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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES POST-GRADUATE DEPARTMENT

APPLIED LINGUISTICS ASSIGNMENT

METONYMY AS THE TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING: A COGNITIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
Supervisor : Prof. Hong Vn Vn Student Class : V Th Quyn : K19C

[Type text]

Hanoi, June 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page INTRODUCTION 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 2 1.1. 2 1.2. 2 1.3. Transference of meaning 1.3.1. Definition of meaning transference 1.3.2. Means of meaning transference CHAPTER 2: METONYMY AS THE TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING IN ENGLISH Meaning change phenomenon Word meaning 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 Design of the study Methods of the study Scope of the study 3 3 4 4 5 Aims of the study Rationale 1 1 1 1 2

2.1. Definition of metonymy 2.2. Types of metonymy 2.2.1. Direct/Primary metonymy 2.2.2. Indirect/Secondary metonymy 2.2.3. Partial metonymy 2.3. Cases of metonymy 2.3.1. Name of container instead of the things contained 2.3.2. Parts of human body as symbols 2.3.3. The concrete instead of the abstract 2.3.4. Materials instead of the things made of the materials 2.3.5. Name of the author instead of his works 2.3.6. Part for the whole and vice versa 2.3.7. Symbol to refer to representative 2.3.8. Others CHAPTER 3: METONYMY AS THE TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING IN VIETNAMESE 3.1. Container contained 3.2. Concrete abstract 3.3. Name of author his works 3.4. Part whole and whole part 3.5. Owner things owned 3.6. Specific quantities general quantities 3.7. Others CHAPTER 4: SIMILATITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METONYMY IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 4.1. Similarities 4.2. Differences CONCLUSION REFERENCES
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INTRODUCTION
I. Rationale Metonymy is a distinct type of generating new meanings for existing expressions. A metonymic description of a subject is an essential part of any language. Therefore, metonymic thinking can be considered as an element of the cultural identity of a person. However, we use metonymy in everyday life without realizing it. Even in linguistics, metonymy is often regarded as a subtype of metaphor and gets little attention. English learners at elementary and pre-intermediate levels find it hard to understand the sentences like: The ham sandwich is waiting for his check. Or they tend to spend a lot of time looking for English equivalents for Vietnamese expressions like: o chm a bui chia ly Cm tay nhau bit ni g hm nay. These problems are results of learners unawareness of metonymy as the transference of meaning in English and Vietnamese. Therefore, I choose metonymy as the subject of my study and make a contrastive analysis between metonymy in English and that in Vietnamese. II. Aims of the study The study is aimed at providing a thorough and systematic knowledge of metonymy as the transference of meaning in English and Vietnamese so that English learners can enrich their vocabulary, avoid and self-correct mistakes in communication and translation. III. Scope of the study For the limitation of personal knowledge and ability, my study only focuses on the most common cases of metonymy that are traditionally used in communication in English and Vietnamese. IV. Methods of the study The main research methods include description, translation and deduction.

V. Design of the study This paper is divided into three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion. Introduction: briefly introduces the rationale, the aims, the scope, the methods and the design of the study. Development: has four chapters. Chapter 1: Theoretical background Chapter 2: Metonymy as the transference of meaning in English. Chapter 3: Metonymy as the transference of meaning in Vietnamese. Chapter 4: Similarities and differences between metonymy in English and that in Vietnamese. Conclusion: briefly sums up the study

DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. Word meaning Nguyen Hoa in his book An introduction to Semantics (2001) has discussed many theories of meaning, of which I hereby mention some majors ones as follows. According to the referential/denotational approach, the meaning of a word or expression is what it refers to, denotes or stands for. Linguists follow the ideational/mentalist theory support the idea that the speakers meaning of a word is the idea in the speakers mind associated with the word. Communication is successful when a similar stream of idea is produced in the hearers mind. The meaning of a word, according to the verification theory is determined by the verifiability of the sentences, or propositions containing it, i.e. the meaning of a word is verified by concrete situation. Whatever the theory is, they share the same feature that word meaning does not stay the same all the time, but change slightly or clearly in different situations. 1.2. Meaning change phenomenon Definition of meaning change: meaning change is the phenomenon in which new meanings of the words appear or old meanings drop out of the language or coexist with the new ones E.g. immoral: not customary unethical silly: happy, prosperous foolish

Causes of semantic change (meaning change): McMahon (1994) points out at least two causes of semantic change: structural and referential causes. The former ones refer to the linguistic structures of lexical items. They are also called linguistic causes. The later ones refer to the referents. They are also called extra linguistic causes (connected with the development of society, changes in social, political, economic, cultural life, in science and technology) Types of semantic change: according to McMahon (1994), the four most widely recognized types of semantic change are extension, narrowing, amelioration, and pejoration.

Extension is the widening of a words range of meanings, often by analogy or simplification. E.g. ready prepared for a ride

prepared for everything.

Narrowing is the reduction in a words range of meanings, often limiting a generic word to a more specialized or technical use. E.g. meat any food

animal flesh.
Amelioration occurs as a word loses negative meaning or gains positive ones. E.g. minister servant or attendant

head of a state department.

Pejoration occurs as a word develops negative meanings or loses positive ones. E.g. villain labourer attached to a farm

a wicked schemer.
1.3. Transference of meaning 1.3.1. Definition of meaning transference Transference of meaning refers to the situation when one object is named and understood in terms of another. (Nguyen Hoa, 2001) E.g. He often nods his head to express his agreement. (head means the top part of a body) She is the head of our group. (head means the leader) The average income in this country is about $500 per head per month. (head means person) The three examples above have shown us that one word can be used differently to name different things because those things and the original referent of the word have somewhat relation. 1.3.2. Means of meaning transference.

There are various means of meaning transference like metaphor, metonymy, euphemism, hyperbole, irony, and litotes. Metaphor and metonymy are two basic types of meaning transference. Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarities between these two. For example, in the sentence the internet is an information superhighway, the internet is compared with the superhighway. On the other hand, metonymy bases on the contiguity of notions. This means of meaning transference is the focus of this study and will be discussed in detail later. Other types of metonymy involve euphemism, hyperbole, irony, and litotes. Euphemism is the use of a milder expression for something unpleasant. Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally, but with powerful effect. Irony expresses meaning by words of the opposite sense. Litotes is an understatement expressing something in the affirmative by the negative of its contrary. Sometimes we may find an overlap between the uses of these means of semantic transference. For example, the phrase lend me your ear can be interpreted in two ways. First, we can analyse ear metonymically which means attention. Second, we can analyse lend me your ear metaphorically to mean turn your ear in my direction.

CHAPTER 2: METONYMY AS THE TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING IN ENGLISH

2.1. Definition of metonymy Perhaps the most familiar definition of metonymy from the literature is that it is a figure of speech in which the speaker is using one entity to refer to another that is related to it (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) Another definition given by Panther and Radden (1999) is that metonymy is cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provided mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same idealized cognitive model. Nguyen Hoa (2001) defines metonymy as the transference of meaning from one object to another based on contiguity of notions, i.e. instead of the name of one object or notion we use the name of another because these objects are associated and closely related. E.g. The crown had absolute power in the middle ages. (crown is used instead of monarchy) In short, metonymy is transference of meaning based on a logical or physical connection between things. It is an important means of forming new meanings of words in the language. 2.2. Types of metonymy In his article The metonymic way of an attribute description of the aspect: cultural aspect, A.L. Alexey divides metonymy into three types: direct/primary metonymy, indirect/secondary metonymy and partial metonymy. 2.2.1. Direct/Primary metonymy Direct metonymy is the direct transference of the meaning to the object on the basis of association with the subject itself. E.g. "Calm yourself, Hastings. Do not put on that air of injured dignity." [A. Christie] The participle "injured" is used with the abstract noun "dignity", although it characterizes the subject (Hastings). 2.2.2. Indirect/Secondary metonymy Indirect metonymy is the double transference of the meaning to another object on the basis of association with the manner of action of the subject mediated by the subject itself.

E.g.

"Near them was the parking space, as yet a modest yard..." [F.S. Fitzgerald] In this sentence, the transference of the meaning is mediated because "modest

yard" is the yard made modestly by a man (i.e. subject), but not necessarily by a modest man. 2.2.3. Partial metonymy Partial metonymy employs the use of an attribute which acquires a certain degree of associativeness with the subject. "Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" [W. Blake] As a matter of fact, the attribute "immortal" only adds to nominative metonymy in the words "hand" and "eye", and therefore cannot by itself be regarded as complete and self-sufficient metonymy. 2.3. Cases of metonymy 2.3.1. Name of container instead of the thing contained. The kettle is boiling. He drank a glass. (kettle instead of water in the kettle) (glass instead of some beer or water)

2.3.2. Parts of human body as symbols She has a really clever head. (clever head is the symbol of an intelligent person) Everyone loves her because she has a kind heart. (kind heart is the symbol of a kind person) 2.3.3. The concrete instead of the abstract. He lived here from the cradle to the grave. (from the cradle to the grave instead of all his life) I cant understand this book at all. (this book instead of the content of the physical book) 2.3.4. Materials instead of the things made of the materials. May I borrow your rubber? I cant find mine. (rubber instead of eraser)

There is a glass in the cupboard. (glass instead of the container made of glass) 2.3.5. Name of the author instead of his works. I like to read Dickens. (Dickens means Dickens books) Jane loves reading plays before going to bed. Oscar Wilde is her favorite one. (Oscar Wilde means Oscar Wildes plays) 2.3.6. Part for the whole and vice versa. First, lets look at the examples of part for the whole. In Vietnam three or four generations often live in the same roof. (roof is used to refer to house) Hes always running after a skirt. (skirt here means girl/young woman) However, the whole object can be used to refer to a part of the object. My camera cant be recharged. (camera refers to cameras battery) Dont sit down! The chair has been broken. It has three legs now. (chair refers to a leg of the chair) 2.3.7. Symbol to refer to representative. The crown had absolute power in the middle ages. (crown refers to monarchy) The White House has made a decision. (White House refers to U.S president) 2.3.8. Others Other cases of metonymy can be found in English including spatial relation, causal relation, functional relation and transfer of geographical names. He was elected chair of the city council. (spatial relation chair means the person who holds the position) Fear of failure was bred into him at an early age. (causal relation fear means the bad feeling you have when you are in danger) He penned a letter to the local paper.

(functional relation - pen means write) She has bought a new pair of morocco shoes. (transfer of geographical name morocco means leather) It can be concluded from the above information that metonymy is a powerful way to transfer meaning of a word to refer to another referent. By simply using the contiguity between notions basing on metonymical relations, English people have changed their language.

CHAPTER 3: METONYMY AS THE TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING IN VIETNAMESE

Metonymy is used in many different contexts and becomes very familiar with Vietnamese people without any questions about the existence of it. As in English, in Vietnamese there is a system of metonymic relations which can help to transfer the meaning of many words. In this study, the author will attempt to list some most common cases from the theories of Diep Quang Ban (1999) and Dinh Trong Lac (1997). 3.1. Container contained n ba bt ( bt (bowls) means bowls of rice/noodle) m nc ang si. (m nc (kettle) means water in the kettle) 3.2. Concrete abstract Nhn li ca qu kh nhng con v, nhng nn i, ta lm nn cc ma vng nm tn, by tn. ( v (broken dyke), nn i (starvation) are concrete things to refer to the abstract noun damage and trouble made by the war. The concrete term ma vng nm tn, by tn (good crops) is used to refer to the abstract term the new comfortable life). 3.3. Name of author his works. c Nguyn Tun ngi ta d bng hong vi cch s dng ngn ng ht sc c o v truyn cm. (Nguyen Tuan means Nguyen Tuans works) 3.4. Part whole and whole part. Part whole u xanh ti tnh g M hng n qu na th cha thi. (u xanh (green head) is used to refer to a young person. M hng (pink cheek) refers to a girl or a young woman). Whole part Bao nhiu nm qua, u mui tiu m hn vn cn ci tnh trng hoa y. (u (head) refers to hair).

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3.5. Owner things owned. o chm a bui phn ly Cm tay nhau bit ni g hm nay. (o chm (a kind of clothes) refers to people in the north east of Viet Nam). 3.6. Specific quantities general quantities Trm cng nghn vic. Lm du trm h. (trm (hundred) and nghn (thousand) do not mean the exact number hundred or thousand but many). 3.7. Others In daily life metonymy is used very creatively by Vietnamese people and its meaning depends much on the context of its existence. Some metonymic meanings are just understood by Vietnamese people and people who have a rich knowledge of Vietnam and its people. Huyn ng ri nhng x th c chn tr cha gii qut. C lng bc xc lm. (Huyn (district) and x (commune) are local authorities in those places. Meanwhile, lng (village) is used to refer to all the people who are living in the village).

CHAPTER 4: SIMILATIRIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METONYMY IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

4.1. Similarities

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The main similarity is that Vietnamese people and English people use some same relations as the means of metonymy like part whole, container things contained, concrete abstract, author name his works and parts of body as symbols. Relations Part - whole Container contained Concrete English Vietnamese In Vietnam three or four generations Chng ta cng sng chung often live in the same roof The kettle is boiling di mt mi nh m nc ang si.

He lived here from the cradle to the Nhn li ca qu kh nhng con v, nhng nn i c Nguyn Tun ngi ta d bng hong u xanh ti tnh g M hng n qu na th

abstract grave Author name I like to read Dickens his works Part of body She has a really clever head as symbol

cha thi. The second similarity is that metonymy in both English and Vietnamese share some common in the use of particular words Two heads are better than one = Hai ci u th tt hn mt ci Have you read Dickens yet? = Anh c Dickens cha? The third similarity is that metonymy is used very creatively by both English and Vietnamese people. 4.2. Differences The first difference lies in the use of different words to name a thing. He is always running after the skirt. = Hn lun chy theo nhng bng hng. An English word and its equivalent in Vietnamese can be used as an alternative for different things. Can I have some sweets, please? (sweets means candy) Chn (qu) ngt vo nh! (ngt (sweet) refer to a kind of fruit) The difference can also be seen in very particular cases. For example, when taking the part whole relation to transfer the meaning of a word, English people and Vietnamese ones have different choices of what part can be used to refer to the whole. There are about three thousand trunks in that forest. (trunk refers to trees)

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C khong ba ngn ngon/gc (cy) trong khu rng . (ngn (top part)/ gc (root) refers to trees) The same thing happens when metonymy bases on concrete abstract relation. Another difference is that some cases of metonymy which are very typical in English but rare in Vietnamese. For example, in Vietnamese we hardly find the name of objects called by the material which they are made from/of. The differences in language environment, culture and peoples habit of using language have caused all those differences between metonymy in English and Vietnamese in particular and the two languages in general.

CONCLUSION
This paper has briefly revised some most common cases of metonymy as the transference of meaning in English and Vietnamese. It also points out some similarities and differences in terms of metonymy between these two languages. The similarities and differences presented here can partly help Vietnamese learners in avoiding misinterpretation during the process of learning English.

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However, because of limited time and my limited knowledge, this study is not satisfactory enough. It may not meet the demand of all readers. Therefore, further research in this area should be done to investigate its various aspects.

REFERENCES
ENGLISH Alexey, A.L. (2004), The metonymic way of an attribute description of the subject: cultural aspect, http://www.inst.at/trans/15Nr/04_09/lukyanov15.htm

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Driven, R. (2002), Metaphor and Metonymy in comparison and contrast, De Gruyter, Berlin. Gregory, H. (2000), semantics, Routledge, London. Jackendoff, R. (1990), Semantics and Cognition, MIT Press, Cambridge. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980), Metaphors we live by, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Lobner, S. (2002), Understanding Semantics, Arnold Pubishers, London. McMahon, A.M.S. (1994), Understand Language Change, CUP, Cambridge. Nguyen, H. (2001), An Introduction to Semantics, VNU Press, Hanoi. Panther, K.U. & Radden, G. (1999), Metonymy in Language and Thought, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam.

VIETNAMESE Dip Quang Ban (1999), Ng php ting Vit, Nxb Gio Dc, H Ni.
L Hnh (2005), Ca dao, tc ng Vit Nam, Nxb Lao ng, H Ni. inh Trng Lc (2004), Phng tin v bin php tu t Ting Vit, Nxb Gio Dc, H Ni. inh Trng Lc (1997), Phong cch hc Ting Vit, Nxb Gio Dc, H Ni.

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