364 Sexuality, 3:365367, 366 clergy, 3:261262 gender relations, 2:116117 HIV/AIDS transmission, 2:228, 229 Wang Anyi, writings of, 4:46 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 1:39, 3:199, 200 Sha Fei, 3:123, 126 Sha Fu, 3:264 Sha Hong, 2:612 Al Shaali, Mohammed Hussein, 2:586 Shaanxi, 3:367, 367370, 368 earthquake, 1:437 Muslim uprisings, 2:653 Shaftesbury, Lord, 2:128 Shajiao B thermal power plant, 1:156 Shakespeare, William, 3:597 Shame, 2:478 Shandong, 3:370373, 371, 372, 4:97 Shandong question, 3:236
489
Index
Shang dynasty, 1:43 Shang Qin, 3:138 Shang Xiaoyun, 2:581, 3:87 Shanghai, 3:373378, 374, 377, 612 architecture, 1:6566 art history, 1:100102 art market, 1:92 art societies, 1:98 art workshops, 3:47 banking, 2:622 Beijing compared to, 1:142 central control of, 3:210211 Chang, Eileen, 1:193 civil war, effects of, 4:64 comics, 1:314 commercial elite, 1:321322 copper and silver, 1:361 exchange rate, 2:148 fashion, 1:300, 2:22 film, 2:39 foreign investment, 2:77 foreign settlements, 2:72 foreign trade, 2:86 gardens and parks, 2:113 gender relations, 2:115 Hangzhou, links with, 4:158 housing, 2:251, 252 identity, 2:284 industrial workers, 4:96, 98 industrialization, 2:312, 314 Jewish community, 2:376377 joint architectural projects, 1:6869 journalism, 2:398 labor movement, 3:11 leisure, 2:452453 literary societies, 2:499 literati painting, 2:501 Liu Hongsheng, 2:515516 Lower Yangzi macroregion, 2:119 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:551 migration, 2:329 native-place organizations, 2:328 newspapers, 3:37 Ningbo, relations with, 3:42 opera, 3:87 parks, 2:112 picture books, 1:318 police, 3:140, 141 population growth, 4:17 ports, 3:599 printing, 2:509 publishing industry, 3:221 Pudong New Area, 1:268 radio, 3:243244 reform period, 4:20 restaurants, 2:63 Russian emigres, 3:324 sea transport experiment, 2:147 Shenxin cotton mills, 3:288289
strikes, 3:501 student organizations and activism, 3:505 teacher education, 3:559 tourism, 3:584 treaty portsConsulate, 3:612614 Wang Anyi, writing of, 4:46 Wang Zhen, 4:55 Westernization, 2:387, 4:75 Wing On Department Stores, 4:78 World Exposition, 2010, 1:65, 69, 3:211, 377 Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, 3:439 Shanghai Art Academy art education, 1:97 establishment of, 3:48 exhibitions, 1:83 Li Keran, 2:464 Liu Haisu, 2:513514 sculpture, 1:105 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 women, acceptance of, 4:90 women artists, 4:91 Shanghai Baby (Wei), 3:223224 Shanghai Calligraphy and Painting Research Society, 1:114 Shanghai clique, 3:377 Shanghai Communique, 1:79, 4:253255 Shanghai Conservatory, 2:643, 647, 648 Shanghai Cooperation Organization, 2:358, 371, 3:322 Shanghai Cotton Mill, 3:563 Shanghai Cultural Bureau, 1:318 Shanghai Faction, 2:383 Shanghai gang, 3:211 Shanghai huabao, 3:130 Shanghai Merchant Shipping Guild, 2:147 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:378382, 614 Shanghai Modern Book Company, 3:388 Shanghai Municipal Council (SMC), 2:72, 3:612613 Shanghai Municipal Police, 3:380, 381 Shanghai Museum, 2:635, 636, 637 Shanghai-Nanjing Railway, 3:1 Shanghai Power Company, 2:313 Shanghai process, 3:322 Shanghai Punch, 1:314 Shanghai school of painting, 3:382384, 383 art history, 1:100101 Chinese painting, 1:262 Ren Yi, 3:264265 Wu Changshi, 4:99
Shanghai Sketch (periodical), 1:314 Shanghai Steam Navigation Company, 1:213 Shanghai Stock Exchange, 2:53, 3:376 Shanghai Student Union, 3:505 Shanghai Tijinguan Epigraphy, Calligraphy, and Painting Society, 1:98, 100 Shanghai Writers Association, 4:46 Shanghan school of medicine, 2:576 Shanghen. See Scar art Shangwu Yinshuguan. See Commercial Press Shantou, 1:243, 3:477478, 478 Shanxi, 2:138, 3:384387, 386 Shao Fan, 2:100 Shao Fei, 3:490, 4:93 Shao Keping, 3:33 Shao Xunmei, 3:387388 Shao Yuanchong, 3:7 Shapiro, Judith, 2:367 Shared tax revenues, 3:554555 Shareholding enterprises, 1:340341, 2:384, 3:178, 220 Shaw, George Bernard, 3:454 Shaw Brothers, 2:48, 3:36 Shawn, Ted, 1:383 She population, 2:93 Sheep farming, 1:1921, 20 Shell-less Snail Movement, 3:520 Shen Baozhen, 3:388390 navy yards, 2:125 Qing restoration, 3:234 Taibei, 3:517 Shen Bochen, 1:314 Shen Congwen, 3:390392 ethnic minorities, 2:612 sensationism, 2:504 Shanghai, 3:375 Xiao Qian, influence on, 4:109 Shen Enfu, 3:6 Shen Jiaben, 1:303, 304 Shen Junru, 1:403 Shen Manyun, 1:317 Shen Meishu, 4:114 Shen Pengnian, 3:6 Shen Xingong, 2:643 Shen Yanbin, 2:499 Shen Yinmo, 1:165 Shen Zengzhi, 4:114 Shenbao (newspaper) advertising, 1:311 establishment of, 3:37 Ge Gongzhen, 2:113114 journalism, 2:398 Major, Ernest, 2:544 Shenbaoguan publishing house, 2:544
490
Index
Sheng, Bright, 2:639 Sheng Luanhuai, 1:214 Sheng Shicai, 2:370, 4:112113 Sheng Xuanhuai China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:215 education reform, 1:464 Imperial Bank of China, 2:622 ironworks, 2:602 Shenghuo zhoubao (periodical), 2:114 Shengyuan. See Examination system Shenjiying. See Peking Field Force Shenquan. See Spirit Boxers Shenxin cotton mills, 3:288289 Shenyang, 3:200, 3:392394 Shenzhen, 3:476, 477, 599600 Shenzhen Stock Exchange, 2:53, 3:477 Shenzhou program, 3:471 Shequ, 3:215 Shi Dakai, 3:398, 4:140 Shi Huasheng, 3:615 Shi Hui, 3:348 Shi Kumpor, 2:648 Shi Liang, 4:88 Shi Lin, 2:25 Shi Lu, 1:105, 165, 264 Shi Mingde, 3:549 Shi Naian, 2:530 Shi Pingmei, 1:283 Shi Shaohua, 3:126 Shi Tao, 1:423 Shi Wu Zai, 3:131 Shibao (newspaper), 1:311, 3:3738 Shida Kotaro, 1:305 Shijiazhuang, 2:191 Shijie jingji daobao (periodical), 1:174 Shijing, 3:135 Shijinshan Park, 3:348 Shikan clique, 4:61 Shimoda Utako, 2:66, 3:240 Shining Path influences abroad, 2:322 Mao Zedong, influence of, 2:558 Mao Zedong thought, 1:224 New Democracy, 3:30 Shipbuilding Fuzhou Naval Yard, 1:391, 2:101, 125 Qing dynasty, 1:391 Qing restoration, 3:234235 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Zuo Zongtang, 4:175 Shipping China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:213215 compradors, 1:346
domestic trade, 1:424425, 426 Fuzhou, 2:101102 Grand Canal, 2:145147 industrialization, 2:311 infrastructure, 3:601603, 602t Li Hongzhang, 2:462 Lu Zuofu, 2:534535 sea transport experiment, 2:147 Self-strengthening, 2:210 Shishido Tamaki, 2:522 Shitao, 1:263, 2:267, 4:142 Shiwu bao (newspaper), 2:398 Shiyong system, 4:69 Shops, 3:394397, 396 Nanjing Road, 3:375 tourism, 3:583584 Short stories Bingxin, 1:145 Ding Ling, 1:418419 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:551 Qian Zhongshu, 3:227 Shouxun, 4:61 Shrimpton, Dick, 3:51 Shu, 3:278 Shu Qun, 3:35 Shu Ting, 3:139 Shu Xincheng, 2:457 Shuhua shulu jieti (Yu), 1:86 Shui Jing, 1:194 Shujing (Kang), 1:86 Shum Lo, 2:41 Sichuan, 3:397401, 398, 399, 400 Chongqing, split from, 1:265 earthquake, 3:562 macroregions, 2:119 rustic realism, 3:325 Wenchuan earthquake, 1:437438 Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts, 1:98, 3:334 Sichuan Arsenal, 1:204 Sichuan earthquake, 1:190 Sichuan Opera, 3:89 Sickman, Laurence, 2:99 Siemens, 2:203 Siheyuan, 2:250 Sikkim, 2:301 Siku quanshu, 2:292, 4:93 Silence in music, 2:650651 Silent films, 2:254, 3:291 Silk, 3:401403, 402 Jiangsu, 2:386 trade, 2:85 urban employment, 4:2728 Zhejiang, 4:157 Silk Road Project, 2:540
Silk Route archaeology, 1:4041, 49 Dunhuang cave temples, 1:44 Gansu, 2:106 Silver. See Copper and silver Sima Qian, 2:610 Simon, Lucien, 3:72 Simplified characters, 2:431432 Sina.com, 3:39 Sinanthropus pekinensis. See Peking Man Sincere Department Store, 3:403405, 4:78, 79 Singers Li Xianglan, 2:466 Zhou Xuan, 4:165 Singh, Manmohan, 2:300 Sinification of Marxism, 1:223 Sino-Bolivia Treaty of Friendship, 2:359360 Sino-British Joint Declaration, 4:280282 Sino-French War, 3:405406 China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:214 Guangxi, 2:157 Hart, Robert, 2:182 Taiwan, 3:527 Sino-Indonesian Dual Nationality Treaty, 1:237 Sino-Japanese War, 3:406408, 408 Cixi, Empress Dowager, 1:275 effect of, 4:63 international relations, 2:350 Li Hongzhang, 2:462 military culture and tradition, 2:598 naval weakness, 1:392 Pacification Army, 4:60 scramble for concessions, 3:344345 Shandong, 3:371 Taiwan, 3:528529 Yuan Shikai, betrayal by, 4:133 Zhu De, 4:168 Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration, 3:474 Sino-Soviet Agreements, 2:352, 353, 3:16 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411414, 412t East Central Europe, influence on relations with, 1:439440 Mao Zedong, 2:557 On Khrushchevs Phony Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World (Mao), 4:240241 United States, relations with, 4:8
491
Index
Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, 1:206, 2:354 Sinology, 3:409411 Confucianism, 1:350 graduate programs, 1:3 Legge, James, 2:451452 Morrison, Robert, 2:633634 Western scholarship, 2:224226 Sinopec, 1:518 Siqin Gerile, 2:642 Sishu schools, 1:462, 463 Sisterhoods, 2:115 Site orientation, 2:33 Six Dynasties school, 2:318, 319 Six-Year Plan to Eliminate Opium and Drugs, 3:59 Sixteen-Point Decision of August 1966, 1:374 Sixteenth National Congress, 1:329, 1:330, 3:432 Sixth generation filmmakers, 2:42, 4547, 46 Sixth National Congress, 1:324325 Sixth Plenum, 1:331, 3:117, 150 Siyue Yinghui, 3:121 Siziwan, 2:403 Skilled labor, 4:97 Skinner, G. William macroregions, 1:384 socioeconomic indicators, 3:460 urbanization, 4:1516 Zhejiang, 4:157 Skip-generation households, 2:9 Slavery, 1:245, 3:356359 Slums, 4:20 Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), 3:535536 Small towns, 4:26 Small welfare, 3:432433 Smedley, Agnes, 2:399 Smiles (Bingxin). See Xiao (Bingxin) Smith, Arthur, 2:366 Smithsonian Institution, 1:308 Smuggling, 2:422, 3:414416, 415 Snakes and Ladders (game), 2:104 Sneevliet, Hendricus. See Maring, G. Snow, Edgar, 3:416417 China Hands, 1:212213 journalism, 2:399 Song Qingling, association with, 3:463 Western interpretation, 2:366 Xiao Qian, work with, 4:109 Yanan model, 3:369 Social and community organizations, 3:417421, 419 civil society, 1:270271
Communist and Nationalist competition over, 2:140 entrepreneurs, 1:523524 Hong Kong, 2:242244 Social capital, 3:429 Social care, 3:444445 Social change economic reform, 1:454 hairstyles, 2:169172 minority nationalities, 2:607 social classes, 3:422423 Taiwan, 3:538541 Social change determinants, 3:421422 Social classes, 3:421425, 424, 425430, 426, 427 Agrarian Reform Law, 3:301 All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 beggars, 1:137138 Chinese Marxism, 1:224226 commercial elite, 1:320, 322 education through labor, 1:501 feudalism, 1:227 health care, 2:182183 New Democracy, 3:29 nutrition, 2:16 peasants, 3:82 revolutionary theories, 1:336 seating arrangements, 3:436 united front work, 4:4 Zhejiang, 4:157158 Social Darwinism classical scholarship, 1:282 debate, 1:285 Kang Youwei, 2:221222 late Qing reforms, 3:10 Liang Qichao, 2:472 political culture, 3:148 Social history controversy, 2:223 Social insurance pensions, 3:449 Social interests, 3:156157 Social mobility, 3:429 Social policy beggars, 1:139 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449 household registration, 2:246248 one-child policy, 2:14 Social policy programs, 3:430435 Social reform, 1:117, 3:251 Social responsibility, corporate, 1:150 Social rights, 2:268, 271 Social rituals, 3:435437 Social sciences, 3:270, 3:437440 Social security. See Social welfare Social services collectives, 1:342 Hong Kong, 2:236237, 245 unit, 4:13, 23
Social stability and control baojia system, 1:136137 criminal law, 2:444445 harmonious society, 2:180181 Social status. See Social classes Social structure emigration, 1:255 guanxi, 3:27 Hong Kong, 2:236 household registration, 2:246248 housing, 4:23 social classes, 3:423, 429 state-owned enterprises, 3:494 Social welfare, 3:440453, 447 Chinese Communist Party, 1:330 collectives, 1:342 five guarantees, 3:308 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 housing, 2:252 iron rice bowl, 3:494 Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System, 3:434435 policy initiatives, 3:317 preretired workers, 2:189 reform era, 3:450453, 452 rural areas, 3:311312 rural-urban disparities, 3:316, 441 scientific development, 2:257 socialist market economy, 3:455 Song Qingling, 3:463 standard of living, 3:486 state farms, 3:297 Taiwan, 3:540 unemployment, 2:420 unit, 4:13 urban employees, 4:31 Socialism, 3:453454 agriculture, 2:428 architecture, 1:6263 beggars, 1:138139 clothing, 1:300301 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:333335 crime and punishment theories, 3:9192 housing, 2:251, 252253 humanism and alienation debate, 1:288 industrial development, 2:186 labor, 2:409410 May Fourth movement, 1:322323 model operas and ballets, 2:618 morality, 3:365 party history, revision of, 1:332333 prodemocracy movement, 3:183184 Trotskyism, 3:614616 welfare system, 3:431 Yanan model, 3:369
492
Index
Socialist democracy, 4:156, 270272 Socialist Education movement, 3:569, 4:107 Socialist market economy, 3:454456 art market, 1:93 banking, 1:131132 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328 constitutions, 1:357 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 domestic trade, 1:429 as guidepost, 1:452 leisure, 2:454455 private enterprises, 3:177182 private schools, 1:500501 special economic zones, 3:475479 transition from central planning, 1:180 vocational education, 4:41 See also Transition economy Socialist realism, 3:456457 art education, 1:97 art exhibitions, 1:84 art history, 1:106 art museums, 1:9596 art policy, 1:116 Chinese painting, 1:263264 film, 2:40 Hu Feng, 2:255 literature, 2:505506 oil painting, 3:49 plays, 3:135 propaganda art, 3:189 propaganda photography, 3:125, 127 rustic realism as challenge to, 3:325, 327 scar art, 3:334 Scar literature, 3:335 sculpture, 3:346 Soviet influence, 1:117118 translation of foreign literature, 3:597 Xu Beihong, 4:116 Xu Bing, 4:117 Zhou Yang, 4:166 Socialist Singing Campaign, 2:645 Socialist transformation program, 2:277 Socialist Youth Corps, 1:309, 323 Socialization, 3:457459 Society for Research in Chinese Architecture, 2:469 Society for the Preservation of National Learning, 1:113 Society for the Study of Chinese Painting, 1:114 Society of God Worshippers, 3:201 Sociocultural historiography, 2:224 Socioeconomic class. See Social classes Socioeconomic indicators, 3:459461
Sociology, 3:438 Soft loans, 1:133134 Software companies, 1:205 Soil contamination, 1:527 Soil erosion, 3:287 Solar calendar, 1:162164 Solar festivals, 2:35 Soldiers military as a profession, 4:6162 Yuan Shikai, 4:132134 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 Some Suggestions for Reforming Repertoire Companies (Ministry of Culture), 1:371 Son preference All-China Womens Federation, 1:27 childbirth, 2:476 family, 2:7 infanticide, 2:1012 one-child policy, 2:1214, 3:168 Song, Charles, 3:461 Sun Yat-sen, relationship to, 3:510 Song Ailing, 3:461 Song Chuyu, 2:460, 3:22 Song Defu, 1:337 Song dynasty antiquarianism, 1:41 Hokkien, 2:230 Zhongguo, 4:160 Song Hanzhang, 3:289 Song Jiaoren, 3:151 elections, 1:504 intellectualism, 1:284 Nationalist Party, 3:18, 512 Song Junfu, 3:51 Song learning, 1:277280 Song Ling, 3:35 Song Meiling burial place, 2:484485 Chiang Kai-shek, marriage to, 1:209 politics, 4:8788 Song Qingling, relationship to, 3:461, 462 The Song of Youth (Yang), 4:125126 Song Ping. See Vladimirov, Peter Song Qingling, 3:461463, 462 All-China Womens Federation, 1:26 China Defense League, 1:383384 fashion, 2:23 politics, 4:8788, 89 Shanghai, 2:72 Sun Yat-sen, marriage to, 3:510 vice-presidency, 1:185 Song Shu, 2:65 Song Xiangfeng, 2:126
Song Yonghong, 3:154 Song Zhidi, 1:169 Song Ziliang, 2:516 Song Ziwen, 3:463465, 464 intellectualism, 1:284 Liu Hongsheng, association with, 2:516 monetary policy, 1:362 study abroad, 3:507 Songtsen Gampo, 3:576 Songzain Gambo, 2:609 Soong, T. V. See Song Ziwen Sothebys auction house, 1:93, 108 South China, 1:540541, 2:159 South China Sea, 3:465466 ASEAN, relations with, 1:119 islands dispute, 3:467468 piracy, 3:131 Vietnam, 4:34, 35 South Korea. See Korea South Manchurian Railway, 3:392 South-North Water Transfer Project, 1:50, 3:278 South school of medicine, 2:577 South-south cooperation, 2:338, 436 South-to-north water-transfer scheme, 3:287 Southeast Asian states, 3:466470 Chinese overseas, 1:235236, 238, 239, 2:95 diaspora, 1:250251 Guangzhou, 2:160161 Hokkien, 2:230 South China Sea, 3:465466 Tan Kah Kee, 1:242 tourists from, 3:586587 trade, 2:87 Yunnan, link to, 4:137 See also ASEAN; Specific countries Southeast Coast macroregion, 2:119120 Southern Artists Salon First Experimental Art Exhibition, 3:35 Southern Min. See Hokkien Southwestern China, 2:328 Sovereignty constitutions, 1:354 foreign settlements, 2:7172 international relations, 2:352 Latin American states, 2:436 Macau, 2:542 Manchukuo, 2:546 nationalism, 3:13 treaties, 2:360 war crimes issues, 4:5657 wars, effect of, 4:63 Soviet art influence Luo Gongliu, 2:537 scar art, 3:334 socialist realism, 3:456457
493
Index
Soviet breakup economic policy, 2:181 Islam, 2:370371 See also East Central European states Soviet Communism central state organs, 1:180 Communist alliance, 2:141 communist thought in China, origins of, 1:334336 democratic centralism, 1:228 mass movements, 1:230 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:411413 socialist ideology, 3:455 Sun Yat-sen, work with, 3:512513 Soviet Constitution, 1:186 Soviet expansionism Chinese foreign policy, 2:82 imperialism, 2:296 Inner Mongolia, 2:324325 Mongolian independence, 2:627 Soviet foreign policy Korean War, 2:355 Pakistan, impact on relations with, 3:6668 Soviet Friends Society, 2:644 Soviet influence archaeology, 1:48 architecture, 1:63, 68, 141 armed forces grades and ranks, 3:110 central planning, 1:177 constitutions, 1:356 economic development, 1:203 education, 1:468 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 film, 2:40 Harbin, 2:180 heavy industry, 2:186187 higher education, 1:482 industrial policy, 1:267, 2:304305, 308 inspection and audit, 2:327 military regions, 3:99 music education, 2:649 propaganda art, 3:188189, 193 propaganda photography, 3:125 scientific community, 3:341 secret police, 3:143 Shenyang, 3:393 sports schools, 3:481 state farms, 3:297 urban reform, 4:1415 urbanization, 4:18 vocational education, 4:39 Xinjiang, 4:112113 in Yanan, 4:122123 See also Art, Soviet influence on Soviet intervention, 1:271272
Soviet investment, 2:78 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Treaty, 3:16 Soviet Red Army, 2:547 Soviet revisionism, 2:557, 3:413 Soviet socialist model, 2:555556 Soviet threat, 1:537 Soviet Union Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:206 China Hands, 1:212213 hierarchy of nationalities, 2:605, 610 migration, 2:329330 Olympics, 3:5354 study abroad, 3:507508 trade, 2:87 Yang Mo, visit by, 4:126 See also Russia Soviet Union, relations with border war, 4:66 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 East Asian power politics, 2:352354 friendship treaty, 4:8 Heilongjiang border issues, 2:194 Korea, 2:404 Korean War, 2:406408 leaning to one side policy, 2:8182 Nationalist government, 3:1617 Nationalists, treaties with the, 2:360361 normalization, 2:358 Peoples Republic of China reconciliation with, 2:219 Sino-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, 2:353 Taiwan, 2:345 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 2:216 Vietnam, 4:33 Soybean industry, 2:313 Space program, 3:470472, 472 Spatial economic development disparities, 1:448449 Special administrative regions, 3:472475, 4:7 Special economic zones, 3:475479, 477t, 478t administrative rank, 4:24 central-local relationships, 1:191 city planning, 1:268 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:457 financial markets, 2:54 Fujian, 2:95 gradualism, 1:459 Guangdong, 2:154 Hainan, 2:169 women workers, 4:86 Special education, 3:446
Special needs children, 1:8 Special trade regions, 2:54 Specialization, agricultural, 1:16 Speech, freedom of, 2:270 Speech at the Meeting Celebrating the 80th Anniversary of the Founding of the Communist Party of China (Jiang), 4:298300 Spencer, Herbert, 1:285 Spheres of influence, 3:344345 Spielberg, Steven, 1:10 Spinning, 2:175 Spirit Boxers, 1:146 Spiritual Civilization Offices, 3:187 Spirituality, 3:229231 Spoiled generation, 2:14, 478, 3:168 Sports, 3:5054, 127129, 479482, 481 Sports figures, 3:482484, 483 Spratly Islands, 3:465468 Spring Bud Project, 1:475 Spring Festival, 2:35, 4:38 Spring Purification circle, 3:249 Spring Slumber Studio, 2:498 Springs, natural, 2:396397 Spy plane collision, 4:10, 1011 Stakeholders, state-owned enterprise, 3:496 Stalin, Joseph, 1:335 Chen Duxiu, view of, 1:198 Chinese Communist Party, 2:354 Comintern, 1:309 constitution, 1:356 dissidents, 1:421 Five-stage theory, 1:227 individual rights, 2:302 Inner Mongolia, 2:325 Khrushchev, Nikita, denunciation by, 2:277, 3:412 Korean War, 2:355, 407, 3:95 Manchuria, 2:194 Mao Zedong compared to, 2:554 Mao Zedongs relationship with, 2:555556 nationalities, categorization of, 2:610 Popular Front, 4:123 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Sixth National Congress, 1:324325 socialist realism, 3:456 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 2:216 Trotsky, Leon, confrontation with, 3:615 United Front, 1:323 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Yanan, influence in, 4:123
494
Index
Stalinism Chinese Marxism vs., 1:230 Khrushchev, Nikita, abandonment by, 3:319 New Democracy, 3:29 Standard language, 1:469, 2:431433, 457458 Standard of living, 3:484489 Minimum Living Standard Guarantee System, 3:434435 peasants, 3:83 reform era, 3:309310 small welfare, 3:432433 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 Suzhou, 3:515 Taiwan, 3:538 Xiamen, 4:108 Standardization Hokkien writing system, 2:232 weights and measures, 4:6869 Standards for Determining Temples and Shrines to Be Destroyed or Maintained, 3:160 Standing Committee National Peoples Congress, 1:185 State Council, 1:188 Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 2:582 Stars painting group, 3:489491 art exhibitions, 1:85, 107 art museums, 1:96 Democracy Wall, 1:395 modernist trend, 1:98 New Wave movement, 3:34, 35 oil painting, 3:50 women artists, 4:93 State Administration of Cultural Heritage, 1:48, 50, 52 State Administration of Foreign Exchange, 2:75 State Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine, 1:148 State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television, 3:562 State Archives Board, 1:69 State Asset Supervision and Administration Commissions, 1:340, 3:496 State-building architecture, 1:60 economic reform, 1:452453 Nanjing Decade, 2:214215 State Compensation Law, 2:443 State-controlled enterprises, 3:495 State corporatist system, 1:454 State Council administrative law, 2:443 armed services command structure, 3:109
financial markets, 2:52 function and organization, 1:186188 government structure, 1:187 military commercialization, 3:114 Notification on the Question of Peasants Entering Towns and Settling, 4:30 Office for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:456 statistics, 3:497 State cult, 3:159160, 491493, 492 State Development and Reform Commission, 1:190 State Economic Commission, 4:169 State Environmental Protection Administration, 1:522, 530531, 3:277, 287 State Family-Planning Bureau, 2:12 State farms, 2:169, 3:297 State High Technology Research and Development Program, 2:202 State-owned enterprises (SOEs), 3:493497, 495t banking, 1:130131, 132 Big Four banks, 1:133134 build-operate-transfer contracts compared to, 1:157 central planning, 1:178 classification, 1:341 collectives compared to, 1:342 company forms, 1:339340 domestic trade, 1:429 dual-track pricing, 1:458 economic reform, 1:453, 454 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449 heavy industry, 2:188189 industrial development, 2:303304 industry reform, 1:444 labor, 2:410 layoffs, 1:255, 2:415, 4:31 nonperforming loans, 1:134135 reform, 2:306 Shenyang, 3:394 social policy, 3:430, 431 state farms, 3:297 statistics, 3:497498 stock market, 2:53 surplus labor, 2:418 taxation, 3:553555 township and village enterprises compared to, 3:591, 592 unemployment, 2:420 State ownership, 2:251, 3:180 State Planning Commission abolishment of, 2:57 banking, 1:130 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 government structure, 1:187
Provisional Regulations on Foreign Investment Build-OperateTransfer Projects, 1:157 State sectorprivate enterprise relationship, 3:181 State Socialist Party, 3:152 State visits, 2:70 State welfare model, 3:430 Statecraft classical scholarship, 1:277279 constitutionalism, 1:352 Feng Guifen, 2:3031 Gong Zizhen, 2:126127 political culture, 3:147 reform, 3:248 Wei Yuan, 4:67 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Statesmen Zhang Zhidong, 4:149152 Statistics, 3:497499 Buddhists, 1:156 central planning, 1:178 socioeconomic indicators, 3:459460 Statistics Law, 1:191192, 3:497, 498 Statute of Rome, 4:56 Statutes for the Punishment of Counterrevolutionary Activity, 3:91 Staunton, George, 2:544 Steamship companies, 1:346 Steel industry, 2:305 Great Leap Forward, 3:305 production, 1:428, 2:188, 189, 602603 production and planned allocation, 1:179f Shanghai, 3:376 Stein, Aurel, 1:42, 307 Steiner, Roda von, 2:488 Stele script, 1:86, 100, 164165, 535, 2:628 Stepping out strategy, 1:255 Stereotypes, 1:256, 259, 2:96 Stern, Isaac, 2:539 Stilwell, Joseph, 3:499501, 500 Burma Road opening, 1:37 Fifteenth Army, 1:212 Nationalist government, relations with the, 3:16 Yanan, 4:123 Stock markets, 2:52, 53, 53, 56 Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 2:651 Stoclet, Adolphe, 1:308 Stone, Mary, 2:183, 577 Stone Drum script, 1:536 Storm Society avant-garde movement, 1:104 history, 1:98, 99
495
Index
Storm Society, continued modernism, 2:619620 oil painting, 3:48 Pang Xunqin, 3:74 The Story of Wu Xun (film), 1:286287 Strait Exchange Foundation (SEF), 3:544 Strasbourg address, 3:578 Strategic and Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity, 2:300 Strategic foreign partnerships. See Joint ventures Stream of consciousness, 4:51 Street beggars, 1:139 Street children, 4:129 Street committees, 3:214215 Street-corner parks, 2:113 Strike-hard campaigns, 1:176, 390, 3:94 Strikes, 3:501504 Anyuan coal mine, 2:393 nationalism, 3:11 trade unions, 2:414 Structural rationalism, 1:61 Structure (sculpture), 3:348 The Struggle with Communists is a Struggle Over Lifestyle (Jiang), 4:283 Stuart, John Leighton, 1:487 Student organizations and activism, 3:504506 autonomous organizations, 2:142 Chinese Communist Party reaction, 1:328 Communist Youth League, 1:337 Cultural Revolution, 1:374 democratic ideas, 1:399 depolitization of, 3:15 dissidents, 1:421 Little Red Book, 1:375 May Fourth movement, 2:566568 Nanjing Incident, 3:2 Patriotic United Front, 1:401 prodemocracy movement, 3:183184 Red Guards, 3:246247 Revolutionary Committee of the Nationalist Party, support of the, 1:405 workers, relationship with, 3:501502 Study abroad, 1:253, 254, 3:506509 Australia, 1:121 Cixi, reform policies of, 1:276 higher education, 1:483 intellectuals, 1:283 late Qing dynasty, 1:465 musicians, 2:643
sending areas, 1:241 Soviet Union, 3:318 Sun Yat-sen, 3:510 women, 1:493 See also Educational exchanges; Returned students Su, Prince, 3:140 Su Bai, 1:53 Su Bingqi, 1:53, 56 Su Cong, 3:550 Su Manshu, 1:154, 2:551 Su Tong, 1:124, 125, 2:506 Su Wen, 2:447 Su Wonong, 2:620 Subadministration, 2:133134 Subcounty councils, 1:503 Subjectivism, 2:277 Sublineages, 2:493494 Subsidies, housing, 2:253, 4:26 Subsistence allowances, 3:308 Subsoil rights, 2:424425 Suburbanization, 4:19 Succession. See Political succession Sudan, 1:910, 11, 2:347, 4:56 Suffragists, 4:8384, 87 Sufi, 2:106, 370 Suharto, General, 3:468 Sui Jianguo, 3:347, 348 Suicide, 2:485, 3:292 Suiyuan shidan (Yuan), 2:62 Sukarno, 3:468 Sulfur-dioxide emissions, 1:527 Sullivan, Michael, 2:488 Summer palaces, 2:111, 290292 Sun Baoxin, 3:480 Sun Benwen, 3:438 Sun Changjiang, 1:287288 Sun Chuanfang, 2:28, 514, 3:45, 4:146 Sun Daolin, 3:509 Sun Dazhang, 1:59 Sun Duoci, 3:48 Sun Ganlu, 1:124 Sun Jian, 2:25 Sun Jianai, 2:30 Sun Jianzhong, 3:392 Sun Mei, 3:510 Sun Ping. See Vladimirov, Peter Sun Qian, 4:154 Sun Shaozhen, 3:139 Sun Simiao, 2:574 Sun Yat-sen, 2:214, 3:510514, 511, 513 anti-imperialism, 2:282 antidynastic reform movement, 4:64
Chiang Kai-shek, work with, 1:208209 Chinese overseas, 1:237, 239 Christianity, 2:616 clothing, 1:300 codified law, 1:304 Comintern, 1:310 communist thought origins, 1:334 constitutionalism, 1:352 democratic ideas, 1:396 diaspora, 1:250 elections, 1:504 ethnic minorities, selfdetermination for, 3:207 fashion, 2:24 federalism, 2:27, 28 five ethnicities, 2:370 five-power theory, 1:353 Guangdong, 2:154155 Guangzhou, 2:160 Hakkas, 2:173 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350, 351 Hong Kong, 2:236 Hong Kong College of Medicine, 2:183 Hong Xiuquan, influence of, 3:526 Kang Youwei, competition with, 2:401 land policy, 2:425, 428 Liu Shifu, criticism by, 1:29 mausoleum, 2:484, 3:2, 3 military, 2:594595, 599 Nanjing, 3:12 national flag, 3:6 National government, foundation of the, 3:14 nationalism, 2:211212, 295, 3:1011 Nationalist Party, 3:18 Pan-Asianism, 3:7273 provisional presidency, 3:272 Qiu Jin, association with, 3:240, 241 queue (hairstyle), 2:169170 railways, 3:604 Renaissance movement, influence on the, 2:21 Republican era debate, 1:285 revolutionary movement, 1:335, 3:151 sculpture of, 1:105, 3:345 Sino-French War, 3:406 socialism, 3:453454, 455 Song Qingling, marriage to, 3:461462 Song Ziwen, relationship to, 3:463464 study abroad, 3:507 Taiyuan Draft, 1:355 Three Gorges Dam, 1:519
496
Index
Three Principles of the People, 1:467, 3:566567 Wang Jingwei, association with, 4:4849 Wang Zhen, support of, 4:55 warlord era, 2:213 Whampoa Military Academy, 2:595 womens rights movement, 4:87 Yan Fu, association with, 4:122 Yuan Shikai, betrayal of, 4:133134 Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, 1:60 Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, 1:61 Sun Yat-sen suit, 1:301 Sun Yee syndicate, 3:351 Sun Yiliang. See Sun Daolin Sun Yirang, 1:42, 280 Sun Yu, 1:287, 3:291, 4:153 Sun Zhigang, 2:364, 3:274275 Sun Zi, 1:223, 2:597 Sunflower Group, 2:648 Sung, John, 3:202 Suntory Prize, 3:550551 Super Girl contests, 2:641642 Superman (Bingxin). See Chaoren (Bingxin) Superstition, religion as, 3:160, 259 Supply and demand, 1:177180 Supreme Court customary law, 1:377 death penalty, 1:390 human rights, 2:271 law, 2:438439 Supreme Soviet, 1:184 Surikov, Vasily Ivanovich, 3:334 Surplus males, 3:363 Surrealism, 3:35 Surrender, Japanese, 1:38 Surveys land use, 2:428 natural resources, 3:23 Sushun, 1:507 Suspension bridges, 2:388 Sustainable development Agenda 21, 1:216 consumption and consumer culture, 1:360 international activities, 1:532533 management and regulation, 1:528532 science and technology policy, 3:340341 Sino-European relations, 1:538 Sutton, Francis, 3:415 Suzhou, 3:514515 Suzhou Industrial Park, 3:515 Suzhou Museum, 3:85, 515
Suzhou River (film), 2:4647 Sweatshops, 2:410, 3:479480 Sweden, 2:334 Swine, 1:19 Syllables, 1:167 Symphony orchestras, 2:649 Syndicates, salt, 3:331332 Syngman Rhee, 2:407 Synthetic drugs, 1:435
T
Table tennis. See Ping-Pong Tagore, Rabindranath, 1:154, 2:320, 4:116, 118 Taguchi Ukichi, 2:222 Tai chi, 2:456 Taibei, 2:403, 3:517520, 519, 3:538539 Taibei 101, 3:519, 520 Taikonauts, 3:472 Taipei. See Taibei Taipei Fine Arts Museum, 1:110 Taipei Uprising, 3:524 Taiping Uprising, 3:520526, 523 academies, 1:3 Anhui, 1:3031 book collection destruction, 4:93 Changsha, 1:196 classical scholarship, 1:280 Confucianism, 1:347 Feng Guifen, 2:30 Gordon, Charles, 2:127128 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:350 history, 2:207208 Hunan and Hubei, effect on, 2:272 impact, 4:63 Li Hongzhang, 2:460461 migration, 2:328 military culture and tradition, 2:598 militias, 2:601 missionaries, 2:615 Muslim uprisings, influence on, 2:652 Nanjing, 3:1 Nian Uprising, 3:40 A Proclamation against the Bandits of Guangdong and Guangxi (Zeng), 4:193195 Protestantism, 3:201 queue (hairstyle), 2:169 reform, 3:249 regionalism, 3:252253 Shen Baozhen, 3:388389 Sichuan, 3:398 urban population growth, 4:17 Yizhu, 1:506507 Zeng Guofan, 4:139141
Zhejiang, 4:157159 Zuo Zongtang, 4:173 Taisho period, 2:319 Taiwan, 3:526549, 528 Academia Sinica, 1:12 African states, relations with, 1:10 air transport, 3:607 Anti-Secession Law, 4:300301 archives, 1:70 art history, 1:109110 Australia, relations with, 1:121 Balkan countries, relations with, 1:441 Buddhism, 1:156 calendars, 1:164 Chen Shuibian, 1:201 Chiang Ching-kuo, 1:206208 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:211 Chinese overseas, 1:239 Christian universities and colleges, 1:488489 civil war, 1:273 Clinton, Bill, 4:10 colonialism, 2:282 Confucianism, 1:348, 350 dance, 1:384, 385386 Diaoyu Islands, 2:376 earthquakes, 1:438 East Central European states, relations with, 1:440 elections, 1:504 emigration, 1:241 European relations, 1:538 film, 2:4952, 50 foreign policy, 2:8384 France, relations with, 2:91, 92 Fujian, relations with, 2:95, 97 Fuzhou, links with, 2:102 Germany, relations with, 2:123 Hakkas, 2:174 Hokkien, 2:230, 232 homosexuality, 2:233 imperialism, 2:296 international development aid, 2:332 International Monetary Fund, 2:339 international organizations, 2:344 international relations, 2:358 Israel, relations with, 2:587 Japan, relations with, 1:159 Jiang Zemin, 2:384 Joint Communique on Arms Sales to Taiwan, 4:279280 journalism, 2:400 Kaohsiung, 2:402403 Korean relations, 2:404 language policy, 2:433 Latin American states, relations with, 2:437438
497
Index
Taiwan, continued laws protecting women and children, 2:441 Li Denghui, 2:458460 literature, 2:506507 marriage, 2:481 A Message to Compatriots in Taiwan, 4:269270 migration, 2:328, 329 military doctrine concerning, 3:111, 112 music, 2:648649 national flag and anthem, 3:7 National Palace Museum, 2:68, 636 nationalism, 3:13 Nationalist government, 3:17 Nationalist Party, 3:20 Olympics, 3:5254, 56 opera, 3:87 poetry, 3:138 politics of archaeology, 1:54 popular music, 2:640 prostitution, 3:200 rape, 3:245 religious policy, 3:259 Sino-Japanese War, 3:407 social sciences, 3:439 South China Sea islands dispute, 3:465466 special administrative regions, 3:472, 474 sports, 3:480 sports figures, 3:483 Taibei, 3:517520 Three Principles of the People, 3:567 tombs of leaders, 2:484485 transsexuality and sex-change operations, 3:610 Treaty of Taipei, 4:226228 United Nations, 2:345 United States, relations with, 4:811 World Heritage Sites, lack of, 3:581 World War II peace settlement, 3:76 Xiamen, communication with, 4:108 Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League, 1:405 Taiwan economic miracle, 3:531 The Taiwan Question and Reunification of China, 4:291293 Taiwan Relations Act, 1:208 Taiwan Semiconductor Corporation, 3:536 Taiwan Solidarity Union, 3:22, 533 Taiwan Strait crisis arms competition, 1:74 Central Military Commission, 1:190
history, 3:547 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:104, 107 Taiwan Urban Planning Ordinance, 3:518 Taiwanization, 3:20, 532 Taixu brands, 1:154155 religious organizations, 3:256 Wang Zhen, 4:55 Xiamen, 4:108 Taiyuan Draft, 1:355 Takehisa Yumeji, 1:314, 2:32 Takeshi Kaneshiro, 2:49 Takeuchi Seiho, 1:112 Talk to Music Workers (Mao), 2:645 Tan Dun, 2:639, 650, 3:550551 Tan Kah Kee. See Chen Jiageng Tan Shaoyi, 1:284 Tan Sitong Buddhism, 1:154 Changsha, 1:196 reforms, 1:281, 4:133 Tan Tianrong, 1:421 Tan Tiansong, 1:62 Tan Xiaolin, 2:647648 Tan Xinpei, 3:87 Tan Yankai, 2:28 Tan Zhenlin, 2:177 Tan Zhonglin, 2:276 Tang, William, 2:25 Tang Baolin, 1:198 Tang Caichang, 4:151 Tang Contemporary Art Gallery, 1:95 Tang Disheng, 3:89 Tang dynasty, 1:49, 71, 2:641 Tang Guangzhao. See Tang Kunhua Tang Huaiqiu, 3:509 Tang Jian, 4:139 Tang Jingxing, 1:213, 346 Tang Jiyao, 1:143, 406 Tang Junyi, 1:350 Tang Kunhua, 4:100 Tang Xiangming, 1:143, 196 Tang Xiong, 4:101 Tang Yongkuan, 3:597 Tangshan city, 2:191 Tangshan earthquake, 1:437, 438, 2:15 Tanomura Chokunyu, 2:319 Tansuo (periodical), 1:394 Tanxu, 1:155 Tao Menghe, 3:438 Tao Shu, 2:491 Tao Xingzhi, 1:466, 3:463 Tao Yuanqing, 1:112, 316
Tao Zhu Guangdong, 2:156 reform, 3:248 sea transport experiment, 2:147 Wei Yuan, association with, 4:67 Zhao Ziyang, association with, 4:154 Tariffs autonomy, 2:352 foreign trade, 2:89 international relations, 2:349 National Products movement, 3:8 Opium Wars, 3:62 treaties, 2:360 Yongyan, 1:505 Tatars, 2:369 Tau Yuanqing, 1:105 Tawney, R. H., 2:366 Taxation, 3:551553, 553556, 3:554f, 555t central-local relationships, 1:191, 455456 collections, 2:80 development zones, 4:24 domestic trade, 1:426 family, 2:5 farmers, 3:317 land use, 2:427 local administration, 2:135 Nanjing decade, 2:140 opium smuggling, 3:414415 peasantry, 3:79 poverty, 3:172 provincial government, 3:206 public finance, 3:216220, 218t Qing dynasty, 3:231232, 234 regionalism, 3:252253 revenue transfer, 3:216220 salt, 3:330331 special economic zones, 3:475 Sun Yat-sen, 3:514 Taipei Uprising, 3:525 tax farming, 3:218 trade tax, 1:321 United Nations Development Programme Report, 1:451 Zhu Rongji, 4:170 Tay Son rebels, 3:131 Taylor, Hudson, 2:614, 3:201 Taylorism, 2:315 Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilich, 2:648 Tcherepnin, Alexander, 2:647 Tea, 3:556559, 557 brands, 1:148 Hangzhou, 2:177 tax, 3:552 trade, 2:85 Teacher education, 1:471, 493, 494, 3:559561 Teacher Law, 3:560
498
Index
Teachers continuing education, 1:490 higher education, 1:486 kindergarten, 1:477478 Mao era, 1:468469 physical education, 3:480 quality, 1:471 urban areas, 1:473 Technical assistance Asian Development Bank, 2:336t Food and Agriculture Organization, 2:338 international development aid, 2:334 International Monetary Fund, 2:339 treaties, 2:362 Technical education, 3:545 Technology armaments, 1:7476 brand mergers, 1:150 Confucianism, 1:348 environmental issues, 1:532 espionage, 3:143 Galileo Satellite program, 1:538 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 industrial policy, 2:306, 311, 312314 mining, 2:604 publishing, 3:222 rice production, 1:18 Self-strengthening, 2:209210, 3:250 silk, 3:401 Soviet investment, 2:78 water conservation, 3:287 Westernization, 4:74 See also High technology; Science and technology policy Technology transfer companies, 1:345 Germany, 2:123124 high technology, 2:202 Japan, 2:374 joint ventures, 1:344 Pakistan, 3:68 Soviet Union, 2:304305, 308, 3:318 space program, 3:470472 special economic zones, 3:475 study abroad, 3:508 Technology zones, 4:160 Telecommunications brand mergers, 1:150 engineering research, 3:266 equipment, 2:203, 204 infrastructure, 3:608609 service sector, 3:356 Television, 3:562 elderly, 2:456 Feng Xiaogang, 2:31 propaganda, 3:187
Temperature, air, 1:289292, 294f, 295f, 296f, 297f Temple cults, 3:159160 Temple of Confucius, 2:292 Temple of Heaven, 3:492 Temporary residential permits, 2:247248, 416, 589590 Ten Chinese Painters in Japan (exhibition), 2:620 Ten Great Buildings, 3:346 Ten Great Constructions, 1:63 Ten Major Development Projects, 1:207 Ten Thousand Word Memorial (Hu), 2:255 Tenants. See Land tenure Teng Baiye, 1:105 Teng Biao, 3:276 Teng Geer, 2:642 Teng Gu, 1:87 Teng Haiqing, 2:325 Tension creation, 1:231 Tenzin Gyatso. See Dalai Lama Teochews, 1:241 Teochiu, 2:153 TEOS (Two Exemptions and One Subsidy), 1:475 Term limits, 3:158, 159 Terracotta army, 1:49, 50, 55, 3:369 Territorial disputes Central Asian states, relations with, 1:176 Diaoyu Islands, 2:375, 376 Heilongjiang, 2:194 India, 2:299, 301302, 3:320 Liuqiu Islands, 2:522 migration, 2:329330 military force, 3:111112 nationalism, 3:12 Peoples Republic of China, 4:66 Russia/Qing dynasty, 2:206207 Shanghai Mixed Court, 3:378382 South China Sea islands, 3:465466 Vietnam, 4:3334, 35 Zhongguo, 4:161 Terrorism, 1:176 Tertiary education. See Higher education Tertiary industry. See Service sector Textbook issue, 2:374, 3:5, 13 Textbooks anti-footbinding sentiment, 2:66 architectural history, 1:59 Chinese history, 2:222 early years of the Peoples Republic of China, 1:468469 history, 2:225
moral education, 1:466468 socialization and pedagogy, 3:458 Taiwan, 3:545 Wade, Thomas, 4:43 Textiles, 3:563566, 563f, 565f clothing, 1:301 foreign trade, 2:8586 industrialization, 2:312313, 315 Jiangsu, 2:385, 386 manufacturing, 2:174175 nationalism, 2:22 outmigration, 2:421 Rong Zongjing, 3:287290 urban employment, 4:2728 Wing On Department Stores, 4:78 Zhang Jian, 4:145 Thatcher, Margaret, 3:474, 4:6 Theater of the absurd, 2:110 Theme parks, 3:582 Thibaud, Jacques, 2:647 Think tanks, 3:270271 Third Five-Year Plan, 1:268 Third Force Chu Anping, 1:266 Democratic parties, 1:400 dissidents, 1:421 Zhang Junmai, 4:146147 Third Front, 1:268, 447, 3:399 Third-generation film directors, 2:41 Third Party, 1:403, 3:152 Third Plenum Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 4:256257 constitutions, 1:356 Deng Xiaoping, 1:409410 Hu Guofeng, 2:264265 policy decisions, 1:327328 Third thought liberation, 4:166 Thirteen Bureaus, 2:288 Thomson, John, 3:122 Thought work. See Propaganda Three-age theory, 2:127 Three-Antis campaign Chinese Communist Party, 1:326 drug policies, 1:433434 human rights, 2:268 penal system, 3:92 purpose, 2:216 united front work, 4:5 Three belts divisions, 1:447 3G mobile telecommunications, 2:203 Three Gorges Dam, 3:286 archaeology, 1:50 Chongqing, 1:265, 3:210211 construction of, 2:274 heritage protection, 2:201 history, 3:287
499
Index
Three Gorges Dam, continued Hunan and Hubei, 2:271 hydrological power, 1:519520 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368 Jiusan Society, 1:405 Sichuan, 2:119 Yangzi River, 3:279 Three Gorges Reservoir, 1:266 Three Hairs (comic), 1:315 Three Hills, 2:290 Three Lines of Construction, 1:205 Three nos, 3:430, 434, 444 Three Peoples Principles Youth Corps, 2:22 Three Principles of the People, 3:566567, 4:209210 democracy, 1:396 education, 1:467 Implementing The Three Peoples Principles (Jiang), 4:282283 nationalism, 3:11 Nationalist Party, 3:18 New Democracy, 3:29 political philosophy, 3:513514 Renaissance movement, influence on the, 2:21 Sun Yat-sen, 3:511 Three Principles of the People (anthem), 3:67 The three prominences, 3:197 Three Represents policy Chinese Communist Party, 1:330 Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao, attacks by, 3:31 Jiang Zemin, 1:234, 2:383, 384 Three Rules of Discipline, 1:324 Three rural issues, 3:81, 316317 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:202203, 256, 567570, 4:5 Three Tenors, 2:71 Three Worlds theory, 1:440, 2:357, 361 Ti, 3:235 Ti-yong relationship, 1:281 Tian Fengshan, 2:194195 Tian Han Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:29 Guo Moruo, association with, 2:165 plays, 3:133, 135 propaganda music, 2:643, 644, 645 Xu Beihong, association with, 4:116 Tian Han Southern Society, 2:643 Tian Jiaqing, 2:100 Tian Mansha, 3:89
Tian Xiaoqing, 3:139 Tian Zhuangzhuang, 2:4345 Tiananmen Incident, 2:21, 3:570572 Tiananmen Mothers, 1:423 Tiananmen Square, 1:398 enlargement, 2:68 expansion, 1:140, 4:15 international relations, 2:358 remaking of, 1:63 Tiananmen Square protests, 3:183 army and politics, 1:79 art history, 1:108 Australian reaction, 1:120 China/Avant-Garde exhibition, 1:96 Chinese Communist Party, 1:328 democratic ideas, 1:399 Deng Xiaoping, 1:411 dissidents, 1:422423 documentary photography, 3:124 drugs and narcotics, 1:434 film, 2:42 foreign policy, 2:82 French reaction, 2:91 German reaction, 2:124 Hong Kong, protests in, 2:238 Hu Yaobang, death of, 2:262 Liu Xiaobo, 2:521 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634 music, 2:646 New Wave movement, 3:34 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:106107 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:219220 political control, 3:145 political parties, formation of, 2:243 political pop and cynical realism, 3:153 prodemocracy movement, 3:183, 184 The Truth About the Beijing Turmoil, 4:288290 United Kingdom, reaction of the, 4:6 United States, reaction of the, 4:9 Wang Hui, 3:30 Western interpretation, 2:367 workers involvement, 3:501502 Zhao Ziyang, 4:156 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 Zhu Rongji, 4:171 See also Prodemocracy movement; Student organizations and activism Tiandihui. See Heaven and Earth Association Tianfeng lou. See Heavenly Wind Pavilion
Tianjin, 3:572573 central control of, 3:210211 industrial workers, 4:97 Jewish communities, 2:377 Tianjin massacre antimissionary sentiment, 3:235 nationalism, 2:352 Zeng Guofan, 4:141 Tianjin model of reform, 2:137 Tianjin Port free-trade zone, 4:25 Tianjin Students Union, 4:161 Tianjin University, 1:479 Tianma Hui, 1:83 Tiao kuai. See Lines and blocks Tibet, 3:573578, 575, 577 autonomy, 3:208 Chayu earthquake, 1:437 Dalai Lama, 1:379381 family, 2:6 geographic region, 2:122 Hu Jintao, 2:256257 Hu Yaobang, 2:262 human rights, 2:270 McMahon Line, 3:104 Pakistan, relations with, 3:66 tourism, 3:582 United States, relations with, 4:11 World Heritage Site, 3:581 Zhou Enlai, 4:163 Tibetan Government in Exile (TGIE), 1:380381, 3:577 Tibetans history and culture, 2:609 Qinghai, 3:237, 239, 240 Western Sichuan, 3:399 Tientsin. See Tianjin Timber trade. See Forestry and timber trade The Times (newspaper), 2:632 Tin mines, 2:603 Tito, Josip, 2:518 Tiyu, 3:51, 480 To Live (film), 4:132 To Our Foreign Friends (Wu), 2:342343 Tobacco industry, 2:313 Today (journal), 3:138139 Today No Water (installation art), 1:91 Tokyo, 1:7273 Tokyo School of Fine Arts Li Shutong, 1:111 modernism, 2:619 oil painting, 3:47 Western-style drawing and painting, 1:104 Tomb-Sweeping Day. See Qingming Festival Tomioka Tessai, 2:319
500
Index
Tone (language), 1:415 Tong-Guang poetry, 3:136 Tong Luo, 3:135 Tong Zhonggui. See Su Tong Tongking, 3:406 Tongrentang, 1:148 Tongxiang, 1:417 Tongxin earthquake, 3:43 Tongzhi emperor. See Zaichun Tongzhi restoration, 2:210, 349, 3:233234 Top Universities and Research Centers Project, 3:546 Topography, 3:2223, 277 Torch Program, 2:202, 3:337 Torture, 1:304, 2:270, 271 Total factor productivity (TFP), 2:306 Tourism, 3:578590, 580, 583, 584, 586, 587, 3:589t, 590f Anhui, 1:33 art market, 1:93 Chengdu, 1:205 Chinatowns, 1:250 Hakkas, 2:174 handicrafts, 2:176 Hangzhou, 2:177 Harbin, 2:180 hutongs, 2:280 India, 2:300 Jiangxi, 2:393 Kaohsiung, 2:403 leisure, 2:452, 454, 455 minority nationalities, 2:612 Nanjing, 3:34 Nanjing Road, 3:375 Naxi, 2:613 Qingdao, 3:237 Qinghai, 3:240 Shaanxi, 3:369 Sichuan, 3:400 Suzhou, 3:515 Xiamen, 4:108 Xian, 4:105 Yangzhou, 4:127, 128 Yunnan, 4:137 Township and village enterprises (TVEs), 3:590594, 591t, 593t central planning, 1:180 collectivization as precursor to, 3:302 company forms, 1:340 decollectivization, 3:312 economic reform, 1:453 gradualism, 1:459 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 industrial development, 2:306 land use, 2:430 local industries, 3:303 Maoist policies leading to, 3:300
nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 peasantry, 3:81 rural industrialization, 3:314316 small towns, 4:27 social classes, 3:426 state-owned enterprises, competition with, 3:496 transition economy, 3:594 unemployment, 2:420 Townships government, 3:212 peoples communes, replacement by, 3:209 taxation, 3:556 Toxic leaks, 2:180, 190, 195 Toxic waste, 1:525 Toyama Mitsuru, 3:73 Trade. See Domestic trade; Foreign trade Trade Act (U.S.), 2:634 Trade agreements. See Treaties and international agreements Trade balance agricultural production, 1:16 France, 2:9293 Germany, 2:124 Latin American states, 2:435, 436 opium, 3:60 WTO rules, 2:347 Trade embargoes Korean War, 2:87 United Kingdom, 4:5 Trade reform, 4:155 Trade relations cross-strait relations, 3:537538 Japan, 2:373 Latin American states, 2:435437 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 Pakistan, 3:70 Russia, 3:322 textiles, 3:565566 Trade routes, 3:384 Trade tax, 1:321 Trade Union Law, 2:413, 3:503 Trade unions First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, 1:323 International Labour Organization, 2:411 reform era, 2:413414 strikes, 3:503 women, 4:83 Trade wars, 1:429 Tradition-modernity divide, 2:225 Traditional brands, 1:148149 Traditional Chinese culture acupuncture, 1:4 art history scholarship, 1:87
Ba Jin, 1:127128 Beijing, 1:142 brands, 1:150 childhood, 2:477478 civil law, 1:305 classical poetry, 3:135136 epigraphic school of art, 1:535536 feudalism, 1:228 filial piety, 4:128 folk art, 2:5860 Forbidden City, 2:71 furniture, 2:100 guanxi, 3:26 hairstyles, 2:172, 172 homosexuality, 2:232 housing, 2:249, 250 imperialism, 2:293 individual rights, 2:302303 marriage, 2:479481 Mei Lanfang, 2:581582 missionaries, effect of, 1:34 morality, 2:630 National Essence movement, 1:113115 nationalism, 3:13 privacy, 3:176 qigong, 3:229230 Qing restoration, 3:235 Self-strengthening, 2:209210 See also Confucianism Traditional clothing, 1:299 Traditionalism, intellectual, 1:285286 Trafficking babies, 1:8 children, 4:129 labor, 2:422 women, 4:85 Tragedy of the commons, 3:25 Transfer of power. See Political succession Transformed tractors, 1:123 Transition economy, 3:594596 financial markets, 2:5254 price system, 3:175176 See also Economic reform; Socialist market economy Translation of foreign literature, 3:596598, 597 Translations and translators Chang, Eileen, 1:194 Lu Xun, 2:534 Morrison, Robert, 2:633634 Waley, Arthur, 4:45 Yan Fu, 4:121122 Transnational movement, 4:108 Transnational subjects, 2:285 Transport infrastructure, 3:599609 Transportation agricultural products, 1:14 Beijing, 1:142
501
Index
Transportation, continued Central Asian states, 1:175 dams, 1:520 domestic trade, 1:424425, 426 Fuzhou, 2:101102 Grand Canal, 2:145146 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450 Guangzhou, 2:161 Hebei, 2:191 Hubei, 2:274 Jiangsu, 2:388 Jiangxi, 2:389390 Jinan, 2:396397 Nanjing, 3:1 oil consumption, 1:518 Qingdao, 3:237 Shanghai, 3:374 Taibei, 3:518 Three Gorges Dam, 1:519 urbanization, 4:17 workers, 1:424 Wuhan, 4:103 Yangzi River, 3:278 Yunnan, 4:137 Zhang Zhidong, 4:151 See also Transport infrastructure Transsexuality, 3:609611, 610 Travel abroad, 3:588590, 589t, 590f Travel agencies, 3:589 Travel documents, 1:254, 2:241 Treasury bonds, 2:75 Treaties and international agreements Agreement on a Poverty Reduction Partnership, 2:336 Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, 2:421 Agreement on the Demarcation of Waters, Exclusive Economic Zones, and Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Tonkin, 4:35 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property rights, 2:442 Almaty Declaration, 2:370371 ASEAN Treaty of Amity, 3:466 Beijing Conventions of 1860, 1:218 Chefoo Convention, 2:561, 4:44 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 2:200 Convention of Beijing, 2:234, 3:62 Convention on Biological Diversity, 1:513 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1:513 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and
Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 2:200 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 4:56 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 4:129 Convention on World Heritage Sites, 3:581 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, 1:119 development aid, 2:335 environmental issues, 1:532533 extraterritoriality, revocation of, 2:352 Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation, 1:119 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 2:344 General Agreement on Trade in Services, 3:354 history, 2:359362 India, 2:300 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1:538 Japan, 2:373374 Joint Declaration, 1:119, 2:237238 Korean Armistice Agreement, 2:407 Land Border Treaty, 4:35 Latin American states, 2:435436 Memorandum of Understanding on Defense Cooperation, 2:300 Mutual Defense Treaty, 3:530 Nanking Treaty, 2:207 Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, 1:537 Qing dynasty, 2:349351 Security Treaty, Japanese-U.S., 2:375 Seventeen Point Agreement, 1:379381, 3:576577 Sino-Indonesian Dual Nationality Treaty, 1:237 Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration, 3:474 Sino-Soviet Agreements, 2:352 Sino-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, 2:353, 3:16 Sino-Soviet Treaty, 1:206, 2:354 Soviet/Chinese mutual-assistance treaty, 2:186 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Treaty, 3:16 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, 1:119 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 2:216
Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Good-Neighborly Relations, 3:70 Treaty of Nerchinsk, 3:232 Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 2:373374 Treaty of Taipei, 4:226228 Treaty of the Bogue, 3:62 Treaty of Versailles, 2:352, 3:11, 236 United Kingdom/Qing dynasty, 2:206 Vietnam, 4:34 World Heritage Convention, 1:5253 World War II peace settlement, 3:7576 Yalta Agreement, 2:354 See also Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing); Treaty of Shimonoseki; Treaty of Tianjin; Unequal treaties Treatises, history, 2:221 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, 1:119 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Good-Neighborly Relations, 3:70 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce, 2:541 Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing), 4:190192 Hong Kong, 2:234 international relations, 2:349 Jiangsu, 2:387 Minning, 1:506 mission schools, 1:487 nationalism, rise of, 2:281 Opium Wars, 3:60, 62 Shanghai, 4:17 treaty ports, 3:611 treaty system, 2:359 unequal treaties, 2:360 Treaty of Nerchinsk, 3:232 Treaty of Peace, 3:76 Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 2:373374 Treaty of Shimonoseki, 4:202204 indemnities, 1:218 industrialization, 2:311312 international relations, 2:350 Liang Qichao, 2:467 Sino-Japanese War, 3:407 Taiwan, 3:528 unequal treaties, 2:360 Treaty of Taipei, 4:226228 Treaty of the Bogue, 1:543, 2:349, 3:62 Treaty of Tianjin, 4:195196 international relations, 2:349 Opium Wars, 3:62 piracy, 3:132
502
Index
Tianjin, 3:572 treaty ports, 3:611 as unequal treaty, 2:360 Treaty of Versailles Chinas refusal to sign, 2:352 nationalism, 3:11 Shandong question, 3:236 Treaty of Wangxia, 2:349, 360 Treaty of Whampoa, 1:543, 2:349, 360 Treaty ports, 3:611614, 612 art market, 1:92 art workshops, 3:47 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217218 commercial elite, 1:321 compradors, 1:345346 concessions, 2:7172 consumption and consumer culture, 1:358 education of intellectuals, 1:283 film, 2:38 Fuzhou, 2:101 gender relations, 2:114 Guangdong, 2:154 Guangzhou, 2:160 Hankou, 2:272, 4:101 imperialism, 2:294 industrial workers, 4:96 industrialization, 2:312 intellectuals, 2:210 international relations, 2:349 journalism, 2:398 opium smuggling, 3:414 Opium Wars, 3:62 police, 3:140 shops, 3:395 tea trade, 3:558 textiles, 2:175 Tianjin, 3:572 trade, 2:8485 Wenzhou, 4:72 Wuhu, 1:32 Xiamen, 4:108 Yuan Shikai, 2:138 Treaty system end, 2:359360 extraterritoriality, 1:542543 sovereignty, effect on, 4:63 Zaichun, reign of, 1:507 Tree planting, 1:413, 415 Tributary mode of production, 4:1617 Tribute grain China Merchants Steam Navigation Company, 1:213, 214t fiscal policy, 3:552 Jiangsu, 2:385 transport, 2:491 Tribute system imperialism, 2:293 international relations, 2:349
Korea, 2:404 Liuqiu Islands, 2:522 rice, 1:18 Sino-French War, 3:406 Zhongguo, 4:160161 Triple Intervention, 3:344 Trotsky, Leon Chen Duxiu, influence on, 1:198 Chiang Ching-kuo, influence on, 1:206 Comintern, 1:309 Twenty-one conditions, 1:228 Zhu Zhixin, work of, 1:220 Trotskyism, 3:614616 Truck manufacturing, 1:121, 122, 2:190 Trucking, 3:608 True Jesus Church, 3:202, 570 Truman, Harry S. containment policy, 2:82 Korean War, 2:407, 4:8 Marshall mission, 2:354 Nationalist government, relations with the, 3:16 reparations, 3:76 Truth, debate on, 1:287288 The Truth About the Beijing Turmoil, 4:288290 Tsai Ming-liang. See Cai Mingliang Tsang, Donald, 2:245, 246 Tsao, Willy, 1:386 Tseng Yuho, 4:92 Tsinghua University, 1:3 Tsingtao. See Qingdao Tsong-zung Chang, 1:82 Tsui Hark, 2:49 Tu Long, 2:98 Tuanlian, 1:137, 391 Tuition, 2:363 Tung Chee-hwa, 2:240, 244246, 3:474 Tuo Ming, 2:653 Turandot (opera), 2:71 Turbines, wind, 1:520521, 532 Turgenev, Ivan, 1:128 Turkic Muslims ethnic group, 2:369, 370 Gansu, 2:107 Muslim uprisings, 2:653 Tushan Wan Painting Workshop, 3:47 Tutelage Constitution, 1:355 Twenty-eight Bolsheviks, 1:325 Twenty-one conditions, 1:228 Twenty-one Demands, 2:138, 4:134, 208209 The Twenty-three Articles, 4:241247 Twitchett, Denis, 3:410
Two Basics project, 1:498 Two-child family policy, 3:167 Two China policy, 2:355 Two Exemptions and One Subsidy (TEOS), 1:475 Two slogans debate, 2:255, 447, 502503 Two-stage revolutionary process, 1:223, 336 Two states theory, 3:544 Two Wus, 4:101
U
U Nu, 4:163 Uchiyama Kakitsu, 1:113, 2:463, 3:32 Uchiyama Kanzo, 1:112, 3:32 Ueberroth, Peter, 3:54 Ulbricht, Walter, 2:123 Ullens, Guy, 1:93 Umehara Ryuzaburo, 1:104 Underdevelopment, 3:355 Underground films, 2:45 Underground poetry, 3:138 Undocumented migrant workers, 2:422 Unemployment, 2:419, 4:2932 food-for-work scheme, 3:433434 income distribution, 2:298 Liaoning, 2:470471 outmigration, 2:420423 reform era, 2:418420 sent-down educated youth, 3:352 Shenyang, 3:394 social policy programs, 3:431 social welfare, 3:442, 451 state-owned enterprises layoffs, 2:415 See also Social welfare Unequal treaties Chinas Destiny (Chiang), 4:218220 international relations, 2:360 Liang Qichao, 2:467 missionaries, 2:614 treaty ports, 3:611613 See also Specific treaties UNESCO. See United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Unger, Roberto, 3:30 Unification policy, 2:8384 Uniforms, 1:301 Union Medical College. See Peking Union Medical College Unions. See Trade unions Unirule Institute of Economics, 3:271 Unit, 4:13 gated communities, 4:23 government, 3:214215
503
Index
Unit, continued health insurance, 1:509510 housing, 2:252 iron rice bowl, 3:494 Mao era urbanization, 4:1819 political control, 3:144 real estate management, 4:2526 social welfare, 3:442 urban housing, 4:22 urban organization, 4:15 United Front Anti-Japanese War, 1:38 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:208 Comintern, 1:310, 323 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 literature of national defense, 2:502503 Mao Zedong, 2:554 Nationalist government, 3:1516 New Fourth Army, 3:103 Northern Expedition, 3:45 Russia, relations with, 3:318 Sun Yat-sen, 3:512 Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 3:567570 two slogans debate, 2:447 Wang Jingwei, 4:49 warlords, 4:59 United front work, 4:35 United Kingdom, 4:57 copper and silver, 1:361363 economic relations with the Qing dynasty, 1800, 3:232233 extraterritoriality, 1:543 foreign loans, 2:7980 Hong Kong, return of, 1:411 investment in China, 2:7778 Margary affair, 2:560561 mining and mineral rights, 2:603604 nationality issues in Hong Kong, 2:241242 official development assistance, 2:334 opium trade, 3:5758, 414415 Opium Wars, 3:6063 piracy against British ships, 3:132 Qing dynasty, 2:349 scramble for concessions, 3:344 Second Opium War, 1:506507 Sino-British Joint Declaration, 4:280282 Sino-Japanese War, 3:407 sinology, 3:409 Taiping Uprising, 3:523, 525 tea trade, 3:558 textiles industry, 3:564 Tibet, 3:574 trade treaties, Qing dynasty, 2:206 treaty ports, 2:8486, 3:611613 Wade, Thomas, 4:4344
Western interpretation, 2:366 Xiao Qian, 4:109 Yunnan, 4:135 Zaichun, reign of, 1:507 See also British colonialism United National Reconstruction Comrades Association, 3:152 United Nations, 2:346 Bill of Rights, 2:269 Chinese Communist Party rebuilding, 1:327 Chinese foreign relations, 2:296 Conference on Disarmament, 2:346 development aid, 2:335 Dumbarton Oaks Conversations, 2:343 establishment, 2:345, 361 Food and Agriculture Organization, 2:337338 Fourth World Conference on Women, 1:27 international development programs, 2:333 Korean War, 2:407 membership, 2:361 Peoples Republic of China entry, 2:83, 345346 Resolution 687, 4:9 Taiwan, status of, 2:83, 355, 3:531, 542545 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1:215217, 532 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1:532 United Nations Development Programme, 1:450451, 2:340341 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) cultural heritage protection, 1:5253, 308, 2:199, 200 intangible cultural heritage protection, 3:161 Ling Shuhua, 2:495 Shanxi, 3:387 World Heritage Sites, 3:581 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, 1:27, 432, 2:440 United Nations peacekeeping forces, 1:11 United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Aid, 2:87 United Nations Security Council membership, 2:343 Peoples Republic of China participation, 2:347 Sudan, 4:56
United Nations World Food Program, 2:332 United States art exhibitions, 1:81, 82 assessment of Chinese military doctrine, 3:110111 Chinese civil war, involvement in the, 1:271 Chinese exclusion laws, 1:256, 258 Committee on Public Information, 2:399 copper and silver, 1:362363 cultural objects, ban on imports of, 2:200201 dance, 1:383 fengshui, 2:3334 Maoist propaganda, 2:323 monetary policy, 2:148150 propaganda photography, 3:125 sinology, 3:410 tea, 3:558 war on terrorism, 2:358 World War II, 1:210 United States, Chinese in the, 1:406, 2:447448 United States, relations with, 4:811 anti-Americanism, 3:322 Chiang Kai-shek, 1:211, 2:141 Chinese foreign policy, 2:82 Cold War, 2:355357 Cultural Revolution, 1:376 extraterritoriality, 1:543 importance, 2:358359 Jiang Zemin, 2:384 Joint Communique on Arms Sales to Taiwan, 4:279280 military doctrine, 3:112 Nationalist government, 2:361, 3:16 normalization, 2:219 Olympics, 3:53 open-door policy, 2:294 1990s, 2:362 Sino-Soviet schism, 3:412413 Song Ziwen, 3:464 spheres of influence, 3:345 Taiwan, 1:208, 3:530, 531, 542 Taiwan military training, 3:547 Taiwan Strait crisis, 3:104 treaty port system, 2:8486 War on Terror, 2:371 Yang Zhenning, 4:127 Zhou Enlai, 4:164 United States, trade with exchange rates, 2:74 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:634635 power generation equipment, 1:522 textiles, 3:564, 566 United States aid, 2:353
504
Index
United States foreign policy ASEAN, 1:118 Australia, 1:120 Central Asian states, 1:176 Europe, 1:538 Five Point Peace Plan, 1:381 Japan, 2:375 Korea, 2:405 Korean War, 2:406407, 408 Latin American states, 2:436437 Pakistan, impact on relations with, 3:66, 67 Southeast Asia, 3:469 United Kingdom, 4:7 United States influence, 1:477 United States Information Agency (USIA), 1:194 United States military, 1:74 Universities. See Higher education University Act, 3:546 University of Hong Kong, 2:240 University of Pennsylvania, 2:469 Unsafe sex, 2:228, 229 Unskilled labor, 2:115, 4:9798 Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles (Deng), 4:270272 Upper Yangzi macroregion, 2:119 Upward mobility, 3:429 Uranium mines, 1:521 Urban and Rural Planning Act, 4:22 Urban areas, 4:1127 air quality, 1:526 central control, 3:210211 collectives, 1:341, 342 consumption and consumer culture, 1:357358 documentary photography, 3:122 domestic trade, 1:425426 drugs and narcotics, 1:434 education, 1:469 education class, 3:429 elderly, 2:9, 456, 483 epidemic prevention, 1:534 family-based care, 3:443 foreign settlements, 2:72 funerals, 2:486 hairstyles, 2:172 handicrafts, 2:174, 176 health and diet, 2:65 housing, 2:249, 251252, 252253, 252t labor mobility, 2:416417 leisure, 2:453, 455 medical care, 2:570, 571, 3:447448 migration, 2:329 Nationalist government, 3:15 Nationalist Party, 3:19 nepotism and guanxi, 3:28 one-child policy, 2:13, 3:168169
parks, 2:112 pensions, 3:449 police, 3:140142 popular music, 2:640 poverty, 3:173174, 451 restaurants, 2:64 roads, 3:608 social classes, 3:424425, 426427 social welfare, 3:441442 standard of living, 3:486, 487 street committees and communities, 3:215 student organizations and activism, 3:504 tourism, 3:583584 unemployment, 2:419420 water supply and quality, 1:525 women, status of, 4:8283, 86 See also City and regional planning Urban comedies, 2:31 Urban design, 3:2, 4:1315, 19 Urban development, 4:29t Dalian, 1:382 destruction of World Heritage Sites, 3:581 Guangzhou, 2:160161 heritage protection, 2:201 Jinan, 2:397 Suzhou, 3:515 Urban employment, 4:2729, 2932, 29t, 31f health insurance, 1:509510 women, 4:8081 Urban planning. See City and regional planning Urban proletariat, 1:225 Urban reform Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:456457 Hungarian influence, 1:440 Peoples Republic of China, 2:219, 4:1415 Zhang Jian, 4:145 Urban revitalization Chinatowns, 1:248249 development zones, 4:24 Nanjing, 3:34 Suzhou Museum, 3:85 Wuhan, 4:103 Urban townships, 3:212 Urbanization, 4:30t art in Taiwan, 1:110 brands, 1:149 Chongqing, 1:266 county government, effect on, 3:209210 family-based care, 3:443444 household registration, 2:247 housing, 2:249 income distribution, 2:298
labor, 2:409410 labor mobility, 2:416417 local government, 3:205 Peoples Republic of China, 4:1820 political culture, 3:149 political economics, 4:1617 Qingdao, 3:236 religious revival, 3:161 service sector, 3:355356 Skinnerian model, 4:1516 urban employment, 4:28 U.S. Agency for International Development, 2:333 U.S. dollar, 2:73 U.S. Treasury bonds, 2:75 Utopia, 2:217218 Utopian romanticism, 4:123124 Uxorilocal marriages, 2:480481 Uygur rebellion, 2:370 Uygurs autonomy, 3:208 history and culture, 2:607 Islam, 2:369, 371, 372 Pakistan, relations with, 3:68 Uzbeks, 2:369
V
Vacations, 2:455 Vaccines, 1:533, 2:579580 Vajpayee, Atal Bihari, 2:301 Value-added tax, 3:554556 Values. See Morality Van Gogh, Vincent, 2:515 Vasilev, V. P., 3:410 Vattant, Alice, 2:488 Vegetable farming. See Fruit and vegetable farming Venereal disease. See Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) Venn, Henry, 3:567 Verhaeren, Emile, 1:25 Vernacular furniture, 2:97, 100 Vernacular language Hokkien, 2:232 Republican era literature, 2:504 textbooks, 1:467 Vernacular literature, 1:285286, 3:390, 391 Vertical integration, 3:496 Veterans, 3:548 Vezey, Mary Custis, 3:324 Vice trade, 3:350352 Victims of rape, 3:245 Video art, 1:91 Vietminh, 4:33
505
Index
Vietnam, 4:3335, 34 ethnic Chinese refugees, 2:158 Guangxi, relations with, 2:159 invasion of, 2:358, 4:66 military force, use of, 3:111112 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:104106 Sino-French War, 3:405406 South China Sea islands, 3:465 textiles, 3:566 Zhou Enlai, 4:163 See also Southeast Asian states Vietnam War, 4:65 ASEAN, 1:118 China Hands, 1:213 Chinese assistance, 4:33 Peoples Liberation Army, 3:104105 Taiwan, 1:211 United States, relations with, 4:8 Village committees, 2:248249 Villages, 4:3539, 37 administration, 2:133134 food-for-work scheme, 3:434 government, 3:213214 taxation, 3:556 Vincent, John Carter, 1:212, 213 Violence Agrarian Reform Law, 3:301 Red Guards, 3:246 Visas, entry. See Travel documents Visits, 3:437 Vladimirov, Peter, 2:256, 4:6970, 123 Vocabulary, 1:167 Vocational education, 4:3942, 40f Taiwan, 3:545 women, 1:493, 494 Vocational Education Society, 1:402 Voitinsky, Grigori, 1:309, 334 Volcanoes, 3:517 Volkswagen, 1:121122, 2:190 Voluntary associations, 1:270271 Volunteer army, 3:548 Volunteerism, 1:223 Voting constitutions, 1:354 elections and assemblies, 1:503504 women, 4:8384, 87
W
Wade, Thomas, 4:4345 Margary affair, 2:560561 reform, 3:250 sinology, 3:409 Wage-substitution, 2:420 Wages cadres, 2:412413 industrial workers, 4:97
labor law, 3:503 migrant workers, 2:588, 590 mining, 2:604 poverty, 3:174 Qing official incomes, 2:131 standard of living, 3:485 university faculty, 1:486 urban employment, 4:31 women, 4:84 workers, 2:413 Waitan huabao, 3:131 Waldersee, Alfred, 3:329 Waley, Arthur, 2:366, 4:45 Wallace, Henry, 1:212 Walled cities, 2:101, 4:13 Walsh, Richard, 1:153, 2:490 Wan, Pacino, 2:25 Wan Gang, 1:406 Wan Hui, 3:30 Wan Jen. See Wan Ren Wan Li, 2:248, 3:309 Wan Qingli, 1:89 Wan Ren, 2:51 Wan Yanhai, 2:229 Wanderers, 1:118 Wang, C. K. See Yang Chuanguang Wang, Lan-Lan, 1:386 Wang, Yunyu, 1:386 Wang Anyi, 3:291, 4:4547 Wang Boxin, 4:173 Wang Chaowen, 1:116 Wang Chonghui, 1:284 Wang Dan, 1:422, 423, 3:184 Wang Daohan, 2:383, 3:544 Wang Dongxing, 1:327, 393 Wang Dulu, 2:448 Wang Duqing, 3:615 Wang Fangyu. See Chu Ge Wang Fanxi, 1:198, 3:615 Wang Fei, 2:641 Wang Feng, 2:41 Wang Fuzhi, 1:196 Wang Guangmei, 3:246 Wang Guangqi, 2:643 Wang Guangyi Maoist art, 2:322 New Wave movement, 3:35 oil painting, 3:50 political pop, 3:153 rationalist painting, 1:108 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 archaeology, 1:42 art collecting, 1:307 pro-Manchu sentiment, 1:285 Xu Beihong, association with, 4:114 Wang Hongwen, 1:373, 3:158
Wang Hui literati painting, 2:500 New Left, 1:288 Westernization, 4:75 Wang Huning, 2:383 Wang Ji, 1:492 Wang Jian, 2:500 Wang Jiawei. See Wong Kar-wai Wang Jiaxiang, 4:168 Wang Jingwei, 4:4850, 49 Chen Duxiu, work with, 1:197 Chiang Kai-shek, relationship with, 1:208, 3:15 China Social Party, 3:454 Comintern, 1:310 constitutions, 1:354355 Japan, collaboration with, 1:3738 left-wing faction, 3:152 Nanjing, 3:2 Nationalist Party, 3:18, 19 Northern Expedition, 3:4546 Sun Yat-sen, support of, 3:511 Three Principles of the People, 3:567 Wuhan, 2:272 Wang Jinsong, 1:98, 108, 3:154 Wang Jinxi, 2:308 Wang Jiqian, 1:265, 351, 4:99 Wang Jiyuan, 2:619, 3:72 Wang Juntao, 1:422, 423 Wang Kangnian, 4:121 Wang Kefen, 1:384 Wang Keping, 1:393, 3:348, 489, 491 Wang Li, 1:101, 262, 3:383 Wang Lun, 3:256 Wang Luobin, 2:642 Wang Meng (skater), 3:54 Wang Meng (writer and Minister of Culture), 4:5052 as dissident, 1:421 modernism, 2:506 reversal of the verdict, 2:278 Wang Ming Chen Yun, work with, 1:202 Comintern, 3:29 rectification campaign, 4:168 removal of, 1:325 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Trotskyism, 3:615 Yanan, 4:123 Zhou Enlai, contact with, 4:162 Wang Mingdao, 3:202 Wang Niansun, 1:2, 2:127 Wang Ongwen, 1:327 Wang Qishan, 4:170 Wang Ruoshui, 1:288, 2:261, 4:166 Wang Shaoao, 1:403 Wang Shaoguang, 1:288, 3:3031
506
Index
Wang Shen, 2:645 Wang Shimin, 2:500 Wang Shiwei, 3:615, 4:52, 124 Wang Shixiang, 2:100 Wang Shouren, 3:42 Wang Shunu, 3:197 Wang Shuo, 4:5253 collected works, 3:224 commercial literature, 2:506 Feng Xiaogang, work with, 2:31 on Lu Xun, 2:531 New Year movies, 3:36 Wang Su, 1:2 Wang Sun, 1:88 Wang Tao democratic ideas, 1:396 historiography, 2:221 journalism, 2:398 reform, 2:210 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:273 Wang Tongzhao, 2:553 Wang Wenxian, 1:168 Wang Xia, 4:144 Wang Xiang, 1:43 Wang Xianzhi, 1:535 Wang Xiaoni, 3:139 Wang Xiaoshuai, 2:4547 Wang Xizhe, 1:395, 422, 423, 3:615 Wang Xizhi, 1:100, 103, 164, 535 Wang Yangming, 1:277 Wang Yi, 1:288 Wang Yin, 2:319 Wang Yinzhi, 1:2, 2:127 Wang Yiting. See Wang Zhen Wang Yongjiang, 2:549 Wang Yuanlu, 1:41, 42 Wang Yuanqi, 2:500 Wang Zengqi, 3:392 Wang Zhaoguo, 1:337 Wang Zhaoqing, 2:33 Wang Zhen, 4:5355 bunjinga painting, 2:319 Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Japanese influence, 1:112 National Essence movement, 1:114 Wang Zhenging, 3:51 Wang Zhenhe, 2:507 Wang Zhulin, 2:495 Wang Ziping, 3:124 Wanghia Treaty, 1:543 Wangxia Treaty. See Wanghia Treaty Wanmu Caotang, 1:281 War and warfare lineage, 2:494 poverty, 3:172 See also Guerrilla warfare
War correspondents Fan Changjiang, 2:1920 Snow, Edgar, 3:416417 War crimes, 3:45, 4:5557 War of Resistance. See Anti-Japanese War War on Terror, 2:371 Ward, Frederick Townsend, 2:461 Warhol, Andy, 2:321, 322 Warlord era, 4:5759 Anhui, 1:32 army and politics, 1:78 Changsha, 1:196 Chengdu, 1:204205 federalism, 2:2728 film, 2:38 government administration, 2:138139 Guizhou, 2:162 higher education, 1:479481 history, 2:213 housing, 2:250 military, 2:594 Northern Expedition, 3:4546 poverty, 3:172 prostitution, 3:198 railways, 3:604 regionalism, 3:253254 Shandong, 3:373 Shanxi, 3:385 Shen Congwen, 3:390391 Sichuan, 3:398 social classes, 3:424 wars, 4:64 Warlords Hainan, 2:168 Nanjing Decade, 2:215 Nationalist government, 3:15 Ningxia, 3:43 Warner, Langdon, 1:42, 307 Warning of Russian Issues, 1:314 Warning systems, earthquake, 1:438 Wars, 4:5962, 6266 Warsaw Pact, 2:354 Washington Conference, 2:360 Wastewater discharge, 3:279 Water and fengshui, 2:33 Water Cube (Olympic venue), 3:55 Water quality, 1:526 environmental issues, 1:525526 Huai River, 3:282 river systems, 3:277 State Environmental Protection Administration, 3:287 Yangzi River, 3:279 Yellow River, 3:281 Water resources management. See Irrigation and water resources management
Water rights, 2:493, 494, 3:285 Water-sleeve dance, 1:383 Watson, James, 2:284 Way of Former Heaven, 3:363 Wealth, distribution of Chinese Communist Party, 1:330 financial markets, 2:54 social classes, 3:427428 Sun Yat-sen, 3:514 Weapons. See Armaments Weaving, 2:175, 4:2728 Weddings, 2:479, 480 Wedemeyer, Albert, 1:37 Weekend Lover (film), 2:46 Wei, Yu, 1:386 Wei Changsheng, 3:86 Wei Ershen, 3:50 Wei Hui, 2:506, 3:223224 Wei Jingshan, 3:49 Wei Jingsheng arrest, 1:410, 3:138 constitutionalism, 1:353 Democracy Wall, 1:394, 395 democratic ideas, 1:399 dissidents, 1:422, 423 Fang Lizhi, appeal for liberation by, 2:21 prodemocracy movement, 3:184 Wei Yuan, 4:6668 Confucianism, 1:347 constitutionalism, 1:352 Essays on Qing Imperial Statecraft, 2:206 Guangzhou, 2:160 navy, 3:249 New Text scholarship, 1:278279, 2:221 Wei Zhongguo wenhua jinggao shijie renshi xuanyan (Zhang et al.), 1:350 Weights and measures, 4:6869, 68t, 69t Weihaiwei, 3:407 Welcome House, 1:153 Welfare. See Social welfare Wells, salt, 3:332 Wen Fong, 1:81 Wen Jiabao, 4:69, 70 agriculture, 3:81 AIDS stigma reduction, 2:230 Chinese Communist Party leadership, 1:330 detention and repatriation centers, 3:275 elite, 3:428 employment, 2:420 five-year plans, 2:58 government restructuring, 1:188 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:450
507
Index
Wen Jiabao, continued harmonious society, 2:180 health care, 3:295 Hu Jintao, alliance with, 2:257 human rights protection, 3:274 India, relations with, 2:300 New Left, influence of the, 3:31 Northeast China revitalization program, 2:194 party future, 2:383 populism, 2:257 rural problems, 3:317 social policy programs, 3:431 in Tokyo, 2:375 Zhu Rongji, association with, 4:170, 171 Wen Jieruo, 3:597, 4:109 Wen Lou, 1:110 Wen Yiduo, 2:499, 3:137, 507 Wen Zhenheng, 2:98 Wenbing school of medicine, 2:576 Wencheng Gonzhu, 2:609 Wenchuan earthquake, 1:437438, 475 Weng Fan, 4:127 Weng Kesan, 2:318 Weng Tonghe, 2:30, 402 Weng Wenhao, 1:284, 3:23 Wenhua re movement. See Culturefever movement Wenmei Studio, 4:94 Wenrenhua. See Literati painting Wenxiang, 2:181, 3:249 Wenxing Tiaoli, 1:302 Wenxue Yanjiu Hui. See Chinese Literary Association Wenzhou, 4:7173 Wenzhou trade association, 1:270 West, Chinese influence on the architecture, 2:316 cult of Mao, 3:115117 Maoist propaganda, 2:323 Mei Lanfang, 2:582 music, 2:638639, 651 West Germany. See Germany West Lake, 2:177 West Lake Garden, 2:112 Western art advertising posters, 1:313 art history, 1:104105 Li Fengmian, 2:488 Li Shutong, 1:111 Liu Haisu, 2:514515 Mao era, 1:106107 naturalism, 1:103 New Print movement, 3:3132 oil painting, 3:4748 sculpture, 3:345, 348
Shanghai school of painting, 1:101102 Taiwan, 1:109110 women painters, 4:9091 See also Western modernism; Western realism Western art market, 3:155 Western bookkeeping, 2:516 Western calendar, 1:164 Western China, 1:450 Western China Poverty Alleviation Program, 2:342 Western collectors, 1:307308 Western companies, 1:150, 152, 460 Western constitutionalism, 1:352 Western cosmology, 1:367 Western culture ancient dynamics between China and the West, 1:53 architecture, 1:5960, 6769, 2:72 art history scholarship, 1:87 clothing, 1:300 dance, 1:383 drama, 3:133 emotions, 2:528529 film, 2:4142 Guangzhou, 2:159 intellectuals, 1:283 love, 2:528530 morality, 2:630 Qing restoration, 3:235 social structure, 3:27 Western education civil service examination, abolition of the, 1:542 higher education, 1:479 Qing dynasty education reform, 1:465 Western expansionism, 2:293295, 350351, 461, 3:344345 Western explorers, 1:4041, 42, 45 Western Great Leap, 2:263 Western interpretation, 2:365367 Legge, James, 2:451452 Mei Lanfang, 2:582 Western learning, 1:281, 347 Western literature literary societies, 2:499 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:550 Qian Zhongshu, 3:228 translation of, 3:596597 See also Western modernism Western medicine. See Medicine, Western Western modernism Chen Shizeng, 1:536 Chinese modernist art, influence on, 2:619621
Gao Xingjian, 2:110 Liu Guosong, 2:512 misty poetry, 3:139 music, 2:647648 New Wave movement, 3:34 Taiwan literature, 2:507 Western museums, 2:200202 Western musical influence, 2:647651, 650 Western perceptions of Chinatowns, 1:247248, 250 Western philosophy Buddhism as alternative to, 1:154 good society, 2:181 Western postmodernism, 3:121 Western power studies, 4:67 Western products, 1:358359 Western publications, 1:315 Western realism Ding Ling, 1:418419 Lingnan school, 2:496 Western religion, 3:160, 258 Western scholarship architectural history, 1:58 Chinese history, 2:224225 furniture, 2:9899 Heaven and Earth Association, 3:352 Revolution of 1911, 3:273 sinology, 3:409411 social sciences, 3:438 Western science traditionalism vs., 1:286 weights and measures, 4:68 Western Sichuan, 3:399 Western socialism, 3:453 Western study abroad, 3:507 Western technology Confucianism, 1:348 military and the Self-strengthening movement, 4:59 Neo-Confucianism, 1:347 printing, 2:508 publishing industry, 3:221 Self-strengthening, 2:209210 Westerners China Hands, 1:212213 Qing dynasty, 3:232 Westernization, 4:7375, 74 art, 1:111112 banks, 2:621 diet, 2:63 encyclopedias, 1:511 fashion, 2:22, 23, 2425 Feng Guifen, 2:31 government administration, 2:132 handicrafts, 2:176 housing, 2:250251 industry, 2:387
508
Index
journalism, 2:398 law, 1:303, 376, 377 law courts, 2:438439 legal education, 2:451 legal reform, 2:450 mandarin duck and butterfly literature, 2:551 May Fourth movement, 2:567 Meiling, Song, 1:209 military, 2:591 missionaries, 2:616 National Essence movement as reaction to, 1:113115 Neo-Confucianism, 1:347 penal system, 3:91 Shanghai, 3:375 Sino-Japanese War, 3:407408 sports, 3:479480 Tianjin, 3:572 Yuan Shikai, 2:138 Zhang Zhidong, 4:150152 Whampoa Military Academy army and politics, 1:78 Chiang Kai-shek, 2:139 Comintern help in establishing, 1:323 history, 2:595 military culture and tradition, 2:599600 national anthem, 3:7 Nationalist Party, 3:8 Sun Yat-sen, 3:512 Whatever faction, 1:287, 2:261 Wheat production, 1:15 Wheaton, Henry, 1:303 White, Theodore, 1:212213, 2:366 White, Walter, 1:153 White Army, 3:322323 White channel publishing, 3:222, 224 White-collar crime, 3:351 The White-Haired Girl (ballet), 2:171, 506, 618619 White Lotus, 3:40, 255, 4:7677 White Lotus rebellion baojia system, 1:137 military administration, effect on, 2:135 Qing dynasty, 3:233 reforms, 3:248 White Paper on Human Rights, Preface, 4:290291 White Russians, 2:178 Whitelaws Department Store, 2:22 Whitewright, John S., 2:636 Whitlam, Gough, 1:120 Wholly foreign-owned enterprises (WFOEs), 1:344, 345 Wholly red earth flag, 3:7 Why (Gao), 3:334
Wikipedia, 1:512 Wildlife, 1:512514, 3:2526 Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship (Chen), 3:133134 Williams, John, 2:539 Willows in Spring (Zhou), 3:49 Wilson, David, 2:240 Wind and fengshui, 2:33 Wind power, 1:520521, 532, 2:326 Wing On Department Stores, 3:405, 4:7779 The Winking Owl (painting), 1:106 Winter Olympics, 3:54 Winters, 1:289 Witte, Sergei, 2:632 Wo syndicate, 3:351 Wo Zha, 3:32, 33 Women advertising posters, 1:313 Agrarian Land Reform Law, 2:426 All-China Womens Federation, 1:2628 birth-planning policy, 3:169 cabinet member, 1:188 comfort women, 1:39, 3:198, 200, 4:57 doctors, 2:577, 579 domestic violence, 1:430432 dormitory labor regime, 3:478479 education, 1:492495, 494f, 4:81t fashion, 2:2227 footbinding, 2:6567 friendships, lack of, 2:530 hairstyles, 2:170, 171, 172 higher education, 1:480 illiteracy, 1:494f independent womens organizations, 2:142 intellectuals, 1:283 land tenure, 2:425 May Fourth movement, 2:213 medical education, 2:183 ministers, 1:187 model theater, portrayals in, 2:618619 nationalism, 3:11 New Culture literature, 2:504 oil painters, 3:4849 Olympics, 3:54 prostitution, 3:198 publishing industry, 3:221 rape, 3:244245 suicide, 2:485 writers, 2:506 See also Laws on the protection of women and children Women, employment of, 4:7982, 86 gender relations, 2:115117 infanticide, 2:11
kindergarten as child-care, 1:476 Mao era, 4:84 urban women, 4:8283 Women, status of, 4:8287 Women artists, 4:9093 Women in politics, 4:8790 Womens Calligraphy and Painting Society, 1:99, 4:91 Womens Department, 3:462 Womens International War Crimes Tribunal, 4:57 Womens Normal College of Beijing, 1:493 Womens rights, 1:27 All-China Womens Federation, 1:2628 Buck, Pearl S., 1:153 Chen Duxiu, work with, 1:197 Ding Ling, 1:418 domestic violence, 1:431432 fashion, 2:24 late Qing dynasty, 4:80 Mei Lanfang, 2:581 rural areas, 4:38 Taiwan, 3:541 See also Feminism Wong Kar-wai, 2:49 Woo, John, 2:48, 49 Wood, Mary Elizabeth, 2:474 Woodblock printing, 4:9396, 94 art societies, 1:98, 99 Feng Zikai, influence on, 2:32 graphic arts, 1:316 history, 1:105 Japanese influence, 1:113 Li Hua, 2:463464 lunar calendar, 1:163 Luo Gongliu, 2:536 New Print movement, 3:3133 New Year pictures, 2:5960 propaganda, 3:188, 191 publishing, 2:508, 3:220221 Ren Xiong, 3:262263 Xu Bing, 4:117 Woodman, Dorothy, 4:109 Woolf, Virginia, 2:496 Word order, 2:231 Woren, Grand Secretary, 3:235, 250 Work-group responsibility system, 2:248 Work hours industrial workers, 4:97 labor law, 3:503 urban employees, 4:31 Work points credit cooperatives, 3:307 Great Leap Forward, 3:306 rural development, 3:298 sent-down educated youth, 3:353
509
Index
Work teams Great Leap Forward, 3:306 Red Guards, disapproval of, 3:246 Work unit. See Unit Workers diet, 2:6162 documentary photography, 3:122 elite, 2:305 labor and personnel administrations, 2:413 social classes, 3:426427 socialist realism, 3:456 work-related-injury insurance, 3:446 See also Migrant workers Workers, industrial, 4:9698 Workers compensation, 3:446 Workers new villages, 1:62 Working class Chinese Communist Party founding, 1:323 housing, 2:251 Workshop on Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea [Murakami], 3:466 World Bank China Investment Bank, 1:131 development programs, 2:341 poverty estimation, 3:174 World Book Company, 1:317 World Christian Student Federation, 1:35 World Exposition, 2010, 1:65, 69, 3:211, 377 World Federation of Engineering Organizations, 3:343 World Food Program, 2:332 World Health Organization (WHO) acupuncture, 1:5 avian influenza, 1:125 Chan, Margaret, 2:347 severe acute respiratory syndrome, 3:359361 World Heritage Sites, 2:200, 3:580, 581 World history, 2:225226 World peace, 3:274 World Tourism Organization, 3:585 World Trade Organization accession automobile industry, 1:123 banking, 1:132, 135 brands, 1:148 Chinese Communist Party, 1:329 compliance and cooperation with rules of, 2:347 domestic trade, 1:429 economic reform, 1:452 foreign investment, 2:78 foreign trade, 2:89
gradualism, 1:459 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449 high technology, 2:203204 industrial policy, 2:306, 308309 joint ventures, 1:344 law and economic development, 2:442 market economy, Chinese status as, 2:310 most-favored-nation treatment, 2:635 official development assistance, 2:334 Peoples Republic of China history, 2:220 price system, 3:176 Regulations of the Administration of Foreign-funded Banks, 2:56 service sector, 3:354, 355 shipping, 3:601 special economic zones, 3:476 telecommunications, 3:608609 urban employment and unemployment, 4:32 Zhao Ziyang, 4:155 Zhu Rongji, 4:170 World War I banking, 2:623 extraterritoriality, 1:543 foreign trade, 2:8586 industrialization, 2:312 international organizations, 2:343 international relations, 2:352 treaty ports, 3:614 World War II Anti-Japanese War, effect on the, 4:65 comfort women, 1:39, 3:198, 200, 4:57 foreign loans, 2:81 foreign trade, 2:8687 Harbin, 2:179180 industrialization, 2:312 international organizations, 2:343 Japanese surrender, 1:38 Jewish refugees, 2:377378 League of Chinese Democratic Political Groups, 4:147 Macau, 2:541 Song Ziwen, 3:464 Stilwell, Joseph, 3:499500 Taiwan, 3:529 war crimes, 4:5657 Xian, 4:105 Xiao Qian, 4:109 World War II peace settlement, 3:7576, 4:220, 225226 Wound art. See Scar art Wright, Mary Clabaugh, 3:234
Writers Ai Qing, 1:2526 Ba Jin, 1:127129 Bai Hua, 1:129 Bingxin, 1:144146 Buck, Pearl S., 1:152153 Can Xue, 1:166 Cao Yu, 1:168169 Chang, Eileen, 1:193194 Chu Anping, 1:266267 Democracy Wall, 1:393, 395 Ding Ling, 1:418420 ethnic minorities, 2:611612 in exile, 2:507 Fan Changjiang, 2:1920 footbinding, 2:66 Gao Xingjian, 2:109111 Gu Hua, 2:150151 Guo Moruo, 2:165166 Hu Feng, 2:254256 Jia Pingwa, 2:380 Lao She, 2:433435 Lin Yutang, 2:490491 Ling Shuhua, 2:495496 literary societies, 2:498500 Little, Alicia, 2:510511 Lu Xun, 2:531534 Mao Dun, 2:552554 Mo Yan, 2:617 professional, 2:504 publishing industry, 3:223 Qian Zhongshu, 3:227228 Qiu Jin, 3:240241 root-searching literature, 3:290291 Shanghai, 2:72 Shao Xunmei, 3:387388 Shen Congwen, 3:390392 Snow, Edgar, 3:416417 Suzhou, 3:515 Wang Anyi, 4:4546 Wang Guowei, 4:4748 Wang Meng, 4:5051 Wang Shiwei, 4:52 Wang Shuo, 4:5253 Xiao Qian, 4:108110 Xu Zhimo, 4:118120 Yang Mo, 4:125126 Yu Dafu, 4:130131 Yu Hua, 4:131132 Zhao Shuli, 4:153154 Zhou Yang, 4:165166 Zhu Ziqing, 4:171172 Writers Union, 2:505 Writing literacy, 2:287 Writing systems Cantonese, 1:167 education policy, 1:469 epigraphic school, 1:535536 examination system, 1:541 filial piety characters, 2:3637
510
Index
Hokkien, 2:231232 standardization, 2:431433 Wade, Thomas, 4:43, 44 Wu, David Y. H., 2:284 Wu, Harry, 2:269 Wu, Y. T., 3:202 Wu Aiying, 1:188 Wu Changshi, 4:9899 art societies, 1:98 calligraphy, 1:103, 165, 536 Chinese painting, 1:103, 262, 263 Chinese Painting Society, 1:99 epigraphic school, 1:100, 2:464 Japanese influence, 1:112 literati painting, 2:501 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 National Essence movement, 1:114 Pan Tianshou, influence on, 3:71 Shanghai school of painting, 1:102, 3:383, 384 Six Dynasties school of calligraphy, 2:319 Wang Zhen, association with, 4:55 women artists, 4:91 Wu Shujuan, association with, 4:100 Wu Chengen, 2:530 Wu Chuanyu, 3:52 Wu Dacheng, 1:307, 4:99, 100 Wu De, 3:571 Wu Ganguo, 3:211 Wu Guanzhong, 1:82, 2:488, 4:91 Wu Guoguang, 1:288 Wu Guxiang, 1:101 Wu Han, 1:287, 373 Wu Hongxun, 4:100 Wu Hufan, 4:99100 art collecting, 1:307 Chinese painting, 1:263264 connoisseurship, 1:351 Wu Huiming, 3:348 Wu Jiang, 1:287288 Wu Jiayou, 1:102, 3:383384 Wu Junqing. See Wu Changshi Wu Kedu, 1:508 Wu Liande, 2:183, 579 Wu Lien-teh. See Wu Liande Wu Meichun, 1:91 Wu Mi, 2:567 Wu Mingxia, 3:484 Wu Peifu Beiyang clique, 1:143 government, 1:284 Hebei, 2:191 militarism, 2:591592 Northern Expedition, 3:45 Zhili clique, 3:512 Wu Qi Gonghe Ge (anthem), 3:6
Wu Sangui, 3:231 Wu Shanzhuan, 1:91, 3:35 Wu Shengli, 1:189, 3:98 Wu Shiguang, 2:513 Wu Shujuan, 4:91, 100101 Wu Tingfang legal reform, 1:303 legal training, 2:450 sculpture of, 3:345 To Our Foreign Friends, 2:342343 Wu Wan, 2:620 Wu Wenying, 3:136 Wu Woyao, 2:503 Wu Xiaobang, 1:384 Wu Xingfen. See Wu Shujuan Wu Xingguo, 3:88 Wu Yangming, 3:203 Wu Yi, 4:88, 4:89, 170 Wu Yifan, 4:88 Wu Youru, 2:103, 4:114 Wu Yufen, 4:60 Wu Yuru, 1:165 Wu Yusen. See Woo, John Wu Yuzong, 3:568 Wu Zetian tomb, 4:105 Wu Zhihui, 1:29, 3:289 Wu Zhongxin, 4:113 Wu Zijia. See Wu Hongxun Wuchang Uprising, 3:272, 4:62 Wucius Wong, 1:110 Wuhan, 4:101103, 102, 151 Wuju, 1:385386 Wulanfu, 2:325 Wushu, 3:479 Wutai jiemei (film), 4:110 Wuxi, 3:289 Wuzhu, King, 2:101 Wyeth, Andrew, 3:325
X
XC VIII Ninety-Eight, 2:25 Xi Jinping Central Military Commission, 1:190 elite, 3:428 political succession, 3:159 vice presidency, 1:186 Xi Rong, 4:154 Xi Xi, 2:507 Xi Zhongxun, 3:428 Xia Changshi, 1:62 Xia Gang, 2:31 Xia Jan, 4:110 Xia Nai, 1:53, 56 Xia Yan, 2:29, 3:133134, 4:110
Xia Zengyou, 2:222 Xiafang, 4:107 Xiamen, 4:107108 coolie trade, 1:243 opium smuggling, 3:414 special economic zones, 2:95, 3:477 Xiamen Dada, 3:35 Xiamen University, 1:241, 242 Xian, 2:652653, 3:367, 4:105106 Xian Film Studio, 3:370 Xian Incident, 3:1516, 368369, 4:4, 50 Xian Xinghai, 2:548, 644, 646, 648 Xianfeng emperor. See Yizhu Xiang Jingyu, 3:198, 4:88 Xiang Ying, 3:103, 4:162 Xiang Zhongfa, 1:325 Xiangshan Hotel, 3:85 Xiangtu movement, 2:649 Xianyang Airport, 4:106 Xiao, 2:37 Xiao Bingqian. See Xiao Qian Xiao (Bingxin), 1:144 Xiao Chaogui, 3:521, 522 Xiao gongyuan, 4:109 Xiao Haichun, 1:265 Xiao Hong, 1:283, 2:529 Xiao Jun, 4:124 Xiao Ke, 2:526 Xiao Lu, 1:85, 91, 4:93 Xiao Penglai Calligraphy and Painting Society, 1:98 Xiao Qian, 3:597, 4:108110 Xiao Shan, 1:129 Xiao Yishan, 2:222223, 3:352 Xiao Youmei, 2:548, 643, 644 Xiaoshuo Yuebao (periodical), 2:552553 Xie Bingying, 1:283, 4:80 Xie Dongmin, 3:20 Xie Jin, 4:110111 Xie Mian, 3:139 Xie Xuehong, 1:405 Xie Yanying. See Bingxin Xie Zhiguang, 1:105, 313 Xie Zhiliu, 1:351 Xikang, 3:399 Xiling Association of Seal Carvers, 1:102, 2:319 Xin shixue (Liang), 2:222 Xin Yuan shi (Ke), 2:222 Xin Zhibin, 3:153 Xin Zhui, 1:197 Xinchao, 2:649650 Xinglongwa culture, 1:49
511
Index
Xingshe, 2:552 Xingxing. See Stars painting group Xinhua distribution network, 3:222 Xinhua zidian, 2:458 Xinhuashe Sheying Bu, 3:127 Xinjiang, 4:111114, 112 human rights issues, 2:270 Islam, 2:370372 Muslim uprisings, 2:653 Pakistan, relations with, 3:6667, 70 recovery of, 4:174 region, 2:121122 Soviet influence, 3:318 trade, 1:175 Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC), 3:113114, 299, 4:113 Xinwen Sheying Chu, 3:127 Xinxin Company, 3:244 Xinyi Special District, 3:520 Xinyue She. See Crescent Moon Society Xiokang program, 2:340 Xiong Bingkun, 3:272 Xiong Shili, 1:155, 350 Xiong Xiling, 1:284, 2:28 Xiongdi. See Brothers (Yu) Xisha Islands defensive campaign, 3:104105 Xiyucheng Dye Company, 2:621 Xu Bangda, 1:88, 4:99 Xu Beihong, 4:114117, 115 art exhibitions, 1:80, 84 art history, 1:86 Central Academy of Fine Arts, 1:97 Chang Yu, association with, 1:195 Chinese painting, 1:103, 263 Gao Jianfu, invitation to, 2:498 Indian nationalist movement, 2:320 modernist art, 2:619 National Central University, 1:104 oil painting, 3:48, 49 socialist realism, 3:457 Soviet influence, 1:117118 Xu Bing, 4:117118 Book from the Sky (installation art), 1:91 calligraphy, 1:165 Central Academy of Fine Arts, 1:97 Chinese characters, use of, 1:108 New Wave movement, 3:35 Xu Caihou, 1:189 Xu Dahzhang, 4:114 Xu Deheng, 1:404 Xu Dishan, 1:144, 2:553 Xu Fuguan, 1:350 Xu Guangping, 1:26
Xu Jingya, 3:139 Xu Ke. See Tsui Hark Xu Kuangdi, 2:383 Xu Lai, 2:144 Xu Li, 1:265 Xu Maoyong, 2:502 Xu Naiji, 1:279 Xu Naiqi, 3:249 Xu Qiliang, 1:189 Xu Run, 1:213 Xu Shen, 2:457 Xu Shichang, 1:143 Xu Wenli, 1:422, 423 Xu Wenyuan, 2:25 Xu Xiaobing, 3:127 Xu Xilin, 3:241 Xu Xing, 2:502 Xu Xingzhi, 1:111 Xu Xinliang, 3:549 Xu Yabao, 3:131 Xu Yongqing, 1:313, 3:47 Xu Yongyue, 3:143 Xu Youyu, 1:288 Xu Yuting, 2:318 Xu Zhenya, 2:551 Xu Zhijing, 2:402 Xu Zhimo, 4:118120 Chu Anping, influence on, 1:266 Crescent Moon Society, 2:489, 499 Liu Haisu, relationship with, 2:514 modern poetry, 3:137 oil painting, 3:48 Shao Xunmei, association with, 3:387 Shen Congwen, association with, 3:391 Zhang Junmai, association with, 4:146 Xu Zhongshu, 2:458 Xu Zhuodai, 2:552 Xuantong emperor. See Puyi Xue Wu, 4:90 Xuehai Institute, 4:147 Xuehaitang, 1:23, 3:248, 249 Xugu Chinese painting, 1:262 Shanghai school of painting, 3:384 Yangzhou school of painting, 1:101 Xun Huisheng, 2:581, 3:87 Xunhuan Ribao (newspaper), 2:398, 3:37 Xunwu, 2:98 Xylography. See Woodblock printing
Y
Ya Xian, 3:138 Yaks, 2:609
Yakub Beg, 2:653, 4:111, 174 Yalta Agreement, 2:354 Yalta Conference, 2:361, 3:76 Yamaguchi, Shirley. See Li Xianglan Yamaguchi Hachikushi, 2:319 Yamaguchi Yoshiko. See Li Xianglan Yamamoto Kyozan, 2:319 Yamanaka, Sadajiro, 1:308 Yamei Kin. See Jin Yunmei Yamen runners, 3:359 Yan Fengying, 3:89 Yan Fu, 4:121122 Fuzhou, 2:101 individual rights, 2:303 liberalism, 2:472 social Darwinism, 1:282, 3:10 social sciences, 3:438 study abroad, 1:283 Yan Haiping, 3:135 Yan Han, 1:105, 3:33 Yan Jiaqi, 1:353 Yan Lei, 1:91 Yan Li, 3:139, 490 Yan Lianke, 2:506 Yan Wenliang, 3:48 Yan Wenming, 1:53 Yan Xishan Beiyang clique, 1:143 Chiang Kai-shek, relationship with, 2:138139 constitutions, 1:354355 Deng Xiaoping, defeat by, 1:408 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 military, 2:594, 596 Shanxi, 2:141, 3:385 warlord era, 4:59 Yan Yangchu. See Yen, Y. C. James Yan Zhenqing, 1:536 Yanan, 4:122124 Yanan Forum on Literature and Art, 4:124125 art education, 1:97 art policy, 1:115 collecting, 1:307 correct art, 1:96 cultural policy, 1:369 literature, role of, 2:505 model operas and ballets, 2:618 On Art and Literature (Mao), 4:217218 propaganda and mass mobilization music, 2:644 socialist realism, 3:456 Yanan model, 3:369 Yanan Rectification Movement, 4:162 Yanan-style clothing, 1:301 Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture, 2:405406
512
Index
Yang, Edward. See Yang Dechang Yang Chengye. See Yang Mo Yang Chongyi, 2:276 Yang Chuanguang, 1:313 Yang Dechang, 2:51 Yang Fudong, 1:91 Yang Hansheng, 3:133134 Yang Hucheng, 4:4 Yang Jiang plays, 3:133 Qian Zhongshu, association with, 3:227 translation of foreign literature, 3:597 xiafang, 4:107 Yang Keyang, 3:33 Yang Lian, 3:139 Yang Lufang, 3:135 Yang Mingzhai, 1:309 Yang Mo, 4:125126 Yang Naiwu, 2:438 Yang Peiyi, 3:57 Yang Rae, 4:107 Yang Sen, 1:204 Yang Shangkun army and politics, 1:79 Central Military Commission, 1:189 military enterprises, 3:114 presidency, 1:186 Yang Shanshen, 1:110, 2:498 Yang Shaobin, 3:154 Yang Shenxiu, 2:402 Yang Shoujing, 1:165, 2:319 Yang Tingbao, 1:60 Yang Wenhui, 1:154, 3:1 Yang Xiguang, 3:247 Yang Xiuqing, 3:521, 522 Yang Xiuqiong, 3:480, 482 Yang Xuejiu, 4:91 Yang Yang, 3:52, 54 Yang Yanping, 4:92 Yang Yi, 1:101 Yang Yiping, 3:490, 491 Yang Youwei, 2:210 Yang Yuebin, 4:140 Yang Yunson, 2:33 Yang Zaifu, 4:140 Yang Zengxin, 4:112 Yang Zhenning, 4:126127 Yang Zisen, 2:162 Yangming Jingshe, 1:3 Yangshan deep-water port, 1:268 Yangshao culture, 1:48 Yangzhou, 4:127128 Yangzhou School of Painting, 1:101
Yangzi Delta, 1:268, 3:77 Yangzi River climate, 3:277278 environmental issues, 3:279 flooding, 2:15, 3:279 Hunan and Hubei, 2:271 water resources, 3:23, 278279 Wuhan, 4:102 Yangzi River Basin, 3:277278, 278 Yangzi River Bridge, 3:2, 3 Yano Kyoson, 2:319 Yao Hua, 2:501 Yao Ke, 3:134 Yao Ming, 3:56, 482, 483, 484 Yao Wenyuan, 1:169, 327, 373 Yao Xiaofu, 3:264 Yapian zhanzheng (film), 4:110 Yaqub Beg. See Yakub Beg Yasuda Rozan, 2:319 Yasui Sotaro, 1:104, 111 Yasukuni Shrine, 2:374 Yayin Xiaoji, 2:648 Ye Chengzhong, 3:42 Ye Gongchuo, 1:95, 115, 4:99 Ye Jianying, 1:185, 327, 409, 3:472 Ye Ning, 1:384 Ye Qianyu, 1:300, 314, 2:22 Ye Qun, 2:487 Ye Shengtao Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 local language in literature, 2:432 New Culture literature, 2:504 Xiaoshuo Yuebao (periodical), 2:553 Ye Shi, 4:72 Ye Ting, 3:103 Ye Weilin, 3:392 Yearbooks, statistical, 3:497 Yellow Emperor, tomb of the, 3:367 Yellow River, 3:281 erosion and sedimentation, 3:280 famine, 2:15 flood control, 2:17, 3:280281 flooding, 1:37, 505, 506, 2:206 geography, 3:280 Grand Canal, 2:145 Henan, 2:196 Huai River, 3:282 irrigation and water resources management, 2:368 Jiangsu, 2:385 Jinan, 2:397 Shandong, 3:370 water management, 3:281282 water resources, 3:23, 281 Yellow River Cantata (Xian), 2:646 Yellow River Conservancy Commission (YRCC), 3:280282 Yellow River cultures, 1:56
Yen, James, 2:185 Yen, Y. C. James, 2:567 Yi, 3:399 Yi He Yuan, 2:111 Yi Yi (film), 2:50 Yijiangshan campaign, 3:103104 Yili, 2:653, 4:174 Yin archaeological site, 1:51 Yin Chengzong, 2:646 Yin Guangzhong, 3:490, 491 Yin Kuan, 3:615 Yin Rugeng, 3:415 Yin Xiuzhen, 4:93 Yin-yang, 1:367, 2:574575 Yin Zhongrong, 3:534 Yinge, 2:145 Yinguang, 1:154 Yingzhao-kuping system, 4:68 Yixin, 1:507 Yiyongjun Jinxing Qu (anthem), 3:8 Yizhu, 1:506507, 2:349 Yong, 3:235 Yongding River, 2:15, 17 Yongle, 1:391, 2:67, 289290 Yongyan reforms, 3:248 reign, 1:505, 2:205 White Lotus Rebellion, 4:76 Yongzheng, 2:129, 3:231232 Yorozu Tetsugoro, 2:319 Yoshimi Yoshiaki, 1:39 Youde, Edward, 2:240 Young China Party, 3:530 Young Mens Christian Association (YMCA), 3:202, 568 Youth, 4:128130 cult of Mao, 3:115116 dance, 1:385386 disabled, 3:446 drugs and narcotics, 1:434435 fashion, 2:25 Maoist propaganda, 2:322323 Youth Cadre Training School, 3:20 Youzheng Book Company, 1:114 Yu Bingnan, 1:317 Yu Dafu, 4:130131 classical poetry, 3:136 Creation Society, 2:499 New Culture literature, 2:504 translation of foreign literature, 3:596 Yu Feian, 1:106 Yu Feng, 1:301, 2:24 Yu Garden Calligraphy and Painting Charitable Association, 1:114 Yu Guangyuan, 2:261 Yu Hong, 3:154
513
Index
Yu Hua, 4:131132 avant-garde fiction, 1:124125, 2:506 Lu Xun, influence of, 2:534 Yu Jie, 1:423 Yu-li hun (Xu), 2:551 Yu Liqun, 2:165 Yu Luojin, 1:432 Yu Luoke, 3:247 Yu Pingbo, 1:287, 3:136, 137 Yu Rizhang, 2:616 Yu Rongling, 1:383 Yu Sansheng, 3:86 Yu Shaosong, 1:86 Yu Shuyan, 3:87 Yu Xiwei, 3:51 Yu Youhan, 3:35, 50, 153 Yu Yue, 1:280 Yu Zhengxie, 2:65 Yuan, 2:7374 Yuan Changying, 3:133 Yuan Dahua, 4:112 Yuan dynasty, 2:222 Yuan Longping, 1:18 Yuan Mei, 2:62, 65, 4:45 Yuan Ming Yuan, 2:111 Yuan Shikai, 4:132135, 134 Beiyang Army, 2:598 Beiyang Clique, 1:143 Cixi, association with, 1:276 codified law, 1:304 federalism, rejection of, 2:27 government administration, 2:137138 Lake Palaces, 2:68 military, 2:594, 4:60, 61 Morrison, George E., work with, 2:631, 632 music, 2:643, 647 national flag and anthem, 3:6 nationalism, 3:11 Nationalist Party, banning of the, 3:18 1911 revolution, 3:453 police, 3:141 political parties, 3:151 presidency, 2:213 radio, 3:243 regionalism, 3:253 salt trade, 3:332 Sun Yat-sen, relationship with, 3:512 Tibet, 3:575576 Wang Zhen, political involvement of, 4:55 warlordism, 1:78 Yan Fu, appointment of, 4:122 Zhang Zhidong, work with, 4:152 Yuanming Yuan, 2:290291
Yue Fei, 2:196, 591, 597 Yue Fei, tomb of, 3:579 Yue languages, 1:167 Yue Minjun, 1:93, 3:154 Yuezun, 1:44 Yugoslavia, 1:537, 4:10 See also East Central European states Yun Shouping, 1:101, 262 Yung Ho Chang, 1:67 Yunnan, 2:603, 4:135137, 136, 137t Yunnan affair. See Margary affair Yunnan Army, 1:204 Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau macroregion, 2:120 Yutang, Lin, 2:366 Yuyan Calligraphy and Painting Charitable Society, 1:99
Z
Zaichun, 1:507508 Zaifeng, 1:509 Zaitian Cixi, relationship with, 1:274, 275 decision making, 2:130 Hundred Days reform, 2:210, 275276, 402, 3:251 reign, 1:508509 removal of, 4:151 Yuan Shikai, betrayal by, 4:132 Zambia, 1:10 Zang-fu theory, 2:575 Zdansky, Otto, 1:48 Zeckendorf, William, 3:83 Zemlinsky, Alexander, 2:639 Zeng Guofan, 4:139142 Cixi, association with, 1:273 classical scholarship, 1:279280 Hunan Army, 1:391 Kang Youwei, criticism by, 1:281 Li Hongzhang, work with, 2:460461 militarism, 2:591 military culture and tradition, 2:597598, 599 Nanjing, 3:1 neo-Confucianism, 1:281, 347348 Nian Uprising, 3:40 peasant uprisings, suppression of, 4:63 provincial armies, 3:249 scholarship, 1:3 Self-strengthening, 2:209 Shen Baozhen, association with, 3:389 shipbuilding, 3:234 study abroad, 3:507 Taipei Uprising, 3:525
Taiping Uprising, 1:3031, 507, 2:30, 4:173 taxation, 3:552 Zeng Jize, 4:141, 174 Zeng Liansong, 3:7 Zeng Ming, 2:620 Zeng Peiyan, 1:531, 2:383 Zeng Pu, 2:503 Zeng Qi, 3:152 Zeng Qinghong Jiang Zemin, 2:383 National Peoples Congress, 1:185 vice presidency, 1:186 Zeng Xi, 4:142 Zeng Yinquan. See Tsang, Donald Zeng Youzhen, 4:142 Zero-interest loans, 2:331 Zhan Tianyou, 3:507, 603 Zhang, Jane, 2:642 Zhang Ailing. See Chang, Eileen Zhang Bao, 3:131 Zhang Binglin anti-Manchu sentiment, 1:285 Dai Zhen, influence of, 1:277 nationalism, 2:295 Republican era debate, 1:285 Zhang Biwu, 3:192 Zhang Bo, 1:63 Zhang Bojun anti-rightist campaign, 1:401 Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party, 1:404 reversal of the verdict, 2:278 Third Party, 3:152 Xiao Qian, association with, 4:110 Zhang Boling, 3:572 Zhang Boshu, 1:288 Zhang Cha, 4:145 Zhang Chonghe, 4:92 Zhang Chunqiao, 2:357 arrest, 1:327 constitutions, 1:356 Gang of Four, 1:373 National Peoples Congress, 1:187 Tiananmen Incident, 3:571 Zhang Daqian, 1:264, 4:142144 art exhibitions, 1:82, 4:116 Chinese painting, 1:103, 110, 265 connoisseurship, 1:351 literati painting, 2:501 oil painting, 3:48 Shanghai influence, 1:102 Zhang Erkui, 3:86 Zhang Fakui, 4:147 Zhang Fengyi, 1:199 Zhang Fusen, 1:490 Zhang Geng, 1:85 Zhang Guangren. See Hu Feng
514
Index
Zhang Guangyu comics, 1:314 graphic arts, 1:105, 316 Journey to the West, 1:314 Zhang Guorong. See Cheung, Leslie Zhang Guotao Central bureau, 1:323 Liu Shaoqi, association with, 2:517 Long March, 2:528, 4:168 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Yanan, 4:123 Zhang Hanhui, 2:644 Zhang Heng, 1:351 Zhang Henshui, 2:552 Zhang Hongtu, 2:322, 3:153 Zhang Huan, 1:91, 97 Zhang Huimei, 2:641 Zhang Huiyan, 3:292 Zhang Jiaao, 4:146 Zhang Jian, 4:144146 federalism, 2:27 Nantong, modernization of, 4:14 Nantong Museum, 2:635 Zhang Jianjun, 3:49 Zhang Jianya, 2:31 Zhang Jiasen. See Zhang Junmai Zhang Jigang, 1:384, 386, 3:56 Zhang Jingjiang, 1:29 Zhang Jingyao, 1:196 Zhang Junli, 1:350 Zhang Junmai, 4:146147 civil war, 1:272 Democratic League of China, 1:403 Democratic Socialist Party, 3:152 spiritual humanism, 1:286 Yan Xishan, alliance with, 1:284 Zhang Junzhao, 2:43 Zhang Kebiao, 3:387 Zhang Kesha, 3:610 Zhang Leping, 1:314, 315 Zhang Liangji, 4:139 Zhang Lunying, 4:90 Zhang Luoxing, 3:40 Zhang Manyu, 3:292 Zhang Mojun, 4:90 Zhang Naiqi, 3:463 Zhang Peili art in new media, 1:91 China National Academy of Fine Arts, 1:98 New Wave movement, 3:35 political pop, 3:153 rationalist painting, 1:108 video art, 1:91 Zhang Qun, 1:84, 3:34 Zhang Shangpu, 4:92 Zhang Shanzi, 4:142
Zhang Shichuan, 2:38 Zhang Shu, 2:643, 644 Zhang Taiyan, 1:154, 3:73 Zhang Wang, 3:33, 348 Zhang Wenkang, 3:360 Zhang Xianliang, 1:125 Zhang Xianzhong, 3:231 Zhang Xiaogang, 3:154 art market, 1:93 current of life painting, 1:108 oil painting, 3:50 Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts, 1:98 Zhang Xiong Chinese painting, 1:262 Ren Yi, influence on, 3:264 Shanghai school of painting, 1:101, 3:383 Zhang Xiumei, 2:162, 583 Zhang Xueliang Chiang Kai-shek, kidnapping of, 4:105 Manchukuo, 2:545 Xian Incident, 3:368369, 4:4 Zhou Enlai, negotiations with, 4:162 Zhang Xueyou, 2:641 Zhang Xun, 2:68 Zhang Yaruo, 1:206 Zhang Yihe, 1:174 Zhang Yimou, 4:148, 148149 Beijing Olympics, 3:56 Chen Kaige compared to, 1:199 Fifth generation filmmaking, 2:4345 Huozhe (film), 1:124 To Live (film), 4:132 Raise the Red Lantern (film), 1:125 Shanxi, 3:387 Turandot (opera), 2:71 Xian Film Studio, 3:370 Zhang Yin, 1:261 Zhang Yingxu, 1:60 Zhang Yinhuan, 2:402 Zhang Youyi, 4:119, 146 Zhang Yuan, 2:4546, 47 Zhang Yuguang, 1:314 Zhang Yunyi, 1:407 Zhang Yuzhao, 2:319 Zhang Zeduan, 1:311 Zhang Zhaoda, 1:301, 2:25, 26 Zhang Zhen, 1:189 Zhang Zhidong, 4:149152 Cixi, association with, 1:276 classical scholarship, 1:280 Confucianism, 1:347 education reform, 1:464 ironworks, 2:602
legal reform, 1:303, 304 Quanxue pian, 2:276 railways, 3:603 reform, 3:251 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:273 scholarship, 1:3 Self-strengthening, 2:209, 4:60 ti-yong relationship, 1:281, 3:235 Zhang Zhong, 4:100 Zhang Zhongjing, 2:574 Zhang Zhongli, 2:131, 3:460 Zhang Zhongxing, 4:125 Zhang Ziping, 2:165 Zhang Zixiang, 2:319 Zhang Zongchang, 2:594 Zhang Zongyu, 3:4041 Zhang Zueliang, 2:545, 3:1516 Zhang Zuolin Beiyang clique, 1:143 Chinese Eastern Railway, 3:323 Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:219 Duan Qirui, work with, 3:513 killing of, 3:16 Manchuria, 2:549 mansion, restoration of, 4:59 prostitution, 3:198 Second Northern Expedition, 3:46 smuggling, 3:415 Sun Yat-sen, alliance with, 3:512 Zhangwu zhi (Wen), 2:98 Zhao Bandi, 3:154 Zhao Benshan, 3:36 Zhao Dan, 4:152153 Zhao Erfeng, 3:399 Zhao Erxun, 2:30 Zhao Hongben, 1:317, 318 Zhao Lian. See Yu Dafu Zhao Lisheng, 1:227 Zhao Miamyun, 2:552 Zhao Shaoang, 2:498, 4:92 Zhao Shiyan, 1:407 Zhao Shou, 1:111, 2:620 Zhao Shuli, 1:318, 2:536, 4:153154 Zhao Wuji, 2:488, 3:195, 4:91 Zhao Xi, 1:195 Zhao Xingdao, 3:550 Zhao Yannian, 3:33 Zhao Yuanren, 2:548, 643 Zhao Zhiqian Chinese painting, 1:262 epigraphic school, 1:100, 535536, 2:464 Shanghai school of painting, 1:102 Zhao Zichen, 2:616
515
Index
Zhao Ziyang, 4:154156, 155 Central Military Commission, 1:189 Commission for the Reform of the Economic System, 1:456, 457 Deng Xiaoping, work with, 1:410 elite, 3:428 General secretary, appointment as, 1:411 gradualism, 1:458 military enterprises, 3:114 political succession, 3:158 reform policy, 1:328 Sichuan, 3:399 sports, 3:481 State Council, 1:187 United Nations, 2:346 Wen Jiabao, association with, 4:70 Zhejiang, 4:156160, 158, 159 emigration, 1:235, 241 Grand Canal, 2:147 Zhejiang Academy of Fine Arts. See China National Academy of Fine Arts Zhejiang Womens Physical Education Institute, 3:480 Zhenbao Island conflict, 3:104, 413 Zheng Chang, 1:87 Zheng Chaolin, 3:615 Zheng Chenggong, 3:349350 Zheng Chouyu, 3:138 Zheng Enchong, 3:276 Zheng Guanying, 2:65, 3:273 Zheng He, 1:391, 3:4 Zheng Jin, 1:97 Zheng Mantuo, 1:313, 316 Zheng Shan, 2:265 Zheng Wanlong, 3:290291 Zheng Wuchang, 1:115, 2:319 Zheng Xiu, 1:168 Zheng Xuan, 1:23 Zheng Yi, 3:131 Zheng Yi Sao, 3:131 Zheng Yuxiu, 4:80 Zheng Zhenduo Bingxin, 1:144 Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 Feng Zikai, work with, 1:314 Xiaoshuo Yuebao (periodical), 2:553 Zheng Zhengqiu, 2:254 Zhengyi Daoists, 1:387388 Zhengzhou, 1:37, 2:197198 Zhenxiang huabao, 3:130 Zhi Chun, 1:395 Zhi Xi, 1:279 Zhiheng Monastery, 1:154 Zhili, 1:146147, 2:17 Zhili clique, 2:191, 3:512
Zhizhuang (periodical), 2:25 Zho Yuanren, 3:507 Zhongguancun Science Park, 2:202 Zhongguo, 3:123, 4:160161 Zhongguo baoxue shi (Ge), 2:113 Zhongguo Binwei Dongwu Hongpishu, 1:514 Zhongguo de xibei jiao (Fan), 2:20 Zhongguo Fojiao Xiehui. See Chinese Buddhist Association Zhongguo gudai jianzhu shi (Institute of Building Science), 1:59 Zhongguo huaxue quanshi (Zheng), 1:87 Zhongguo Jianzhushi Xuehui, 1:68 Zhongguo lishi yanjiu fa (Liang), 2:223, 467 Zhongguo Minzhu Cujin Hui. See China Association for Promoting Democracy Zhongguo Minzhu Jianguo Hui. See China Democratic National Construction Association (CDNCA) Zhongguo pengren (periodical), 2:64 Zhongguo renben, 3:124 Zhongguo Touzi Youxian Zeren Gongsi. See China Investment Corporation Zhongguo-Xinjiapo Suzhou Gongye Yuan. See China-Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park Zhongguo Yingzao Xueshe, 1:5759, 61 Zhonghua quanguo gongshangye lianhehui. See All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce Zhonghua Quanguo Wenxue Yishu Jie Lianhehui. See Federation of Literary and Art Circles Zhonghua Xiongli Yuzhou Jian (anthem), 3:6 Zhongli incident, 3:20 Zhongshen dashi (Hu Shi), 3:133 Zhongxing Coal Mining Company, 2:604 Zhongxing Telecommunications Equipment, 3:609 Zhongyang Dianying Gongsi. See Central Motion Pictures Company Zhongyang ribao (newspaper), 2:399 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan. See Academia Sinica Zhou Bichang, 2:642 Zhou Changgu, 1:264 Zhou Chunya, 1:98, 3:50 Zhou Enlai, 2:357, 4:161165, 163 archaeology, 1:50 Bandung Conference, 1:239
Cao Yu, recognition of, 1:169 Central Military Leadership Group, 4:168 Chen Yun, work with, 1:202 Chinese Marxism, 1:232233 conspiracy against, 2:58 Cultural Revolution, 1:374, 2:558 Dalai Lama, meetings with the, 1:379 Deng Xiaoping, work with, 1:407, 409 economic policy, 2:557 film, 2:40 Five principles of peaceful coexistence, 2:355, 356 Four Modernizations, 2:90, 357 Germany, relations with, 2:123 Government Administrative Council, 1:183 Great Leap Forward, opposition to the, 1:408 higher education, 1:482 Hua Guofeng, work with, 2:263 Hundred Flowers campaign, 2:277 India, relations with, 2:299 Japanese reparations, 2:373 Korean War POWs, 2:407 Kosygin, Aleksey, meeting with, 3:320 Li Fengmian, stipend for, 2:488 Lu Zuofu, association with, 2:536 Ma Yinchu, protection of, 3:164 Mao Zedong, relationship with, 2:177, 555, 556 moderate policies, 1:327 Nanjing incident, 3:2 Nixon, Richard, visit by, 4:8 overseas Chinese, 1:237, 2:283 Palace Museum, closing of the, 2:70 party leadership struggle, 1:408 Ping-Pong diplomacy, 3:53 political succession, 3:157 prodemocracy movement, 3:183 Red Army, 4:167 returned overseas Chinese, 1:260 Snow, Edgar, interviews with, 3:417 Song Qingling, protection of, 3:463 sports, 3:481 State Administrative Council, 2:216 state bureaucracy, 1:327 State Council, 1:187 State Council premiership, 1:181 study abroad, 1:29, 3:507 table tennis, 3:483 Taiwan Democratic SelfGovernment League, 1:405 Tiananmen Square plan, 1:63 United Nations, 2:345
516
Index
Whampoa Military Academy, 2:139, 3:18 Xian incident, 3:368 Yang Zhenning, visit with, 4:127 Zhou Guoping, 2:25 Zhou Jielun, 2:641 Zhou li, 2:67 Zhou Lianxia, 4:91 Zhou Libo, 1:318, 2:502503 Zhou Long, 3:88 Zhou Luyun, 4:92 Zhou Muqiao, 1:313 Zhou Qiang, 1:337 Zhou Runfa. See Chow Yun-fat Zhou Shoujuan, 1:193, 2:550, 551, 552 Zhou Shuqiao, 3:49 Zhou Sicong, 4:92 Zhou Xian, 3:263, 383 Zhou Xiang, 2:513, 3:47 Zhou Xiaochuan, 4:170 Zhou Xinfang, 3:42 Zhou Xingchi. See Chow, Stephen Zhou Xuan, 2:640, 4:165 Zhou Yang, 4:165166 Federation of Literary and Art Circles, 2:28, 29 Hu Feng, criticism of, 2:255 intellectual debate, 1:288 literature of national defense, 2:502503 socialist realism, 3:456 Soviet style, 1:118 Soviet Union, visit to the, 4:126 two slogans debate, 2:447 Xiao Erhei Jeihun (Zhao), praise for, 4:153154 Zhou Yongkang, 3:143 Zhou Yunfang, 1:317 Zhou Zuoren Chen Duxiu, work with, 1:197 Chinese Literary Association, 2:499 classical poetry, 3:136 essays, 2:504 Lin Yutang, writings of, 2:490 Lu Xun, work with, 2:531 modern poetry, 3:137 Xiaoshuo Yuebao (periodical), 2:553 Zhoukoudian, 1:48, 49, 53 Zhoumo qingren (film). See Weekend Lover (film) Zhu Cheng, 1:101, 262, 3:383 Zhu Da, 1:263
Zhu De, 4:166169, 168 Eighth Route Army, 3:105 Mao Zedong, work with, 1:324 military culture and tradition, 2:600 obligations, 1:185 study abroad, 3:507 Zhu Dequn, 4:91 Zhu Jia, 1:91 Zhu Jiahua, 1:2 Zhu Jizhan, 1:111 Zhu Kezhen, 3:23 Zhu Lian, 1:4 Zhu Qiqian, 1:5758 Zhu Qizhan, 1:102, 3:72 Zhu Rongji, 4:169171, 171 Changsha, 1:196 government restructuring, 1:188 Great Western Development Scheme, 1:449 India, relations with, 2:300 industrial policy, 2:310 municipality representation, 3:211 provincial government funding, 3:206 reversal of the verdict, 2:278 Shanghai, 3:376 Zhu Runzai, 1:317 Zhu Shilin, 3:291 Zhu Tianwen, 2:507 Zhu Tianxin, 2:507 Zhu Xi, 1:277, 279, 2:483 Zhu Xieqin, 1:288 Zhu Xiong, 1:101, 262 Zhu Yuanchu, 2:550 Zhu Yuanzhang, 1:137, 4:76 Zhu Zhenda, 1:412413 Zhu Zhixin, 1:220 Zhu Zihua. See Zhu Ziqing Zhu Ziqing, 4:127128, 171172 Zhuan falun (Li), 2:1 Zhuang, 2:157158, 607, 3:209 Zhuang Cunyu, 1:281 Zhuang Zedong, 3:482483 Zhuangzi, 2:196 Zhuge Liang, 2:591, 597 Zhuhai, 3:477478 Zhujiang New Town, 2:161 Zi Baishi, 1:102 Zigong salt yards, 3:400 Zimbabwe, 1:910 Zong Baihua, 2:165
Zonghe Dangan Guan. See Comprehensive Archives Zongjiao, 3:259 Zongli Yamen Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1:217 establishment, 2:349 imperialism, 2:295 Li Hongzhang, 2:462 nationalism, 2:352 Qing restoration, 3:234 reform, 3:250 Self-strengthening, 2:210 Zou An, 4:114 Zou Duo, 2:521 Zou Rong, 2:169170 Zou Taofen, 1:403, 2:114, 3:130 Zouzhe system. See Palace Memorial System ZTE, 1:150 Zu Zongtang, 4:111 Zuehaitang, 3:293 Zuixin zhongxue Zhongguo lishi jiaokeshu (Xia), 2:222 Zuni Icosahedron, 3:89 Zunyi, 2:528 Zunyi Conference Deng Xiaoping, 1:407 Liu Shaoqi, 2:517 revolutionary theories, 1:336 Zhou Enlai, 4:128 Zuo Shunsheng, 3:152 Zuo Zongtang, 4:172175 Cixi, association with, 1:273 classical scholarship, 1:280 Fuzhou Navy Yard, 1:391 Gansu, 2:108 industrial workers, recruitment of, 4:97 Muslim uprisings, 2:653 Nian Uprising, 3:40 Ningbo rebellion, 2:125 peasant uprisings, suppression of, 4:63 reform, 3:250 Richard, Timothy, influence of, 3:273 ti-yong relationship, 1:281 Zuoyi Zuojia Lianment. See League of Left-Wing Writers Zuzhibu laile ge nianqingren (Wang), 4:5051
517

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Tables: International Relations, Treaties

Table 1: Major international treaties of the Peoples Republic of China, 19492007

Sino-(East) German Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation

Sino-Czechoslovak Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation

China-Yemen Friendship Treaty

01/28/1960 04/28/1960 05/31/1960