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Hard Rock Tunnel Grouting Practice in Finland, Sweden, and Norway - Literature Study
Hard Rock Tunnel Grouting Practice in Finland, Sweden, and Norway Literature study
ISBN 951-96180-3-1 (paperback) ISBN 951-96180-4-X (URL: http://www.mtry.org/julkaisutoiminta.htm) ISSN 1459-5648 (paperback) ISSN 1459-5656 (URL: http://www.mtry.org/julkaisutoiminta.htm) Copyright MTR -FTA 2003 JULKAISIJA PUBLISHER Maanalaisten tilojen rakentamisyhdistys, MTR ry Finnish Tunnelling Association
Abstract
Grouting has developed greatly in the last decade. Improvements of grout material and equipment enable better quality final products. Grouting has become an important and meaningful part of underground construction. The environmental requirements have also tightened more in recent years and the harmful lowering of the groundwater level is forbidden. Cementitious materials are mostly used in rock grouting in tunnels. Furthermore, due to the high level of the tightness requirements, very fine-grained cements are more often used since very small fracture apertures must be grouted. Many different chemical grouts also exist on the market, but after some environmental accidents their use has been limited or even forbidden. Chemical grouts are mainly used in very difficult places for post grouting. A great deal of effort has gone into grouting design and compliance control. It is not enough to just evaluate or measure the leakages of the final tunnel. The deviation and leakage of grouting holes are measured and control holes are drilled into the grouted section. Moreover, the limitations and requirements for grouts are defined and inspected - even at the site. While designing, the varying geological features are taken into account and tunnels are divided into sections of different grouting classes. Experiences and opinions on grouting in Finland, Norway, and Sweden have been collected and published in this report. The material presented is based on the literature, interviews, site visits, and the authors' own experiences. Furthermore, the discussions at the follow-up group meetings are also important.
Tiivistelm
Injektoinnissa on tapahtunut runsaasti kehityst viimevuosina. Materiaalien ja laitteistojen paraneminen on luonut mahdollisuuden yh laadukkaammille lopputuotteille. Injektointi on kytketty keskeiseksi osaksi kalliorakentamista. Mys ympristtekijt ovat korostuneet viime vuosina ja pohjaveden haitallista alenemista ei sallita. Sementtipohjaiset massat ovat selkesti eniten kytetty kalliorakentamisessa. Viime vuosina on yh enemmn siirrytty erittin hienojakoisten sementtien kyttn sill tunneleiden vuotovesimrien kiristyneet vaatimukset on johtanut tarpeeseen tiivist yh hienompia rakoja. Mys kemiallisia injektointiaineita on markkinoilla runsaasti, mutta muutamien ympristkatastrofien tapahduttua on niiden kytt rajoitettu. Kemiallisia aineita on kytetty lhinn hankalissa kohteissa jlki-injektoinnissa. Kiristyneet tiiveysvaatimukset ja etenkin mikro- ja ultrahienojen sementtien lisntyv kytt on ohjannut mys laitteiden kehityst. Keskeist on ollut sekoittimien ja pumppujen kehittyminen sek laitteistojen muokkautuminen jrjestelmiksi. Mys automaattisten rekisterintilaitteiden liittminen osaksi jrjestelm on auttanut laadukkaan lopputuotteen aikaansaamista. Mys suunnitteluun ja laadunvarmistukseen on viime vuosina keskitytty enemmn. Pelkk lopputuotteen vuotomrien toteaminen ei riit vaan injektointireikien taipumia ja vesimenekkej mitataan sek porataan kontrollireiki injektoituun osuuteen. Mys injektointimassoille on esitetty omia laatuvaatimuksia, joita tarkkaillaan mys tymaalla. Suunnittelussa pyritn ottamaan alueelliset geologiset vaihtelut huomioon jakaen tunneli vaatimustasoltaan erilaisiin osioihin. Tss raportissa on kertty kokemuksia ja nkemyksi injektoinnista Suomessa, Ruotsissa ja Norjassa. Esitetty aineisto pohjautuu kirjallisuuteen ja haastatteluihin sek kenttkynteihin ja kirjoittajien omiin kokemuksiin. Runsaasti tietoa ja kokemuksia on kuultu mys projektin seurantaryhmn palavereissa.
Preface
This report is a first phase study for the Finnish Grouting Instructions (INTE) project. INTE is part of the Competitive Rock Building development program organized by the Finnish Tunnelling Association FTA (MTR ry). Financial support for the project from Helsinki City Real Estate Department Geotechnical Division, Finnish Rail Administration, Finnish Road Administration, ELKEM ASA Materials, Master Builders Oy, Lemcon Oy, YIT Construction Oy, ITS-Vahvistus Oy, and Oy Atlas Copco Ab is gratefully acknowledged. The exchange of information and co-operation with Posiva Oy is also appreciated. The project follow-up group was: Raimo Viitala, Ilkka Satola / Helsinki City, Real Estate Department, Geotechnical Division Harri Yli-Villamo / Finnish Rail Administration Timo Cronvall / Oy VR-Rata Oy Olli Niskanen / Finnish Road Administration Steinar Roald, Olav Guldseth, Tor-Syland Hansen / ELKEM ASA, Materials Ari Laitinen/ Master Builders Oy, Hans-Olav Hognestad, Ola Woldmo / Degussa Ab Bjarne Liljestrand / Lemcon Oy Tuomo Tahvanainen / YIT Construction Oy Arto Niemelinen / ITS-Vahvistus Oy Ilkka Eskola, Sten-ke Pettersson, Heikki Rsnen / Oy Atlas Copco Ab Reijo Riekkola / Saanio & Riekkola Oy Tapani Lyytinen / Posiva Oy Erkki Holopainen / Finnish Tunnelling Association Pekka Salmenhaara / DeNeef Finland Oy Esko Aaltonen / Muottikolmio Oy Pauli Syrjnen, Pasi Tolppanen / Gridpoint Finland Oy Furthermore, the authors would like to thank Ursula Sievnen / Saanio & Riekkola Oy, Vesa Vaaranta and Kari Korhonen / Lemcon Oy, Morten Rongmo / MIKA Contractor AS, Reidar Lvhaugen / Statens Vegvesen Tarald Nomeland / Elkem Materials ASA and Jukka Pll / Fundus Oy (on behalf of Finnish Tunneling Association) for their time, fruitful discussions and comments.
Table of Contents
3.
3.1
GROUTING MATERIALS.................................................................. 14
General ...................................................................................................................................14
3.2 Cementitious products ..........................................................................................................14 3.2.1 Properties............................................................................................................................18 3.2.2 Additives.............................................................................................................................20 3.2.3 Testing methods for cementitious materials .......................................................................23 3.3 Chemical grouts.....................................................................................................................26 3.3.1 Testing methods for chemical grouts..................................................................................29
4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
Automated Mixing and Grouting Plants .............................................................................36 Packers and other accessories ..............................................................................................37 Equipment for chemical grouting ........................................................................................39
5.
5.1
5.2 Exploration methods for grouting need...............................................................................41 5.2.1 Working methods ...............................................................................................................48 5.2.2 Drill pattern design and grouting order...............................................................................48 5.2.3 Recipes and grouting speed ................................................................................................52 5.2.4 Grouting Pressure ...............................................................................................................52 5.2.5 Controlling grouting and stop criteria.................................................................................54 5.2.6 Post-grouting ......................................................................................................................56
6.
6.1 6.2 6.3
7.
REFERENCES............................................................................................. 64 APPENDIXES
1. Introduction
The aim of this literature report was to collect information about the hard rock grouting experiences and present status in Nordic countries, mainly in Finland, Sweden and Norway. For this study, the recent research work by several institutes like Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim and Helsinki University of Technology have been checked and referred to. Also, the experiences of client representatives, construction companies, as well as material and equipment producers, have been collected by site visits and personal discussions. In addition, there was an exchange of information with Posiva Oy (Nuclear waste management in Finland). The Finnish and Swedish grouting experiences are partly based on reports by Posiva Oy. In Sweden and Norway, a great deal of effort has been focused on grouting research and practice. Also, the well-known unsuccessful projects in Sweden and Norway have increased the interest in grouting. So, it can be noted that the level of grouting knowledge and understanding in Finland should be increased, partly by utilizing the experiences of neighboring countries. The current grouting material and equipment are high tech instruments and very suitable for the aggressive fight against leaking water to ensure dry tunnels and a stable environment. Also, the geological tools from site mapping to fancy computer-based models provide a very useful information base for evaluating leakage and for grouting procedure design. This report will also be a basis for the Finnish Grouting Instructions that will be published in 2004.
Several analytical and empirical equations for water leakage evaluation at various purposes and depths have been presented. Cesano (1999, 2001) and Dalmalm (2001) present wide summaries of leakage evaluation methods in their thesis. Also, Sievnen (2001) evaluates different analytical methods in her licentiate thesis. She stated that an equation, which is based on the imaginary well approach, is the most reliable when the depth of the tunnel is about three times the level of the water table. The equation is discussed in more detail in Appendix A and used in the following examples. Thiems well equation is suitable for more shallow excavations (Airaksinen, 1978). Water inflow into the cavern or tunnel is highly dependent on the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass (Fig. 2.1); both for ungrouted and grouted zones. Also, the depth of the tunnel level, that is the water pressure, has an effect. This is, however, a more complicated factor to take into account since hydraulic conductivity is known to decrease by depth as can be seen in the Olkiluoto site (iks et al., 2000). The tunnel radius is less important (Fig. 2.2). The rule of thumb is that the effect of joint opening on hydraulic conductivity follows the cubic theory. Thus, an opening two units wider presents an inflow 8 times higher. However, this is only valid when the fracture is consistent and channeled successfully to an unlimited aquifer by unlimited openings. Furthermore, factors like joint roughness, percentage of contact areas, infillings, etc. decrease the flow capacity. So, for each fracture flow the properties are much affected by boundary conditions not just the parameters of the fracture itself. This has been studied very much (for example by Hakami, 1995; Lanaro, 2001; Fardin, 2001; Zimmerman et al., 1991) for numerous applications and is still not completely solved as stated by Eriksson (2002).
10
Figure 2.1.
Water inflow to a tunnel vs. grouted zones hydraulic conductivity based on the formula A-2 shown in Appendix A. Assumptions: depth 30 m, hydraulic conductivity of ungrouted rock mass is 10-6 m/s (Lug ~ 10), thickness of grouted zone is 3 m, and skin factor for joint is 4 and tunnel radius 6 m.
Tunnel radiu s, m
Tu nnel radius, m
40
a)
Figure 2.2.
b) Water inflow to tunnel versus tunnel radius; K = 1*10-6 m/s (Lug ~ 10), h= 30 m and skin factor = 4; a) ungrouted tunnel, b) grouted, by Ki = 1*10-8 m/s, and, thickness of grouted zone 3 m. Equations presented in Appendix A.
11
Based on the Swedish experiences, even an inflow amount of 5 - 10 l/min/100 m can be enough to cause a permanent decrease in the water table level (Hartikainen, 1973). In some cases in the Oslo area, an inflow of 1 - 2 l/min/100 m has been found to be too much for the groundwater table, Roald (2002). It is difficult to specify any exact values, since the influence can vary considerably from place to place due to the size of the local aquifer and water recharge.
12
and excavated some 10 - 50 m below water table (for example, Bckblom, 2002; Roald, 2002; Statens Vegvesen, 2001; Stille, 2001). Though, some unlucky experiences also exist. For example, in the case of the Turku-Naantali water tunnel pre-grouting was destroyed by not waiting long enough and the inflow waters were moved to nearby fractures after post-grouting (Sievnen & Hagros, 2002). Similar phenomenon happened in Norway in the Tsen tunnel where several reasons led to an unsatisfactory sealing result (Statens Vegvesen, 2001). In many cases, one or two major fractures or crush zones control most of the inflow amounts - even after a trial grouting; for example, at Olkiluoto & Loviisa VLJ repositories (Sievnen & Hagros, 2002). Furthermore, we should also not forget the environmental and economic catastrophes at Hallandssen and Romeriksporten. In some cases from Finland, Sweden, and Canada the seepage decrease in time might be 0.3 - 1.1 % / month (Bckblom, 2002). The reasons for this are not understood, but one explanation is that it is due to precipitation of calcite and/or bacteria, degassing, and rock creep, etc. But as at URL, there might be a remarkable decrease after excavation work (30 m3/day => 20 m3/day in the first two years), but leveling out during that time at URL the current leakage has settled at 10 m3/day. Several opinions concerning the limit of achievable hydraulic conductivity exist: The achieved maximum tightness varies between 1*10-7 m/s - 2.5*10-9 m/s, depending on the materials used and the geology around the tunnel (Bckblom, 2002). Experiences in Oslo show that it is difficult to grout if the hydraulic conductivity is lower than 2.5*10-9 m/s (comment found in Hallandss documentation, Bckblom, 2002). Using ordinary cement, a final result of K = 3*10-7 m/s is a practical limit (Stille, 2001). The channels with an aperture smaller than 30 m (equal to K = 10-9 m/s) can be assumed to be wholly or partially unfilled by grouting, even with dynamic grouting with very fine cement (max grain size 15 m) conclusion in the Stripa project (Pusch et al., 1985). Generally accepted rules-of-thumb say; apertures >0.1 mm are groutable with microcements and the aperture/cement grain size ratio should be > 3 (for example, Roald, 2002). It was found in the Hallandss project that the mean flow reduction-% varies from 21 - 81 % for cements and 95 - 98 % for chemical grouts (2 different recipes), and 15 - 93 % for a mix of cement and chemical grouts (3 recipes) (Bckblom, 2002).
13
3. Grouting materials
3.1 General
The selection of grouting material should be based on the tightness and environmental requirements, and the geological and hydrogeological properties of the rock mass. Grouting materials for rock can be divided into: cementitious chemical a mix of cementitious and chemical compounds
The materials used in the reported Finnish cases are mostly cementitious materials, normally Rapid cement or microcements (Sievnen & Hagros, 2002). Chemical grouts were used in only a few cases. The experiences are similar in Sweden where several experts favor the fine fraction grouting cement (Bckblom, 2002; Dalmalm, 2001; Stille, 2001, Vgverket, 2000). In Norway, microcements or ultrafine cements are increasingly used (Statens Vegvesen, 2001).
14
100
Mikrodur R-X
Passing percent (%)
Mikrodur R-U
60
Alofix-MC Cementa UF 12
40
20
a)
0,1
Sieve size ( m)
10
100
100 Mikrodur R-F Cementa UF 16 80 MBT Rheocem 650 MBT Rheocem 800 60 MBT Rheocem 900
40
20
b)
0,1
100
Sieve size ( m)
10
100
Spinor A32 Mikrodur R-S Cementa Inj 30 Cementa Inj 64 Cementa Anl Pika 60 Rapid Yleis
80
40
20
c) Figure 3.1
0,1
Sieve size ( m)
10
100
1000
Grain size distribution of the grouting cements divided into three classes: a) UFC d100 20 m, b) MFC d95 20 m, c) coarser grouting cements / OPC d95 > 20 m. The curves are based on the material manufacturers information.
15
The European standard for grouting gives a limit value of d95<20 m (SFS-EN 12715) only for micro- and ultrafine cements. The Norwegian proposal for cement classification divides the finest fractions into two groups of microcements d95<30 m, ultrafine cement d95<15 m, and the OPC varies from 100-140 m (see Fig. 3.2, Hansen et al., 2002). The most used cements in the Nordic countries are presented in Table 3-2. The products from Cementa and Masterbuilder are Portland cements, Spinor is slag cement and Dykerhoff has both slag and Portland based cement. In Figure 3.1, the grain size distributions for most of the above-listed cement types are shown the data is taken from the manufacturers. Table 3-1. Cement type Different grouting cements, their maximum grain size and specific area (data from manufacturers). Maximum grain size (m) Specific area (m2/kg) Blaine Cementa Anlggningscement Cementa Injekteringscement 64 Cementa Injekteringscement 30 MBT Rheocem 650 Cementa Ultrafin cement 16 Orginy Spinor A16 Dykerhoff Mikrodur P-F MBT Rheocem 800 Cementa Ultrafin cement 12 MBT Rheocem 900 Orginy Spinor A12 Dyckerhoff Mikrodur P-U Dyckerhoff Mikrodur P-X 120 (d95), 128 (d100) 64 (d95), 128 (d100) 30 (d95), 32 (d100) 16 (d95), 20 (d98) 16 (d95), 32 (d100) 16 (d98) 16 (d95) 13 (d95), 20 (d100) 12 (d95), 16 (d100) 8 (d95), 10 (d98) 12 (d98) 9.5 (d95) 6 (d95) 300-400 600 1300 (BET) 650 800-1200 1200 1200 820 2200 (BET) 875 950 1500 1600 1900
When choosing cement, the aperture of the joints, together with the joint fillings, should be taken into account. A rule of thumb for penetrability has been presented (Fig. 3.2). One conclusion to be drawn is that when defining the maximum grain of
16
cements, a typical presented size of d95% might, in some cases, be too low. As seen in Figure 3.1, there can be much larger grains (a tail) in the final 5% passing. To estimate the penetrability of grout, a passing percent of 98 or even 100 could be more practical. Further, it should always be noted what the manufacturers maximum grain size actually means!
Figure 3.2.
Relation between joint opening, grain size, and grouting cement type (Hansen et al., 2002).
In Finland, the use of microcements has grown in recent years; for example, Rheocem 650 has been used to seal Merihaka sports hall & civil shelter and Ultrafine 12 cement at Salmisaari coal storage (see Appendix G). However, Rapid cement or OPC are still widely used. Cement takes from ten to hundreds of kg/bore-hole meter. When calculating cement consumption 10 kg/bore-hole meter is normally used. No major problems were encountered, or at least reported, but in several tunnel / caverns steel drip cups have been installed. In Sweden Injektering 30 is mostly used. Also, more fine-grained cements are used, but a few sites have complained that the very fine particles (<1 m) create early aggregates (filter cakes) and are very sensitive to the temperature and age of the mix (Dalmalm, 2001; Stille, 2001; Bckblom, 2002). Moreover, OPC like SH-cement or construction cement (Anlggningssement) and MFC like Rheocem 650 & Rheocem 800 or Ultrafine 16 are also widely used in Sweden. In Norway almost everything from OPC to UFC (in many cases, Ultrafine 12) has been used. However, the use of microcements, together with permitted high grouting pressure, has widely increased in last years. This is due to the very satisfactory results that have been achieved. Lately, a proposal to use different types of cement based on the required inflow limits has been presented (Pettersson & Molin, 1999; Roald, 2002): UFC, if q < 5 l/min/100 m is required MFC, if q = 510 l/min/100 m is required OPC, if q = 10 20-25 l/min/100 m is required
17
To summarize, it can be stated that increased tightness requirements lead to the selection of micro- or even ultrafine cements.
3.2.1 Properties The grouting result achieved by cement-based grout is highly dependent on the ability of the grout to penetrate the fractures. Penetration is dependent of the flow properties (yield value, viscosity), stability against sedimentation (bleeding), and grain size distribution of the cement particles (Hkansson, 1993). As presented in Figure 3.2, the rule of thumb is that the maximum particle size of the grout should be 1/3 of the fracture aperture for successful grouting. However, care should be taken to ascertain the correct maximum size stated on the container by the cement manufacturer. The filtration in narrow passages is assumed to have a large influence on the penetration. Dalmalm (2001) and Eriksson (2002) have shown, by a laboratory filter test (see Fig. 3.9) with a low-pressure filter pump that filter cakes occur more often with micro- or ultrafine cements. Not all the experts accept this, however, since results from the NES (see Fig. 3.8) test using proper admixtures and pressures show that filtering can be avoided (Roald, 2002). Penetrability of the grout is not the whole story. Though penetration can be achieved, a stage of joint filling or not filling - should still be taken into account. As presented in the thesis by Eriksson (2002) and in studies by several authors (for example,. Pusch et al., 1991) filling a joint is dependent on the grain size of the cement particles, and how stabile the grout is against the particle separation. Moreover, grout stability has been seen to be influenced by the water/cement-ratio. Of course, the fracture geometry, aperture, and contact areas also exercise an influence.
Figure 3.3.
Fissure filling by grouting. A stands for a wider channel, which is completely filled with grout, B is a partly filled area, and C is the unfilled area (Pusch et al., 1991).
18
The hardening and the strength of a grout have also been under discussion and found to be important parameters for evaluating the success of grouting. The rheology is shown to be highly dependent on several factors as presented in Table 3-2 (Hkansson, 1993). Further, it should always be noted that grout properties change with time. Table 3-2. Additive / action Decreased w/c-ratio Increased specific cement surface Decreased temperature Addition of bentonite Addition of silica Addition of superplasticizer Addition of sodium silicate Addition of calcium chloride *) +++ ++ + +/large increase moderate increase small increases no increase Influence on the rheology induced by different properties and additives (Hkansson, 1993). Influence on: Yield stress* +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ --+++ + Viscosity* +++ ++ + ++ ++ --+ + ---Binding time* --++ +/++ --large decrease moderate decrease small decrease
The maximum tightness achieved with cement grouts varies between 1*10-7 m/s (~1 Lug) - 5*10-9 m/s (~0.02 Lug) depending on the materials used, grouting methods (equipment, pressure, etc.), and geological conditions (see Chapter 2.5). Professor Stille (2001) has stated that using ordinary cement a final hydraulic conductivity of K = 3*10-7 m/s (~2 Lug) is the practical maximum tightness. Geometrically (and theoretically) 0.5 liters of grout covers: about 10 m2 joint surface with 50 m joint opening, about 6.7 m2 joint surface with 75 m joint opening, and, about 5 m2 joint surface with 100 m joint opening.
As well as grain size distribution, penetrability, viscosity, yield- or compressive strength and stability, the parameters like price, gelling time, storage and shelf life, availability
19
and toxicity of the grout should always be taken into account when choosing the right material.
3.2.2 Additives Cement-based grout additives can be admixtures, bentonite, mineral additives, or pozzolan, such as blast furnace slag or silica fume. Admixtures used for cementitious grouts are, for example: plasticizers and superplasticizer to reduce the water-cement ratio, accelerators to prevent grouts from leaking into the tunnel or ground surface, additives to reduce bleeding and shrinkage, expanding additives, retarders to slow hydration.
Typically material producers have their own admixture products that are recommended for use in the mixtures with the actual cement product. Standard SFS-EN 197-1 for cements states that the dosage of admixtures, which are used to improve the properties of cements but not concrete, must not be more than 1% of the weight of the cement. This is not valid for additives like pozzolan, fly ash, calcium sulfate, or silica. In the standard SFS-EN 206-1 for concrete, the amount of additives is limited to 50 g / cement-kg, unless a higher amount is known to affect the functional or longevity properties. However, the dosage should not exceed the manufacturers' instructions.
3.2.2.1 Additives to reduce bleeding and shrinkage Bleeding of the grout and shrinkage of the hardened grout are problems with cementitious grouts. To avoid these, and also to increase penetrability, bentonite or silica-based products like GroutAid can be used. Also, a low w/c-ratio (w/c = 0.71.0 depending on the cement) reduces bleeding and shrinkage. Bentonite is volcanic clay (smectites), which can absorb large amounts of water. Bentonite is inert and normally added to stabilize the grout against separation. Its water absorption ability is more than 500%. Since the introduction of microcements, the use of bentonite has decreased, because microcement-based grouts are much more stable, even for relatively high w/c-ratios, than OPC grouts. This is because the high specific surface (e.g. Blaine-value) of fine-grained cements binds more water. The bentonite will also make the grout more thixotropic. In Figure 3.4, the stabilization effect of a varying dosage of bentonite can be seen.
20
Figure 3.4.
Average sedimentation rate of bentonite stabilized cement suspensions (specific surface area of cement 3500 cm2/g. 1) Sedimentation rate H/H (%), 2) Addition of bentonite (% with reference to the weight of cement), 3) w/c-ratio (Kutzner, 1996).
The use of GroutAid silica slurry has been found to decrease bleeding - even with quite a high w/c-ratio (Fig. 3.5). It also improves the penetration properties of the grout (Fig. 3.6). The presented tests were carried out using Ultrafine 12 cement.
40
20
Not tested.
10
10%GA
20%GA
25%GA
30%GA
50%GA
0 1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
6.0
Figure 3.5.
Water separation in grout after 2 h; Ultrafin 12 cement, varying dosage of GroutAid (x% GA) and different w/c-ratio (Hansen et al., 2002).
Some cements, like Rheocem, are said to be stable (bleeding less than 2% within 2h) without any extra additives.
21
To increase the sealing effect of the grout, some expanding agents can be used. These are, for example, an admixture of fine-milled aluminum or aluminate sulfate and activated coal, which releases gas bubbles while moisturizing. Further, an expansion of the grout can also be achieved by using burned chalk (CaO) or periclas (MgO). An expansion, similar to snail dynamite, will occur when these hydrate to calcium or magnesium hydroxide. NOTE! Even if the grout is tested in a lab and found to be stable (bleeding < 2%) it may lose its stability (down to 10 - 15%) when a sample is disturbed. This phenomenon has been found to occur and depends on the cements mineral and chemical composition (Roald, 2002).
Penetration into Silversand 17 [cm]
40
20
Not tested.
10
0 0
10
20
25
Figure 3.6.
Effect of silica-based additive (GroutAid) on grout penetration in Sand Column test - two water/powder ratio is used (Hansen et al., 2002).
3.2.2.2 Plasticizers The Most commonly used plasticizers are surface-active superplasticiziers. With reduced cement grain size, the inter-particular forces between the grains are increased. The grains become electrically charged and attract each other. In order to break these bindings, surface-active superplasticiziers can be used for a steric- or electrostatic repulsion of the cement grains. Typically, the water/cement ratio with plasticizers is between 1.0 - 1.3. Without plasticizers the w/c- ratio used is typically 3 - 4. Both the naphthalene- or melamine-based superplasticizers can be used, though they might have varying effects on different cement types, depending on the dominant cement compound, and also on the w/c-ratios. An admixture, such as superplasticiziers, generally affects the grouting in a positive way in that the grout can penetrate and reach further before hardening begins.
22
3.2.2.3 Accelerators The accelerators can be divided into two categories: binder accelerators that lead to the early hardening of the grout, and strength accelerators that lead to an increase of the early strength.
The most common accelerator is calcium chloride, which affects both the binding and the early strength development. For extreme cases up to 15% of calcium chloride could be used, however, the grout will then lose the long-term stability and decay. It should be noted that calcium chloride is a retarder for aluminate and slag cements. Other early strength accelerators are, for example, potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate, calcium formate, triethanolamide, calcium acetate, calcium propionate, and calcium butyrate. Binder accelerators include sodium silicate (waterglass), sodium aluminates, aluminium chloride, sodium floride, and calcium chloride. Aluminate cement in Portland cement also behaves like an accelerator. Accelerators can be added either to the mixer to shorten the setting time or to the packer for a fast reaction. However, mixing due the relatively slow grout speed (0 - 20 l/min) might induce mixing problems and a possible reaction in packer can create plugs. One solution might be to use effective alcali free accelerators together with Portland cement and POC based micro and ultrafine cement (Laitinen, 2003). Elkem AB offers a two component grouting system called MultiGrout (magnesium cement and CaCl as an accelerator). In this system, the setting time can be adjusted to 10 - 90 min.
3.2.2.4 Retarders The use of retarders is not so common in grouting, but ligno-sulfonate can be used if needed. MBTs Delvocrete offers a system for grouting (and also for shotcreting). It includes a special stabilizer and an activator, which is added to the mixer. This system has been used in very warm environments where problems caused by too early setting have been encountered. With a stabilator, a ready mixed cement based grout will remain fresh for up to 3 days.
3.2.3 Testing methods for cementitious materials Penetrability of the grout can be analyzed by using so called Sand Column -test, by measuring a traveling length of grout through the sand filled plexiglas pipe (Fig. 3.7).
23
Figure 3.7.
Cement manufacturers present the results of the Sand Column test as a property of their product, but typically the grain size of the filling sand and/or pumping pressure varies actually there is no specified system for the test as can be seen in the following examples: * Ultrafine 12 with w/c=2 and 20 % GroutAid (silica based penetrator) has penetrated 85 cm into the water-filled sand NR50 with 2 bar pressure, * Cem I 52.5 with w/c=1 and 2 % Rheobuild 2000 PF (dispersing agent) has penetrated 15 cm into the water-filled 0.1-0.5 mm quartz sand with 4 bar pressure, - for the same material the Marsh-cone value was 32 sec (MBT, 2001), * Rheocem 650 with w/c=1 and 2 % Rheobuild 2000 PF (dispersing agent) has penetrated 90 cm into the water-filled into 0.1-0.5 mm quartz sand with 4 bar pressure; for the same material the Marsh-cone value was 32 sec (MBT, 2001). Another test method is NES (Fig. 3.8), where grout material is pumped through the artificial smooth fracture at a constant pressure.
Figure 3.8.
24
A third method for penetrability test is a filter pump (Fig. 3.9a), where grout mix is manually sucked into the 500 mm long metal tube through a specified woven metal wire cloth (125, 75, 45 or 32 m; ASTM E 437). Method is modified for field tests at KTH, Laboratory of Soil and Rock Mechanics. Amount of grout (in milliliters) in tube is then measured. A bit more complicated system is developed to laboratory (Fig. 3.9b), where with quite low pressure of 0.5 bar a similar test is produced. a) b)
Figure 3.9.
a) Field test pump for filtration stability, b) Laboratory filter pump system for penetrability analysis.
Density measurements can be used to check that there are no mixing mistakes in the grout. At site density can be measured by using a mud balance system (Fig. 3.10). Shrinkage of the cements can be measured from test cubes. An accepted value for shrinkage should be selected case by case though not more than 1 - 2% in the case of grouting for high-level caverns.
25
The grout flow properties or viscosity are determined using a Marsh funnel (Fig. 3.11a). The funnel is first filled with 1.5 l of grout. A measuring cup containing 1 US quart (946 ml) is filled from the standard funnel and the time is measured. Clean water has a reading of 26 sec (US quart) or 28 sec (1 liter). A suitable value for a grout is 32 - 35 sec.
a)
b)
Figure 3.11. a) The March Funnel test for viscosity analysis (Pettersson & Molin, 1999), b) Bleeding test for stability analysis
Bleeding can be measured by pouring the grout into a 1000 ml graduated glass (Fig. 3.11b). After 2 hours, the height of the bleed water (H) is measured. With highlevel requirements, bleeding should be <2%. The ISRM Commission on Rock Grouting (1995) suggested that suspension is considered stable when the sedimentation rate H/H after 2 hours remains under 5%.
26
some products (pre- and final product) might be a work safety risk (irritation if touching the skin, etc), longevity and stability properties not well known for all the materials some tests were carried out by Swedish National Research Center SP for TACCS (Salmenhaara , 2003), use might require special equipment, due to the effective penetration, chemical grouting is faster than cement grouting (Liljestrand, 2002). due to the early expansion, some products do not flush away easily (Salmenhaara, 2003)
Chemical grouts can be divided into the following groups (Riekkola et al., 2002, Vgverket, 2000): natriumsilicates acryl amid* lingnosulfates*, fenoplast and aminoplast* polyurethanes epoxy* and polyesterresines.
Currently, polyurethane or acrylic grouts are widely in use instead of the acryl amides. These are much safer for the environment, but they have to be used under control. Polyurethane-based materials expand manifold when water is introduced. Acrylics will cure to a gel. Neither of them will be as strong as cement grouts, so they must be used as a second choice and are mostly used for post-grouting fine fissures. Acrylics with an open time from a few seconds to 30 min are available on the market. Some products, like TACSS PU foam, have very high gelling and/or expanding properties (Table 3-3), so they can be used in the case of high water leakage where cements are flushed away (Andersson, 1998). However, the water pressure in a fracture should be less than the expansion pressure of the grout. If there is a high ambient water pressure (>100 m), the early gelling is important to avoid the grout extruding after packer removal. Some problems due water pressure were experienced in the Lundby road tunnel case when using a TACSS polyurethane product for the creation of an "inner curtain" at the tunnel intrados (Bckblom, 2002). Due the environmental and technical reasons, some of the products (marked * in the above list) have been abandoned in Sweden (Vgverket, 2000). Similar comments / reactions have been heard in the latest cases in Finland. It was an acryl amid gel RochaGil grout that was used in the Hallandssen railway tunnel site. A well-known environmental catastrophe happened there because some grout was flushed away from
27
the fracture into the groundwater and poisoned nature and animals. However, RochaGil is very good material for stopping leakages with typically 98% sealing efficiency since acrylamides provide excellent penetration (Bckblom, 2002). Also in Norway, acrylamide-containing grouting agents have been abandoned 1997. But, both Banverket and Vgverket in Sweden approve polyurethane products. For example TACSS was used in the Gta Tunnel (Liljestrand, 2002). Table 3-3. Product Basic properties of some chemical grouts (Vgverket, 2000; Laitinen, 2003). Viscosity / expanding (times in second)
5 mPas 1) 10-500 mPas 3 mPas 4 mPas 1-2 mPas <10 mPas 18 mPas / 10-50% 5-10 mPas 5 mPas 200-300 mPas / 2040 300 / 2-4 1000-1200 5 mPas 300 mPas / 10-300 220 / 42-48 120 mPas / 6-7 650 mPas 150-250 mPas / 25 500-700 mPas / 400-800 mPas / 10 400 mPas / 10 150 mPas 25-130 mPas 150-250 mPas / 3 400-600 mPas / 1020 550-900 mPas / 6-15 450-110 mPas
Silicates Dynagrout Glyoxal 40 Gederal Grout Acrylates AC-400, AP-200, TE-300 Alcoseal (568, A, C, CS) Befa Inject Q6 MEYCO MP301 + komp. MEYCO MP307 + komp. Sika Inject.-29 + komp Sika Inject.-40 + komp Rubbertite Polyurethanes Beveseal W or X Bevedan/Bevedol WF(2-comp) Flex 44 MEYCO MP 320 colloidal silica MEYCO MP 355 1K MEYCO MP 355 A (2-comp.) HydroActive Cut HydroActive Flex LV HydroActive Flex SLV HydroActive Combi Resfoam 1K-1 Resfoam 1K-M Spectec 20 TACSS 020/025 NF Multiseal (2-comp.) Sika Injection 20 (2-comp) SikaFix-T10 X (2-comp) Wilkit (2-comp)
1)
/ 35-50 kPa / 3-4 kPa Bacteria resistant / Age and freeze stabile / stabile (CBI) / 0.4 kPa Usable for final product
Org. & alcal. stable / 600 kPa For corrosive env. / 100 kPa Cem. Resistant / For corrosive env. / 60 kPa Stabile (SP) Stabile (SP) / 4-12 MPa kPa
/ 60 kPa
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During the Romeriksporten railway tunnel construction in Oslo, chemical leakages from two grouting agents (polyacrylate Meyco MP 307 and polyurethane grouting agent TACSS 020/NF) were monitored (Sverdrup et al., 2000). In a 14 km and 100 m2 tunnel, water leakage was mostly at the acceptable level except at the 1.3 km section where a total flow of 1500 l/min was encountered. So TACSS foam was used for blocking macropore point-leakages, which were causing a backflow of cement into the tunnel. MEYCO was used as a second agent to stop the remaining diffusely-distributed leakage. The possibility of a relatively large local release of chemicals into the aquatic environment was estimated, so effluent monitoring was found to be useful for risk management. In that particular case, the average leakage of acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate were estimated be 1.2%, 0.6%, and 0.5% (w/w), respectively, of the total 62 tons of MEYCO used. The average leakage of di-n-butyl phatalate and hexadecyl dimethyl amide were estimated to be 0.16% and <0.003% (w/w), respectively, of a total 80 tons of TACSS used. The proportions are small, but when calculating the total kilos out of the amount of grout agents used it is quite high. However, due to the high water leakage and dilution, the environmental effect in the Romeriksporten case was quite limited.
3.3.1 Testing methods for chemical grouts As presented in Table 3-3, the commonest viscosity (viscosymeter -test), stability, strength, and expansion properties test for chemical grouts is carried out by the manufacturer, mainly in the lab. Also, the density and the properties/effectiveness of corrosion, environment, and work safety (health) should be tested and/or informed by the material producer. Thus, it is not common practice to do any tests in the field. Penetration and strength can be controlled via cored samples. Also, expansion (or success of mixing) of polyurethane-based materials can be controlled if some materials from the mixed grout have been placed in a cup at the side and followed during grouting work. It should always be remembered that the properties of chemical grouts are highly dependent on the conditions like temperature, pressure, and additives (accelerator, hardener etc). This might induce a high variation of the penetrability and expansion or gelling properties, even with the same product and on the same project.
NOTE! The main focus in this report has been on cement grouting since chemical grouts have been, and will be, the minority for rock engineering /tunneling purposes. Therefore, more detailed information of chemical grouts can be found from the manufacturers (see product list in Table 3-3) and from the literature (for example, Andersson, 1998; Karolin, 1982; Riekkola et al., 2002, Sroff & Shah, 1993, Vgverket, 2000). A report by Vgverket (2000) - published in Swedish gives a very good summary of the properties and environmental effects of different chemical grouts (materials based on varying chemical compounds). Also, a study of grouting was carried
29
out in the Finnish technology project Rock Engineering 2000 (Riekkola et al., 1996). In that report, a special chapter on TACSS grout material and its properties studied in a lab has been included.
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4. Grouting equipment
The main equipment & components for grouting works are presented below. It must be noted that only a few examples are presented, and there are a number of manufacturers for each component around the world. The grouting work starts from drilling the holes. The grout itself is mixed and agitated prior to pumping (Fig. 4.1). A hose from the pump is connected to a valve, that is, a packer, which is placed in the grouting hole. The automatic logging of the grout take has been carried out along with the grouting.
Figure 4.1.
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Axera T 12
Atlas Copco, Rocket Boomer WL3 C Figure 4.2. Sandvik Tamrock Axera T12 and Atlas Copco Rocket Boomer WL3 C drilling jumbos. At right, a rod changer system for the drilling jumbo.
Figure 4.3.
4.2 Platform
There are various platforms for grouting units. In the older, but still usable, systems, the grouting components are just loaded on top of the mining vessel. They might even be separate components just interlocked at the grouting site/place in the tunnel.
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The modern system is to install all the equipment permanently on easily moved vehicles like trucks (Figs. 4.4 & 4.5), in which case even multiple grouting lines can be used. Actually, increasingly often at least 2 lines with 2 pumps, preferably 3 even, are required at least if continuous pre-grouting is done. This also gives more freedom and flexibility to move inside the site or even from site to site where grouting is needed.
Figure 4.4.
An Atlas Copco grouting rig with data logger at the Arlanda fast railway link project in Stockholm (www.masterbuilders.fi).
Figure 4.5.
A grouting unit with three pumps at the Gjellersen site near Oslo, Norway (Photo P. Holopainen, 2001).
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4.3 Mixer
Cement and water together with additives are fed into a mixer. Several mixer types exist. Normal paddle mixers are simple to use and rather cheap. But, since the mixing results are not good enough for high quality grouting, these are not recommended for use. A turbo mixer is more suitable. A centrifugal pump circulates the grout at a high speed (1300 - 1400 rpm, max. 1435 rpm) in the turbo-mixing container and creates a shearing action between the fractions for good quality mixing. However, the best result has been obtained by using a colloidal type mixer. In the colloidal type mixer (Fig. 4.6), shear forces are also created in the mixer housing. In the Hny system, the shear forces are created by high turbulence in the casing, and, in Atlas Copcos Craelius system, the shear forces are created by close tolerance between the impeller and casing (Pettersson & Molin, 1999). Mixing time and mixing speed are important factors influencing the grout quality. A typical mixing time for OPC is 4-5 min. The finer cements require more intense mixing. The maximum batch size is 80% of the container volume. In a colloidal mixer, the temperature might increase several degrees due to the energy release of the shear force braking. This might induce early hardening of the grout and should be controlled by the agitator (Pettersson & Molin, 1999). Also, mixer wearing should be controlled.
Figure 4.6.
Left: Atlas Copcos Cemix mixer in a grouting unit in Fig. 4.5 (Photo P. Holopainen, 2001); Right: Hny HCM colloidal mixer.
4.4 Agitator
The grout should always be agitated in order to keep the grout at a low viscosity and to prevent sedimentation. The agitator (Fig. 4.7) acts as a holding tank with grout ready for grouting. In the slowly revolving agitator, the grout suspensions are homogenized and possible air bubbles removed. Its size is normally twice the size of the mixer and rotates
34
at approximate 60 rpm. There should be one agitator per pump and per grout mixture. (Pettersson & Molin, 1999; Hnys homepage http://www.haeny.com).
Figure 4.7.
Left: Atlas Copcos Cemag agitator (http://www.atlascopco.com); Right: Hny HRW agitator (http://www.haeny.com).
Figure 4.8.
Left: Atlas Copcos PUMPAC 110B15 grout pump (http://www.atlascopco.com); Right: Hny ZMP 610 grout and mortar pump (http://www.haeny.com).
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Figure 4.9.
Left: Atlas Copcos Logac 4000 registering unit; Right: Hny HFR recording unit with inner PC software and recording system (http://www.atlascopco.com, http://www.haeny.com).
36
Figure 4.10. Left: Atlas Copcos Unigrout E22H system (http://www.atlascopco.com), Right: Hny Injecto Compact IC650 http://www.haeny.com).
With disposable packers, the sleeve has a non-return valve, which can be left in the hole after the grout has hardened and the other parts can be reused (Fig. 4.11 and Appendix C). However, it should be remembered that removing the injection pipe too soon could destroy successful grouting.
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Figure 4.11. Step by step installing system for disposable packer (MBT, 2001).
Inflatable or hydraulic packers are placed in the hole by grouting pipes or drill rods and then inflated by water or air (Fig. 4.12). The inflation pressure should exceed the grouting pressure and can be achieved by a hand pump or compressed air. After grouting and grout hardening, theoretically, the inflation pressure can be lowered and the packer removed from the hole and reused. However, there have been many problems due to the packers being damaged. The hydraulic packers are also quite expensive a 0.5 meter packer costs about 400-2500 each. (Lvhaugen, 2002).
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The valves, hoses, and couplings should also taken into account when choosing suitable equipment and the pressure required for grouting work. Hoses should be as short as possible. Some pressure might disappear in long hoses and in the case of the grout jamming, short hoses are more practical.
Figure 4.13. Airless Larius 3000 pumps for PU grouting (MBT, 2001).
Figure 4.14. Packers PPW1 for PU grouting in very small cracks (at left, www.deneef.fi), and Joco Composite (upper right) and Joco Wing plug for cement grouts (www.muottikolmio.fi).
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5. Grouting Design
5.1 General
Pre-investigation at the construction site is needed when planning grouting. Actually, more critical tightness requirements exist, though more detailed investigations are needed to produce good, predictable results. Experiences in Sweden and Norway show the Lundby road tunnel in Gothenburg and Baneheia in Kristiansand to be good examples, and the Hallandss and Romeriksporten railway tunnel cases as examples of extreme failure (for example,. Bckblom, 2002; Statens Vegvesen, 2001). Although in some cases investigations can be quite difficult and also expensive, they help to produce a more economical and tight cavern or tunnel. The main parameters of engineering geology (single fracture and fracture network characteristics), as well as hydrogeology (conductivity, transmissivity) of construction area, are required. General fracture properties like spacing, length, or even aperture can be evaluated quite simply (at least to a certain degree of accuracy). But, the fracture network (boundary conditions) or fracture fillings are more complicated, and, in many cases, these play a leading role in controlling the whole grouting process. Several analytical and numerical methods exist to estimate the groundwater leakage (for example, Cesano, 1999; Sievnen, 2001; Satola, 2001) and are occasionally used in tunnel projects. These methods (mainly based on Darcys theories) are usable, but vary considerably based on their basic assumptions, simplifications, limitations, required geological input information, as well as usability in different environments. So, the results are not completely comparable. Sievnen (2002) in her study considered Thiems approaches to shallow and imaginary wells (see Appendix A) for deep caverns to be the most relevant. Several evaluation systems for groutability and grout spread have also been created and presented (for example, Eriksson, 2002, Hssler et al., 1992a, Hssler et al., 1992b, Hkansson et al., 1992; Satola, 2001; Sievnen, 2001). All of these are based on the rheological laws (Newtonian or Bingham fluid model) of grout, however, geological factors have been shown to play an extremely important role in grout take or groutability. Normally, the best result will be achieved if hydraulic tests, together with conventional geological site exploration, are carried out. In Figure 5.1, a grouting procedure is presented step by step by ISRMs commission of rock grouting (1995). The main rule of thumb states that well-designed pre-grouting reduces the amount of inflow water and the need for post-grouting. Furthermore, the delay time between the grouting and excavation stages, as well as different grouting phases, must be enough for grout hardening.
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Figure 5.1. Procedure for planning and site work of grouting (ISRM, 1995).
41
Qualitative investigations present an understanding of geological and hydrogeological information of the site.
Quantitative method presents the hydraulic conductivity of rock and possible areas for inflow water. Figure 5.2.
Mathematical methods as tools for analyzing the amount of leakage water into the cavern.
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In qualitative investigations (Riekkola et al., 2002): Geological factors at the site and its surroundings are evaluated (thickness of soil layers, aquifer, etc) Fracture network of rock mass with average fractures (density, aperture, orientation), Location, orientation, and thickness of fracture zones, and, Fracture properties of fractured zone (infillings, density, aperture, orientation).
In quantitative investigations: Hydraulic conductivity of a rock mass and its spatial variations, Level of the water table and its spatial variations.
It is reasonable that the more open and longer fractures, or higher fracture density, are more likely to have higher inflows (Fig. 5.3). Increasing fracture density also increase grout take, and an increasing number of fractures increases grouting time. Moreover, the Swedish experience shows that horizontal fractures parallel to tunnel lines are difficult, but vertical leaking fractures are easier to define accurately. Experience, both in Finnish and Swedish cases, has shown that clay and chlorite infillings were associated with fractures with higher inflow, and on the other hand, these lead to difficulties in grouting (Sievnen & Hagros, 2002; Bckblom, 2002). The combination of filled and unfilled fractures is also difficult since flushing the filling material might create more channels due to the increase in pressure at the end of the grouting period.
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Figure 5.3.
At left: The ratio of the join aperture and frequency to the hydraulic conductivity (Hoek & Bray, 1981), and, at right: Transmissivity, conductivity and flow cross-section (ISRM, 1995).
Probe drilling (10 25 m holes) and water loss or water leakage measurements are widely used to estimate the grouting need during the construction phase. However, the water inflow measurements are not very accurate since, for example, hydraulic conductivity and its variation, as well as the groundwater pressure, should be known. Small inflows are also difficult to measure during the construction phase. The location and properties of fracture zones are very important to obtain. For example, in the Olkiluoto low and medium waste repository, which consists of 1 km of tunnels and two silos of 30 m diameter and a demonstration hall, with 2/3 of the leakage water coming from one (RiIII-RiIV) fracture zone (Sievnen & Hagros, 2002). In the Stripa project - grouting research for a nuclear waste repository in an old mine it was found that rock could be divided in groutability classes based on their hydraulic conductivity (Pusch et al., 1985; Pll et al., 1994). Similar classes are presented for the Stockholm ring road project design (Rosengren et al., 1996). These classes are combined and presented in Table 5-1.
44
Table 5-1.
Groutability hydraulic conductivity relationship (Pll et al., 1994; Rosengren et al., 1996). Lugeon < 0.3 0.3 1.5 1.5 - 5 <5 Comments Some close / tight fractures. Only one open fracture groutable, or a few quite tight fractures, difficult to grout Probably several fractures, high hydraulic conductivity, quite simple to grout Open fractures, very high hydraulic conductivity (possibly a high grout consumption)
The results from the seismic methods are very seldom used for grouting design even if investigations are carried out and the results available in almost every case in Finland. Based on the research, linearity between seismic speed and hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass has been found (Fig. 5.4) - grouting may be needed if the seismic speed is less than 3,500...4,000 m/s.
Figure 5.4.
Ratio of Lugeon value and seismic speed (Comit National Franais, 1964). Qc stands for Q*c /100, and c uniaxial compressive strength of rock in MPa. (Barton, 2002).
45
Barton (2002) assumes that there may be a link between groutability and the Q-value. However, Dalmalm (2001) found no clear correlation in the two variable analyses between Jw - Jn - Jr- Ja values numbered according to the Q-system and the grouted volume for the different holes at Arlandabana. According to him, there are two possibilities, either there is no correlation or the correlation could not be identified with the data from this project, which could be the case when the rock mass is too homogenous. For example, the Jw value was found to be 1.0 for 99 % of the total length of 8.6 km of tunnel in. The rock quality was also quite good, while the Q-value varies from 1 to 60. According to his work, a Q-index less than approximately 5 could mean that the average grout volume would be increase (Fig. 5.5). It seems that there might be a clearer correlation between the Q-value and grout take when the rock quality is bad (Q < 5).
Figure 5.5.
Average grout take in volumes plotted against the corresponding Q-value, data from 100 grout holes in app. 3 fans (Dalmalm, 2001).
A modified Q for grouting (Qi) was implemented in 1991 by Johansen et al. (Fig. 5.6). The modified equation has the same base of classification as the Q system except for the Lugeon number:
46
RQD Qi = Jr Ja Jn
1 1 + Lug
Figure 5.6.
The relation between grout takes (kg/tunnel-m) and the Qi-value. The limit curves are from two tunnels in Norway (Johansen et al., 1991).
Dalmalm (2001) in his thesis finds a correlation between the Lugeon value and the amount of grouted cement (Fig. 5.7).
Figure 5.7.
The Lugeon sum and grouted cement amount (kg/drill meter) for the 8 fan halves with representative trial results (Dalmalm, 2001; Dalmalm & Janson, 2001).
47
Rock or tunnel grouting is carried out prior to blasting, i.e. pre-grouting, or after blasting as post-grouting. The size of the project, as well as environmental & tightness requirements, determine which is used. Pre-grouting is mainly used (Fig. 5.8). Failed and still dripping sections identified after blasting are repaired by post-grouting, thus, a combination of both methods is mainly used. The main ideas and advantages or disadvantages of pre- and post-grouting are discussed in Appendix E.
Combinations grouting.
of
cover
grouting
and
post
Figure 5.8.
The most typical cases in pre- and post-grouting, and a combination of the two (Pettersson & Molin, 1999).
5.2.2 Drill pattern design and grouting order The number, length, and spacing of holes in a grouting fan vary from case to case. It usually depends on the size and location of the tunnel, stated requirements for tightness, and/ or environmental safety and geology. Typically 10 - 30 holes with a length of 15 - 30 m (2-4 times blasting round) and spacing 1 - 3 m is used (see Fig. 5.9 upper). Shorter holes can also be used in bad rock conditions.
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Tightness class 1: Requirement: 0.51.0 l/min/100 m, Systematic grouting: 66 holes, 10...13 m Hole spacing 1 m Tightness class 2: Requirement: 2.0 l/min/100 m Systematic grouting: 44 holes, 13 m Hole spacing 2 m at roof and 1 m at floor. Tightness class 3: Requirement: 2.5 l/min/100 m Systematic grouting: 30 holes 17 m Hole spacing 2 m Figure 5.9 Grouting drill pattern (upper) and an example of grouting classes used in the Lundby tunnel, Sweden (MBT, 2001; Statens Vegvesen, 2001).
If the aim is just to prevent the tunnel from dripping water, grouting the roof and walls (some cases just the roof) can be enough. If the groundwater level should not sink, the floor/bottom of the tunnel should also normally be grouted. In many cases 2/3 of the water leakage comes from the floor and it is difficult to see due to the dirt remaining on
49
the tunnel bottom (Roald, 2002). In some cases, the tunnel face may also need grouting to prevent a lowering of the groundwater level and to reduce problems during drilling and charging at least, in the face grouting of bad rock quality drifts. In some cases like the Botniabanan railway link in eastern Sweden and the Lundby road tunnel in Gothenburg, tunnels are divided into three grouting classes depending on the rock type (Botniabanan, 2000; Vaaranta, 2002; Statens Vegvesen, 2001). The number of boreholes in the Lundby tunnel is very high (Fig. 5.9), since extremely tight requirements of 0.5 - 2.5 l/min/100 m for that under-city tunnel were set. At Storhaugtunnel in Stavanger, pre-grouting was also done by using 30 - 72 hole/grouting round at 85 m2 tunnel (typically 62 holes) due to problems with the clay-filled joints that were opened by flushing (Statens Vegvesen, 2001). The orientation and inclination of holes, that is, spacing of holes at the end of the fan, should be carefully planned and controlled at the site based on the geological surroundings. Nowadays in Sweden, control measurements for borehole orientation are taken. For example, at the Lundby tunnel about 20% of holes were measured by using an inclinometer with a permitted maximum deviation of 3 - 5% (Statens Vegvesen, 2001) At the Botniabanan railway link, the orientation of the grouting holes was also measured and the acceptance limit for a 27 m hole was 3.5 % (Vaaranta, 2002). Drilling should be planned in such a way that the grout is everywhere raised above the designed rock bolting section. That is done to avoid bolt hole penetration to the nongrouted zone and opening new channels for leaking water. If pre-grouting is also performed in a high stress environment, it could be effective to the extended grouted zone beyond the zone where the rock mass strength is exceeded. This distance can be evaluated based on the ratio of the rock stress and strength of a rock mass. To extend the grouted zone to an adequate distance from the tunnel, the drilling fans should overlap normally from 1/3 to of the grout hole length. In Norway, about 9 m overlap is used (Roald, 2002). This allows the drilling of the next round to be started directly after grouting work. After the first blasting round, the overlap is still about 4 m and the grout has time to harden during the drilling, charging, and hauling of the following round. The best way to drill and plan grouting holes is to use drilling jumbo together with its own software and the registration system. During drilling, the user should write his observations in the drilling report, like: penetration changes and if the anti-jamming automatic is activated, possible loss of the drilling water, color of the drilling water, opinion of the rock quality based on his experience.
Grouting holes should be flushed after drilling. That is typically done by using the drilling jumbos flushing water. However, special devices with high pressure are
50
recommended and even required for use. One effective way is to use equipment that is designed to flush sewers. There are several systems and ideologies concerning the order of the grouting. One could start grouting in the bottom corner of the tunnel and continue around the pattern in order, which is the typical way in Finland. In Sweden, water loss measurements are carried out in each hole and grouting starts with the holes with highest inflow and continued with the next highest inflow amount and so on. This was the case, for example, in the Botniabanan tunnels. In Norway, the most used method is to start from the bottom holes and come up toward to the center roof hole (Hognestad, 2002; Roald, 2002). Holes can be grouted one by one or in pairs depending on the number of grouting units. However, in complicated rock, holes should be grouted one by one despite the time lost in the project. In bad rock condition or if the roof cover is thin, an outer zone can be grouted before actual pre-grouting (Fig. 5.10). That procedure reduces the loss of grout and allows higher pressures to be used.
Figure 5.10. Pre-grouting in bad rock quality with an umbrella (Hansen et al., 2002).
Smooth (cautious) blasting at the area where grouting will be or has been performed might be needed to create minimum disturbance, which is actually, more important for grouting at the tunnel floor. However, not all experts agree, but experiences from Lundby and Sdra Lnken road tunnels in Sweden are encouraging (Bckblom, 2002). A typical grouting procedure made by a contractor is shown in Appendix F.
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5.2.3 Recipes and grouting speed In Finland, grouting is normally started with a high w/c-ratio being 1-3 depending on the use of plasticizers. If the grout pressure does not increase and the grout take is some 50 kg / bore hole meter, the w/c ratio is decreased. Further, the w/c is changed until the desired maximum grouting pressure can be reached, but normally not more than w/c 0.5. That criterion was followed in the case of Salmisaari coal storage and Isokyl tunnel on Highway VT1. Some recipes used at Salmisaari coal storage construction site are presented in Appendix G. The situation is very similar in Norway, where in some cases one mix of lean grout (w/c ~2.0) is pumped first to grease the hose and rock (Statens Vegvesen, 2001). Such a high w/c can be used if stable grout is used, but it is, however, very much site dependent (Roald, 2002). As an example, at the Lunner Gardemoen road tunnel in Ra grouting was started with w/c 2 till for 120 liters (one batch) and then changed to 1.3/1.1 for 3000 4000 l/ hole, and finally to 0.55. Ultrafine cement with a maximum grain size of 12 m was required (Lvhaugen, 2002). Since there is no consensus on this issue, there is also another example, such as the Jong-Asker railway tunnel where grouting was started using a w/c 1.1 for 300 kg and then changing to 0.9 or 0.7 and further to 0.5 (Rongmo, 2002). At Botniabanan, a starting grout mix was chosen based on the water loss measurements; in the case of Lugeon < 1 => w/c 2, and if Lugeon > 1 => w/c 1 were chosen. The starting mix was used for about 250 kg and then changed to 0.8 for about 450 kg and further to ending mix of 0.5. Injektering 30 cement together with plasticizers (0.65 or 1 %) was used based on the stated requirements by the owner (Botniabanan, 2000; Vaaranta, 2002). Dry holes were filled using w/c 0.5, and, grouting holes were plugged using w/c 0.3. Usually the maximum grouting speed used at the beginning is 20 l/min. There are several opinions concerning the right value. In Norway, the grouting speed is defined in the field, but based on the equipment capacity; in some cases, a pressure capacity of 100 bar and grouting speed of 60 l/min is required (Nomeland et al., 2002). Depending on the situation, 1 to 3 holes are grouted simultaneously.
5.2.4 Grouting Pressure Grouting pressure has been a difficult issue among the experts. Divided opinions and two groups exist: opinions against and for high pressure. The first group firmly believes that increasing the grouting pressure decreases work safety and breaks the rock mass by creating new fractures and opening existing ones. The latter group of experts state that the increase in the pressures used is needed for better grout penetrability to create more dry tunnels, and, that no extra damage to the tunnel, or lessening of work safety, is encountered. The highest pressures used in Finland are about 3 - 4 MPa, but typically just 0.5 2 MPa is used (see Appendix B).
52
ISRMs grouting commission has stated in their final report (1995) that since the grout flow is dependent on the nature of the joint to be filled, the flow properties of grout, and the effective pressure in the joint, it is logical to use as high a grouting pressure as can be permitted. This results in the grout permeating a greater distance, hence, reducing the need for frequent re-siting of the equipment, and reducing the cost of the operation. In Norway, where much grouting is carried out in difficult and sensitive areas as high as 8 to 9 MPa (8090 bar) has been used without any serious problems or damages even close to the surface (Roald, 2002). For example, in a railway tunnel between Jong and Asker near Oslo, a pressure of 6 MPa was mainly used, but the maximum pressure of 10 MPa was stated in the grouting instructions, with the rock overburden varying from 2040 m (Rongmo, 2002). A 10 MPa pressure for grouting equipment is also required. High pressure is needed if the fractures are tight and very low leakage is allowed into the cavern. Usually, the main problems in the case of high grouting pressures are the capacity of the grouting equipment (typically max. pressure for pumps are 10 MPa) and the packer or host installations. At the Lunner Gardemoen road tunnel through the hill with 0-350 m overburden, a pressure of 6 - 9 MPa is used with no damage due to the high grouting pressure (Lvhaugen, 2002). Sweden wants to limit pressures as in Finland. However, no disadvantages in Hallandss or the Arlanda fast railway link project were found when using high over pressures like 5 MPa (Bckblom, 2002). A criterion for the maximum allowed pressure is not necessarily the depth of the tunnel (rock weight). In tight fractures, the pressure losses are significant so the influence area, and furthermore the effective force, stay very limited. The Situation is the reverse in the case of very open fractures where in extreme case the rocks weight should not be exceeded. One rule of thumb states, as does the theoretical point of view, that grouting pressure must exceed twice the groundwater pressure to gain a good result and prevent fingering of the grout. Another rule from Norway is that the pressure should be 2.5 - 3.5 MPa higher than the groundwater pressure. Hytti (1981) presented one way to estimate a suitable grouting pressure for different rock qualities at certain depths (Fig. 5.11). A similar evaluation system is also presented in ISRM (1995). There it is also states that the grouting pressure applied in China is twice as high as those of the European rule of thumb are (Fig. 5.11) with no detrimental effects. Usually grouting is carried out using static pressure. In some specific areas where very high sealing efficiency is required, such as a repository for nuclear waste, dynamic pressure might be usable in grouting and has been researched (Pusch et al., 1985; Riekkola et al., 1996). In dynamic grouting, both static and dynamic pressure is used. First the grout is pumped into the hole under steady pressure and a vibration is simultaneously carried out using, for example, percussion drilling machine. The vibration will induce shear waves, which reduces the friction between cement particles and increases penetrability (Pll et al., 1994).
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a)
b)
Figure 5.11. a) Estimation of grouting pressure: 1. Weak rock domain, 2. Good quality rock domain, 3. European rule: 1 bar/overburden-m (Hytti, 1981), b) A state of flow around a borehole (ISRM, 1995).
The dynamic grouting has been tested in the Stripa mine project researching a suitable tool for very fine fracture grouting (Pusch et al., 1985). Static pressures in the field test were 1.1 - 3.3 MPa, dynamic pressure 2.5 - 3.5 MPa, and initial vibration 50 Hz. The vibrations in the grout were measured at 20 - 200 Hz, but that rapidly decreases when grout enters the hole. With this method, both clay and cement suspensions were able to penetrate dozens of centimeters into the fracture with a 0.10.2 mm aperture. So, dynamic grouting might be needed in the future when very low leakage is allowed in an already tight rock mass, for example, when a repository for nuclear waste will be constructed. Actually, some tests by Posiva have recently been carried out (Riekkola et al., 2002).
5.2.5 Controlling grouting and stop criteria The grouting pressure and/or amount of grout are used as control parameters to stop the grouting work. The limits for these parameters should be decided prior to grouting work and continuously checked, preferably by an automatic logging system (see Chapter 4). An increase in grouting pressure during pumping indicates tight fractures at least with the w/c-ratio used. In some cases, increasing the w/c-ratio might still be required for a satisfactory final product.
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Another signal to stop grouting or change the recipe is a grout take; if the grout take is high and the pressure does not increase, a joint does not get filled, and a smaller w/c-ratio should be used until the pressure increases. High grout-take in volume might also be due to a grout leak to the ground surface or back to the tunnel. For example, a maximum grout take while normal grout mix is used could be about 50 kg of cement/drill-m or 100 l of grout/drill-m. Normally, the stop criteria for grouting is that the grouting is completed when the set maximum amount of grout has been reached, or the apparent grout take is less than 0-3 l/min at maximum pressure. Maximum pressure must be maintained for at least 2 - 5 minutes. If the permitted leakages are very low, it may be necessary to increase the time to maintain maximum pressure (Fig. 5.12) or to just set the grout take at zero. Some believe that 2 - 5 min is enough.
Figure 5.12. Volume increases during time in minutes. Data is from the grouting trials at South Link project in Stockholm (Dalmalm, 2001).
Some recent examples for stopping criteria: Lunner Gardemoen road tunnel at Ra, Norway: grout take 0 and pressure of 60 bar for 1 min; max grout take 4000 kg/hole (Lvhaugen, 2002), Jong-Asker railway tunnel, Oslo: grout take 0 and pressure of 60 bar for 5 min (Rongmo, 2002), Botniabanan, rnskldsvik, Sweden: 25 bar overpressure (Vaaranta, 2002), grout take < 2 l/min for 5 min with
55
A Grouting Intensity Number (GIN), presented by Lombardi & Deere (1993), uses a combination of pressure and grout take in a more quantitative way: GIN = Where p V = = p*V , grouting pressure at zero grout take grout volume at zero grout flow
Grouting continues if p < pmax or V < Vmax. For example, in the case of Hallandss (Bckblom, 2002) the suggested values were; pmax = 55 bar (5.5 MPa), Vmax = 25 kg/m, and, GIN = 275340. However, the GIN method is difficult to use in situ, since the grout take is so dependent on geology (Pettersson, 2003; Hognestad, 2002, Roald, 2002). Special attention should be paid to the grouting time that should always be controlled. If the grouting lasts too long, it might start to set, so equipment might be needed to empty and clean.
5.2.6 Post-grouting Post- grouting is a method that is used to grout behind the face in an already excavated part. It is said to be a passive approach. The need for post-grouting depends on the apparent leakage amount into the tunnel and on the initial requirements. The lengths of the grouting holes are shorter and spacing denser than in pre-grouting, since grouting targets are very local. Typically, post-grouting must be focused to the fracture zones, bad rock quality areas, or areas that are disturbed / damaged due to the blasting. It is much more expensive to stop the water by post-grouting than by pre-grouting. Post grouting might be even 310 times more expensive (a value of 20-50 was given on MBTs homepage), which has been proven in many projects. So, post-grouting should always be a repair or second stage strategy and in addition to pre-grouting. In principal, the same idea as presented in Figure 5.10 can be used to reduce grout leakage to the tunnel during post-grouting (Fig. 5.13).
56
Figure 5.13. Inner curtain (umbrella) principles for post-grouting technique (from Elkems course material).
57
If the conditions on site differ substantially from the laboratory conditions the test (especially the temperature test) should be conducted under in situ conditions. The temperature development during testing should be monitored (SFS-EN 12715). During the construction phase, at least the following tests should be done and reported (SFS-EN 12715): density (Fig. 3.10) both suspensions and microfine suspensions, Marsh viscosity (Fig. 3.11a) both suspensions and microfine suspensions, bleeding, (Fig. 3.11b) both suspensions and microfine suspensions, setting time suspensions grain size / sand column test (see Fig. 3.7) - microfine suspensions.
Depending on the recipe in laboratory (+20C), the setting of the grout should start about 1 hour after mixing and end within 8 hours. At the site, the setting can be checked by the cup-test. When a pen does not penetrate the grout, setting has started and when the grout does not flow out from the cup setting has stopped. Of course, this method is not accurate but suitable for site conditions.
58
In Finland and Sweden, the control procedure is more or less like that presented above. In Norway, no tests have been carried out during grouting work, since the manufacturers' tests are usually accepted.
59
were most of the tunnel is dry, but one or two sections have a major inflow. But if the total inflow stays under the required limit, the project might be accepted and the water is controlled by a drainage system. That might be the wrong decision in the long run. It should be remembered that running water might flush fracture fillings and induce instability in the tunnel surroundings. There might also be environmental problems in the surface of the ground.
Figure 6.1.
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7. Purchase methods
Typically, in a contract between client and contractor, grouting is divided into the following divisions: Investigations: probe-holes price / hole meter, and water inflow measurement price/piece. Pre-grouting for; * * shafts: price / grouting hole meter, including drilling and grouting work and equipment. tunnels & halls: price / grouting hole meter or price/grout hole, including drilling and grouting work, equipment and material tests.
Post-grouting is divided to; * drilling, price / grouting hole meter for different lengths of holes,
* grouting work price / hour or shift including equipment and labor costs, or price/grout hole. Materials; separate prices for different grouts and additives, price/kg.
There might be some variations from case to case, mainly when: Separating the drilling and giving a separate price per meter for short and long holes - also for probe-hole drilling for evaluating the grouting need. That is the case with the Botniabanan railway tunnels on the east coast of Sweden (Botniabanan, 2000; Korhonen, 2002; Vaaranta, 2002). Having a price per day for the grouting unit (equipment + personnel). Having a separate price for the special grouting materials and/or additives. Having a price per hour for the whole grouting work. That is good with a low water cement ratio, since pumping the water is not included in the material price. However, the client should have more detailed requirements for the grouting units. Giving a separate price / ton for grouting around the tunnel opening. Giving a separate price for 24 main types or sizes of tunnel and if the grouting work is done in one-face or multiple-face stages.
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In some recent tunnel projects in Norway like Bragernes, Tsen, and Storhaug (Statens Vegvesen, 2001), the pricing is based on the grout-kg, including grouting work and materials. A separate price for drilling per meter and packers (pcs) is given. In some cases the waiting time after grouting and before new drilling is also included in grouting price. At the Banaheia tunnel in Kristiansand, the pricing was a little special. It was divided into drilling price (NOK/m), grouting price that is divided into a fixed price for equipment (NOK/month) and a fixed cost for grouting work (NOK/hour), and a price for grout (NOK/kg) including materials, packers, etc (Statens Vegvesen, 2001). These systems might be enough for simple cases or if a continuous pre-grouting is required, which is a common custom nowadays in Sweden and to a certain extent in Norway. But, in the case of design as you go systems some difficulties might occur if grouting fans differ from one from another and decisions are made at the site, the grout take varies a lot due to very tight or very open fractures, grout material should be changed, etc In some cases, as in the Sines Propane cavern project in Portugal, more detailed contracts are required and the prices are given for: Grouting equipment set-up price. Stand-by times for grouting unit including requested labor costs, price/day. Grout placement, price/ton, For different type of tunnels, caverns, or shafts including material preparation costs, labor costs, energy costs, follow up, as well as result reporting, and cleaning of the work area. For different type of grouting materials, or even, For different types of geological conditions (tight or large grout takes).
A more simple system is also given. For example, on Finnish Road Administrations projects for soil- and rock grouting (Tielaitos, 1991), all that is required is a price for grouting tons, without dividing that into any subdivisions. In the contract agreement systems for mines (VMY, 1986) no divisions for grouting work have been given. These two give the contractor a great deal of freedom and puts pressure on site design and control. In construction project quantity estimations in MAA 89 (RAKLI, 1989), a general instruction for rock grouting is divided into the amount of grout (m3) and the number of holes. A few comments by Vaaranta (2002) / Lemminkinen Construction: Price / hour is not a good way if no requirements for equipment are presented; the better the equipment the higher the price.
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In the case of tight rock, the price / hour is a good system due to low cement consumption. Separate price for equipment set-up is not needed as it can be handled otherwise. If the water/cement ratio is high, pumping the water not paid for, just the earned price/cement-kg.
Whatever pricing / purchasing system is used the early decisions regarding grouting procedure and designs, as well as strong client supervision at the site, are the main factors improving the quality of the final product. Furthermore, experiences from case studies show explicitly that it is not economical to save in pre-investigations at the site the more complex the geology or sensitive the environment the more careful and continuous the probe-drillings or other investigations.
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References
Airaksinen, J.U., 1978. Maa- ja pohjavesihydrologia. Kustannusosakeyhti pohjoinen, Oulu (In Finnish). (Non-checked reference from Riekkola et al., 2002). Andersson, H., 1998. Chemical Rock Grouting. An experimental study on polyurethane foams. Chalmers Tekniska Hgskola, Gteborg, Sweden. (Non-checked reference from Riekkola et al., 2002). Barton, N., 2002. Some new Q-value correlations to assist in site characterisation and tunnel design. Accepted draft to Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 5. February 2002. Barton, N., Buen, B. & Roald, S., 2001. Strengthening the case for grouting. Tunnels and Tunneling International, December 2001 and January 2002. Botniabanan, 2000. rnskldsvik - Husum del 3. Bergteknisk beskrivning, handling 11.2; 2000-04-17. Bckblom, G., 2002. Experience on Grouting to limit inflow to tunnels - Research and development and case studies from Sweden. Posiva Oy, Helsinki, Finland. Working Report 2002-18 Cesano, D., 2001. Water leakage into underground constructions in fractured rocks. Doctoral thesis at Division of Land and Water Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm. Cesano, D., 1999. Methods for prediction of groundwater flows into underground constructions in hard rocks. Division of Land and Water Resources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. Comit National Franais, 1964. La deformabilit des massifs rocheux. Analyse et comparaison des resultats. Int. Congress on Large Dams. Vol. 8., Edinburgh, Paris. (Non-checked reference in Barton, N., 2002. Some new Q-value correlations to assist in site characterisation and tunnel design. Accepted draft to Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 5. February, 2002). Dalmalm, T., 2001. Grouting Prediction Systems for Hard Rock Based on active design. Licentiate Thesis. Div. of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm. Dalmalm, T. & Janson, T., 2001. Grouting field investigation at South Link. In Proc. of 4th Nordic Rock Grouting Symposium. SveBeFo Rapport 55, Stockholm. Eriksson, M., 2002. Prediction of grout spread and sealing effect A probabilistic approach. Doctoral Thesis. Div. of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm.
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Fardin, N., 2001. Scale dependency, heterogeneity and anisotropy of surface roughness of rock fractures. Licentiate Thesis. Div. of Engineering Geology, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm. Garshol, K.F., 1999. Use of pre-injection and spiling in front of hard rock TBM excavation. In Proc. of 10th Australian Tunneling Conference, Melbourne, Victoria 21 24 March 1999. Hakami, E., 1995. Aperture distribution of rock fractures. Doctoral Thesis. Div. of Engineering Geology, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm. Hansen, T.S., Nomeland, T. & Roald, S., 2002. How to make rock injections result predictable and successful the first time around. First draft of the paper to be presented in a journal. Hartikainen, J., 1973. Helsingin metron pohjaveden tarkkailujrjestelm. Kalliomekaniikan piv 1973. RGY. Vol 9. Helsinki (In Finnish). (Non-checked reference in Holopainen, P., 1977. Kallion tiivistminen injektoimalla. Geotekniikan laboratorio, tiedonanto 31. Valtion teknillinen tutkimuskeskus, Espoo). Hoek, E. & Bray, J., 1981. Rock Slope Engineering. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, London. 358 p. Hognestad, H-O., 2002. Personal discussion. Hytti, P. 1981. Esi-injektoinnin suoritus ja sen huomioiminen urakka-asiakirjoissa. Helsinki Univ. of Technology, Otaniemi (In Finnish). (Non-checked reference in RIL 154-2, 1987. Tunneli- ja kalliorakennus II, Suomen Rakennusinsinrien Liitto RIL, Helsinki). Hkansson, U., Hssler, L. & Stille, H., 1992. Rheological properties of microfine cement grouts. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp.452458. Hkansson, U., 1993. Rheology of fresh cement based grouts. Doctoral Thesis. Div. of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm. Hssler, L., Hkansson, U. & Stille, H., 1992a. Classification of jointed rock with emphasis on grouting. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 447-452. Hssler, L., Hkansson, U. & Stille, H., 1992b. Computer-simulated flow of grouts in jointed rock. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 441446. ISRM, 1995. Commission on rock grouting, Chairman R. Widmann. Final report. International Society for Rock Mechanics. Johansen, P.M., Lset, F., Vik, G., 1991. Erfaringsdata viser at mikrosementer vil vre et godt supplement til vanlig sementinjektion. NGI. Oslo.
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Karol, R. H., 1982. Chemical grouts and their properties. Proceedings of the conference on Grouting in Geotechnical Engineering (ed. Wallace Hayward Baker). American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 359-377. (Non-checked reference from Riekkola et al., 2002). Korhonen, K., 2002. Personal discussion - site manager at Salmisaari coal storage. Kutzner, C., 1996. Grouting of rock and soil. Balkema. Rotterdam/Brookfield. Laitinen, A., 2003. Personal discussion. Lanaro, F., 2001. Geometry, mechanics and transmissivity of rock fractures. Doctoral Thesis. Div. of Engineering Geology, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm. Liljestrand, B., 2002. Personal discussion. Lombardi, G. & Deere, D., 1993. Grouting design and control using the GIN-principle. Water Power & Dam Construction. Lvhaugen, R., 2002. Personal discussion site manager at the Lunner Gardemoen road tunnel, Ra. MBT, 2001. Procure of Master Builders Technology. Nomeland, T., Guldset, O. & Roald, S., 2002. Injeksjon i tunneler og bergrom forslag til arbeidsprosedyre. Elkem Materials, Multigrout 18.11.2002. Pettersson, S-., 2003. Personal discussion. Pettersson, S-. & Molin, M., 1999. Grouting & drilling for grouting. Atlas Copco Craelius Ab. Pusch, R., Brgessn, L., Karnland, O. & Hkmark, H., 1991. Final report on test 4 Sealing of natural fine-fracture zone. Technical Report 91-26, SKBStripa project, Stockholm, Sweden. Pusch, R., Erlstrm, M. & Brgessn, L., 1985. Sealing of rock fractures; A survey of potentially useful methods and substances. Technical Report 85-17, SKB, Stockholm. (Non-checked reference from Dalmalm, 2001). Pll, J., Riekkola, R. & Saanio, T., 1994. Stripa-projektin tiivistystutkimukset. Raportti YJT-94-09. Voimayhtiiden Ydinjtetoimikunta, Helsinki (in Finnish). RAKLI, 1989. Maa 89 mrmittausohje. Suomen Rakennuttajaliitto, Helsinki (in Finnish). Riekkola, R., Sievnen, U., Syrjnen, P. & Tolppanen, P., 2002. Kalliotilojen vesivuotojen hallinta katsaus injektointiin. Louhinta- ja kalliotekniikanpivt 7.8.11.2002 (in Finnish).
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Riekkola, R., Pll, J. & Satola, I., 1996. Injektointimenetelmien kehittminen. Tutkimusraportti, projekti 2.1. Kalliorakentaminen 2000 - Teknologiahanke. RIL ja Tekes, Helsinki (in Finnish). RIL 154-2, 1987. Tunneli- ja kalliorakennus II. Suomen rakennusinsinrien liitto, Helsinki (in Finnish). Roald, S., 2002. Personal discussion Professor at NTNU. Rongmo, M., 2002. Personal discussion site manager at Jong-Asker railway link, Oslo. Rosengren, L., Olofsson, S-O., Israelsson, J., Bergman, M., Hakami, H., Bognar, S., Sjstrm, ., Salomonson, J., Hallin, A. & Wagenius, J., 1996. Frutsttningar, dimensioneringsprinciper och berkningar avseende bergfrstrkning och ttning. Norra Lnken 2, Vrtan bygg. Konsortiet KM-FFNS Norra Lnken 2, Stockholm. Salmenhaara, P., 2003. Personal discussion. Satola, I., 2001. Injektointilaastien koostumusten vaikutus tunkeutuvuuteen ja saavutettavaan tiiveystulokseen. Research Report TKK-KAL-A-30. Helsinki Univ. of Technology, Lab. of Rock Engineering, Espoo (In Finnish). SFS-EN 197-1. Cement. Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements (Sementti. Osa 1: Tavallisten sementtien koostumus, laatuvaatimukset ja vaatimustenmukaisuus). 27.11.2000. SFS-EN 206-1. Concrete. Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity (Betoni. Osa 1: Mrittely, ominaisuudet, valmistus ja vaatimustenmukaisuus). 11.06.2001. SFS-EN 12715. Pohjarakennustyt. Injektointi (Execution of special geotechnical work. Grouting). 19.2.2001. Shroff, A & Shah, D, 1993. Grouting technology in tunneling and dam construction. A.A. Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield. (Non-checked reference from Riekkola et al., 2002). Sievnen, U., 2001. Leakage and groutability. Work Report 2001-06. Posiva Oy, Helsinki, Finland. Sievnen, U., 2002. Preliminary estimations on groundwater inflow and grouting conditions at the Olkiluoto site. Licentiate thesis, University of Helsinki, Department of Geology. Sievnen, U. & Hagros, A., 2002. Water inflow into underground facilities and rock grouting experiences from Finland. Work Report 2002-26. Posiva Oy, Helsinki, Finland.
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Statens Vegvesen, 2001. Injeksion Erfaringer fra utfrte tunnelprosjekter. Rapport nr. 2. Statens Vegvesen, Oslo, Norway. Stille, H., 2001. Grouting research work and practical application. In Proc. 4th Nordic Rock Grouting Symposium. SveBeFo Rapport 55, Stockholm. Sverdrup, L.E., Kelley, A.E., Weideborg, M., degrd, K.E. & Vik, E.A., 2000. Leakage of chemicals from two grouting agents used in tunnel construction in Norway: Monitoring results from the tunnel Romeriksporten. A Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 1914-1918. Tahvanainen, T., 2002. Personal discussion. Tielaitos, 1991. Mrluettelo urakka-asiakirjat; TIEL 2242464 (In Finnish). Vaaranta, V., 2002. Personal discussion site manager at Botniabanan, rnskldsvik. VMY, 1986. Kaivoskohteen urakkasopimusjrjestelm. Report n:o 37, Serie B. Vuorimiesyhditys Bergsmanna freningen r.y. (In Finnish). Vgverket, 2000. Ttning av bergtunnlar frutsttningar, bedmningsgrunder och srategi vid planering och utforming av ttningsinsatser. Vgverket, Borlnge, Sverige. Zimmerman, R.W., Kumar, S., Bodvarsson, G.S., 1991. Lubrication theory analysis of the permeability of rough-walled fractures. Int. Journal on Rock Mechanics and Mining Science and Geomech. Abstracts. Vol. 28, No 4, pp. 325-331. iks, K., Hagros, A., Johansson, E., Malmlund, H., Sievnen, U., Tolppanen, P., Ahokas, H., Heikkinen, E., Jskelinen, P., Ruotsalainen, P. & Saksa, P., 2000. Engineering rock mass classification of the Olkiluoto investigation site. Posiva 2000-08, Posiva Oy, Helsinki.
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(A-1)
(A-2)
where, Q = the inflow to the tunnel per meter of tunnel (m3/s, m), Ki = the hydraulic conductivity of the grouted zone (m/s), K = the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass outside the grouted zone (m/s), h = the hydraulic height or depth of the cavern (m)
R = the radius of the tunnel (m), T = the extension of the grouted zone (m), = the skin factor (-) accounting for the pressure fall at the tunnel periphery (can vary from -4 9, typical value between 2-7)
As an example: A tunnel ( 6 m) is excavated at the depth of 30 m below water table level and the mean K=110-7 m/s, a factor of the skin-effect () is equal to 4. So, the leaking water into the tunnel (Q) by equation (A-1) will be 15 l/min/100 m. If a K value of 110-8 m/s is more relevant, the leakage will be Q 1,5 l/min/100 m. Further, if the same tunnel is located at the depth of 100 m and K-values are equal to the aforementioned ones, the estimated leakage will be; Q 45 l/min/100 m and 4.5 l/min/100 m, respectively.
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If the same tunnel with K=110-7 m/s and h=30 m will be grouted and for that 3 m thick grouted zone Ki =110-8 m/s, the leakage will be Q 2,3 l/min/100 m using equation A2. Further, at the depth of h= 100 m Q n. 7.5 l/min/100 m. In recent years, the use of computerized water flow analyses has been increasing since the speed of a normal PC computer provides a suitable platform even for a large-scale analysis. But, still the quality of the geological and hydrogeological information, as well as the capability of the user, plays an important role in analyzing the results. These methods might be more reliable than the analytical calculations but are slower and more expensive to run. Therefore, the need for, and quality of, the analyses should be decided project by project.
70
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Grouting experiences from cases in Finland, Sweden, and Norway (Bckblom, 2002; Sievnen & Hagros, 2002; Statens Vegvesen, 2001).
Constr. year
Olkiluoto Hstholmen Turku - Naantali Leppvaara Merihaka Kluuvi Helsinki Bolmen Lundby Gothenburg Arlanda Stockholm Sdra Lnken Stockholm Storhaug Stavanger Baneheia, Kristiansand Bragernes, Tsen VLJ * VLJ * District heating Parking & shelter. Sport hall & shelter. Book storage Water Road Fast railway Road Road Road Road Road 1988-1992 1993-1997 80's
Depth
95 119 -90 - +26 m
Vol. (m3)
90,000 110,000 ? 106,000 72,000 80,000 ? 405,000 800,000 ? 110,000 44-87 m 72-83 m 65-80 m
2
Vol. (m3)
90.000 110.000 ? 106.000 72.000 80.000 ? 405.000 800.000 ? 110.000 44-87 m2 72-83 m2 65-80 m2
length (m)
1000 ? 14000 ? ? ? 80000
Required (l/min)
195 l/min 3-10 l/min/100 m 1-20 l/min, totally 39 l/min 7 l/min 9-42 l/min/100 m
Fulfilled (l/min)
45 l/min 0-35 l/min/100 m 150-300 l/min (1996) 20 l/min/100 m 350-490 l/min 2.5-3.5 l/min/100 m 60-100 l/min (accept.) 3-5 l/min/100 m 0.2 l/min/100 m 6.7 l/min 2.6 l/min/100 m 43 l/min/100 m ?
Pre-grouting
Pressure (MPa)
? 0-4.5 1-3 0.5-1 0.2 0.5-1.5 end pr. 2.5 End pr. 2 0.5 at shallow 0.15 4 MPa ? 37 38 49 2.5 3
Portland/Rapid, w/c=2:1-3:1 661.000 kg Rapid, w/c=2:1-4:1 max. 211 kg/bhm Rapid/Rheocem 650 w/c=1:2-2:1, 41.000 kg. Rheocem 650 w/c=1:2-4:5, 100.000 kg Rapid, w/c=1:1-3:1 6.500 kg SH-cem, 128 m, +bent, w/c=3-0.5 125 kg/tunnel-m. Injektering 30 m w/c=3-1 Rheocem 800. 2.020.000 kg w/c<0.8 Injektering 30 m Microcem., w/c<2-1 Ultrafin 12, w/c=1.1-0.4 +GroutAid, SP40 Ultrafin 12, w/c=0.9-0.7 +GroutAid, SP40 Rapid+Rescon w/c=1-0.5 Rapid+Rescon w/c=2-1
1995-1998 5 - 40 m 1995-1999 199?-200? 1998-2001 1999-2001 1999-2001 1997-1998 ? ? 3-15 10-40 10-150 5-20
4400 0.5-2.5 l/min/100 m 0.5-1.5 l/min/100 m 10 km 3 stat. 4500 1260 3000 2310 1860 5 l/min/100 m 1-4 l/min/100 m 3/10 l/min/100 m 6-12 l/min/100 m 10-30 l/min/100 m 10-20 l/min/100 m ? 1-1.5 l/min/100 m 1.6 l/min/100 m 1.8 l/min/100 m 8-25 l/min/100 m 25.7 l/min/100 m
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Appendix C
74
Appendix D
a)
b)
d)
Figure C-1. a) Airless Lariette pump for PU grouting (MBTs grouting CD), b) MK LE202 electric pump for resin, c) MK 1220 2K two-component pump for resin (www.muottikolmio.fi).
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The disadvantages of pre-grouting are: interruption of excavation work, orienting of grouting holes might be difficult since the leaking spot is not directly seen, blasting and deformations around the tunnel might open joints and fractures again, expensive if done from the surface into the tunnel area.
When planning pre-grouting, the following hints should be remembered. A successful pre-grouting reaches about 5 m around the tunnel line. Also, at least the length of one excavation round is always grouted in front of the tunnel. The hole spacing is typically 1 - 2 m.
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Post-grouting Post- grouting is a method used to grout behind the face in an already excavated part. It is said to be a passive approach. The need for post-grouting is decided based on the leakage amount and initial requirements. Lengths of the grouting holes are shorter and spacing denser than in pre-grouting, and grouting targets are very local. Typically, postgrouting is focused on the fracture zones, bad rock quality areas, or areas that are fractured due to blasting. Post-grouting: does not disturb excavation work, easier to plan, since rock surfaces are visible, grouting can be limited to a certain area where leakage exists, grouting of tunnel bottom is a problem, but, the final result is not very often successful, since the grout easily penetrates the tunnel, lower pressures can be used, water usually finds a new route, and, water inflows from the tunnel floor are difficult to localize.
It is much more expensive to stop the water by post-grouting, 20 - 50 times, than if pregrouting is used in the first place, which has been proven on many projects. So, pregrouting should always be the main strategy and post-grouting just an additional technique.
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4. Mix 3 minutes 5. Pour the mix into an agitator 6. Keep the mix continuously agitated The grout must be used within 30 minutes of mixing. Grouting phases: Drilling is done with a 64 mm drilling bit according to annexed drilling patterns. In the first phase, every second hole will be drilled. The grouting holes shall be flushed with water before grouting may begin. A water injection test for each grouting hole will be carried out. If the water penetration value is over 3 Lugeon, a set of new holes will be drilled around (both sides) the measured hole. The grouting will be started from the lowest hole in the face and will progress towards the crown Grouting is started with a watercement ratio of 1:1. If the grouting mass consumption is over 140 l/borehole-m (bhm) and the required grouting pressure cannot be reached, the water cement ratio is changed to 2:1. If the mass consumption is over 70 l/bhm and the required grouting pressure cannot be reached, the watercement ratio is changed to 1:1. If the grouting mass consumption is over 25 l/bhm and the required grouting pressure cannot be reached, the watercement ratio is changed to 1:0.5. If the mass consumption is over 15 l/bhm and the required grouting pressure cannot be reached, grouting is stopped and the Client / Owner asked for instructions. If during the grouting process two or more holes become connected, the packers in the connected holes are closed. The packers can be removed from the holes 1.5 hours after completion of the grouting, provided that no grouting material outflows occur. Grouting stop criteria: Grouting will be stopped when the maximum allowed pressure has been reached and the amount of grout going into the hole is less than 3 l per minute. The maximum pressure must be maintained for at least 5 minutes. Grouting will also be stopped when the grout take has reached 250 l per meter of the hole length (22 x 0.25 = 4.5 m3) unless otherwise directed by the Client / Owner.
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Grouting will be stopped at the following refusal pressures (measured at the hole collar): 0.2 MPa at the rock surface, 0.5 MPa at 3-6 m depth from the rock surface, 1.5 MPa at 6-12 m depth from the rock surface, 3.0 MPa at deeper than 12 m from the rock surface.
Control of grouting: The flow rate after grouting from the probe or control hole will be measured. If the groundwater flow rate from the probe hole is more than Q1, a water injection test will be made at the probe hole. If the Lugeon value for 10 meters testing length is higher than 3, a new grouting fan will be drilled as agreed with the Client / Owner. Grouting will be reported in the specified form.
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If grout take is over the previous limits, one mix is made using mix no. 4 and one using no. 5. After this continue with mix no. 3. If the stop criteria are not met after three mixes of no. 3 mixture redo grouting using mixes 4 and 5. NOTE! Before and after mixes 4 and 5, the grouting system must be washed clear, otherwise the grouts may react together and plug the system. Fast setting mixes: Mix no. 4. Setting time about 3040 min. 1. Water 60 l 2. GroutAid 10 l 3. C-max 46 kg (2 sacks) 4. Mix 5 min. 5. Thermax 75 kg (3 sacks) 6. Mix 5 min Mix no. 5. Setting time about 20 min. 1. Water 60 l 2. GroutAid 10 l 3. C-max 46 kg (2 sacks) 4. Mix 5 min. 5. Thermax 100 kg (4 sacks) 6. Mix 5 min.
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Julkaisija
MTR Maanalaisten tilojen rakentamisyhdistys ry
Tekij(t)
Injektoinnissa on tapahtunut runsaasti kehityst viimevuosina. Materiaalien ja laitteistojen paraneminen on luonut mahdollisuuden yh laadukkaammille lopputuotteille. Injektointi on kytketty keskeiseksi osaksi kalliorakentamista. Mys ympristtekijt ovat korostuneet viime vuosina ja pohjaveden haitallista alenemista ei sallita. Sementtipohjaiset massat ovat selkesti eniten kytetty kalliorakentamisessa. Viime vuosina on yh enemmn siirrytty erittin hienojakoisten sementtien kyttn sill tunneleiden vuotovesimrien kiristyneet vaatimukset on johtanut tarpeeseen tiivist yh hienompia rakoja. Mys kemiallisia injektointiaineita on markkinoilla runsaasti, mutta muutamien ympristkatastrofien tapahduttua on niiden kytt rajoitettu. Kemiallisia aineita on kytetty lhinn hankalissa kohteissa jlki-injektoinnissa. Kiristyneet tiiveysvaatimukset ja etenkin mikro- ja ultrahienojen sementtien lisntyv kytt on ohjannut mys laitteiden kehityst. Keskeist on ollut sekoittimine ja pumppujen kehittyminen sek laitteistojen muokkautuminen jrjestelmiksi. Mys automaattisten rekisterintilaitteiden liittminen osaksi jrjestelm on auttanut laadukkaan lopputuotteen aikaansaamista. Mys suunnitteluun ja laadunvarmistukseen on viime vuosina keskitytty enemmn. Pelkk lopputuotteen vuotomrien toteaminen ei riit vaan injektointireikien taipumia ja vesimenekkej mitataan sek porataan kontrollireiki injektoituun osuuteen. Mys injektointimassoille on esitetty omia laatuvaatimuksia, joita tarkkaillaan mys tymaalla. Suunnittelussa pyritn ottamaan alueelliset geologiset vaihtelut huomioon jakaen tunneli vaatimustasoltaan erilaisiin osioihin. Tss raportissa on kertty kokemuksia ja nkemyksi injektoinnista Suomessa, Ruotsissa ja Norjassa. Esitetty aineisto pohjautuu kirjallisuuteen ja haastatteluihin sek kenttkynteihin ja kirjoittajien omiin kokemuksiin. Runsaasti tietoa ja kokemuksia on kuultu mys projektin seurantaryhmn palavereissa.
Avainsanat
Organisaatio ISBN
Gridpoint Finland Oy
Projektinumero
6.6.2003 INTE
Kieli
Englanti
Sivuja
84
Hinta
Projektin nimi
Toimeksiantaja(t)
Tiehallinto, Ratahallintokeskus, Helsingin Kaupunki Geotekninen osasto, Elkem ASA Materials, Master Builders Oy, Lemcon Oy, YIT Rakennus Oy, ITSVahvistus Oy, Oy Atlas Copco Ab MTR ry
Avainnimeke ja ISSN
MTR Julkaisut
Myynti:
Published by
FTA
Author(s)
Much development in grouting has taken place during the last decade. Improvements of grout materials and equipment allow for better quality final products. Grouting has become an important and meaningful part of underground constructions. Also, the environmental requirements have become more strict in recent years and the harmful lowering of the groundwater level is forbidden. Cementitious materials are mostly used in rock grouting in tunnels. Furthermore, due to the highlevel tightness requirements, very fine-grained cements are used more since very small fracture apertures must be grouted. Also, many different chemical grouts are on the market, but after a few environmental accidents their use has been limited or even forbidden. Chemical grouts are mainly used in very difficult places for post-grouting. A great deal of effort in grouting design and compliance control has been expended. It is not just enough to evaluate or measure the leakages of the final tunnel. The deviation and leakage of grouting holes are measured and control holes are drilled into the grouted section. Also, the limitations and requirements for grouts are defined and checked even at the site. When planning, the various geological features are taken into account and tunnels are divided into sections of different grouting classes. Experiences and opinions on grouting in Finland, Norway, and Sweden have been collected and printed in this report. The material presented is based on the literature, interviews, site visits, and the authors' own experiences. Further, the discussions in the follow-up group meetings were important.
Keywords
Organization ISBN
6.6.2003 INTE
Language
English
Pages
84
Price
Name of project
Commissioned by
Helsinki City Geotechnical Division, Finnish Rail Administration, Finnish Road Administration, ELKEM ASA Materials, Master Builders Oy, Lemcon Oy, YIT Construction, ITS-Vahvistus Oy, Oy Atlas Copco Ab FTA
MTR
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