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CHAPTER 1: ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Explain how ac voltages and currents differ from dc
Describe the basic ac generator and explain how ac voltage is generated
Draw waveforms for ac voltage and currents and explain what they mean
Define and compute frequency, period, amplitude and peak-to-peak values
Define the relationship between , T, and f for a sine wave
Compute instantaneous value of sinusoidal voltage or current at any instant in time
Define and compute effective values for time-varying waveforms
Define and compute phase differences between waveforms
Use phasors to represent sinusoidal voltages and current
Determine phase relationships between voltage and current waveforms using phasors
Add and subtract currents and voltages using phasors


1.1 Generating AC Voltages

One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a
uniform magnetic field. The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at
which flux lines are cut. Lets consider the figure below for the illustration .














From Figure 1.1(a), there is no flux being cut and so that no
induced emf because the coil sides (A & B) are moving parallel
to the direction of flux lines.
Figure 1.1(a)
Figure 1.1

2











Figure 1.1(b)
Figure 1.1(c)
Figure 1.1(d)
Figure 1.1(e)
The coil sides are cutting the flux lines which results the
induced emf in the coil.
The rate of cutting flux is at maximum when the coil sides
reach the position as in Figure 1.1(c).
The rate of cutting flux is zero when the coil sides moving
back to parallel with the direction of magnetic field thus
results zero emf.
The cutting flux is happened again but it can be seen that
Dot and Cross notation are changed and side B is cutting
flux near the N pole while side A at S pole. This means
that the induced emf has the same magnitude but
different in polarity.

3






The generated or induced emf (V) for a complete cycle can be found from Figure 1.1(g) represented
in the sinusoidal waveform. Keep in mind that for an ac voltage and current, the waveform is differ
from dc.














The induced emf can be derived in mathematical form where it is related to the sine function as what
we observe from Figure 1.1(g). Lets consider an instantaneous position of coil sides A and B in Figure
1.1(h).








Figure 1.1(f)
Again the rate of cutting flux goes to maximum which
result maximum induced emf at a position as in Figure
1.1(f)
Figure 1.1(g)

4

















The coil side A rotates from horizontal position through an angle u until current position, and the
angular velocity is X meters per second. The AL line drawn in Figure 1.1(i) represents the angular
velocity and it is resolved to two axes, which are perpendicular and parallel to the flux lines. Taking
the perpendicular axis,

AM = AL sin u
= X sin u (1.1)

Then, the induced emf at coil side A (at 1 conductor) is

e = BlX sin u (1.2)

where l is the length of conductor and B is flux density (T). Since there are two coil sides(2
conductors) already involved, the total induced emf in a coil is

e = 2BlX sin u (V) (1.3)

However, the X is also can be resolved as

X = bn (1.4)

Where b is the breadth of the coil (m), and n is the speed of rotation in revolutions
per second. Rearranging the equation 1.3,

Figure 1.1(h)
Figure 1.1(i)

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e = 2Bl x bn sin u (V)
e = 2 B x lb x n sin u (V) (1.5)

The area of a coil, A=lb (m) and the induced emf becomes

e = 2 B A n sin u (V) (1.6)

For N numbers of coil, the instantaneous value is defined as
e = 2 B(NA) n sin u (V) (1.7)
And the peak value as
E
p
= 2 B(NA) n (V) (1.8)

1.2 Waveform terms and definitions

In the first section, we have already discussed on generating ac voltage, derivation of formulas and
the generated voltage waveform as function of time. Note that the ac current will have the same
waveform as voltage but different phase (lead or lag) based on the load type that will be connected at
the output terminal. For any waveform, some terms have to be understood which will define the
waveform characteristics. Consider Figure 1.2(a) and 1.2(b)










A complete cycle of generated waveform can be defined from Figure 1.2(a) and it can be visualized in
three type (i), (ii) or (iii).


Figure 1.2(a): Period
(i) (ii) (iii)
T

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The definition for all terms are stated as below :

i. Period The time taken to complete a cycle, T (s)
ii. Peak value The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value,
Vp,Vm (V)
iii. Peak-to-peak value The maximum variation between the maximum positive instantaneous
value and the maximum negative value, Vp-p (V)
iv. Frequency The number of cycles that occur in 1 second, f ( Hz)

Note : A correlation between period and frequency is;

f
T
1
= , (s)


Example 1.2(a) :

A coil of 160 turns is rotated at 1500 rpm in a magnetic field having a uniform density of 0.15 T, The
axis of rotation being at right angles to the direction of the flux. The mean area per turn is 50 cm
2
.
Calculate

(a) the frequency;
(b) the period;
(c) the maximum value of the induced emf;
(d) the value of the induced emf when the coil has rotated through 30 from the position of zero emf.



Figure 1.2(b): Peak and peak-to-peak
Vp
Vp-p
Vp
Vp-p

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Solution:

(a) Since the emf induced in the coil undergoes one cycle of variation when the coil
rotates one revolution,

frequency = no. of cycles per second
= no. of revolutions per second
= Hz 25
60
1500
= .

(b) Period = s
f
04 . 0
25
1 1
= = .
(c) From the equation 1.8 ;

E
p
= 2 B(NA) n
= 2t x 0.15 x 0.005 x 160 x (1500/60) = 18.84 V




1.3 Voltages and Currents as function of time

From the previous topic, the instantaneous value of generated emf has been explained graphically.
This followed by the derivation of formula showing an involvement of sine function. We can use the
equation 1.7 as a general formula but we can convert it to a function of time rather than angle,u.

e = 2 B(NA) n sin u (V) (1.7)

E
p
= 2 B(NA) n (V) (1.8)
e = E
p
sin u (V) (1.9)


Since the rotation of coil is related to the angular movement that will cause an existence of angular
velocity, the distance experienced by the coil is replaced by an angle, u, proportionally to the time.
The angular velocity;


t

=
, rad/s

and also f 2 = , rad/s

Then, equation 1.9 can be witten as

e = E
p
sin t (1.10)



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At the end, alternating voltage and current can be formed as

e (t) = E
p
sin t (V)

i (t) = I
p
sin t (A)




















1.4 Average and R.M.S. values for sinusoidal voltage and current

Average Value

The average values for the sinusoidal voltage and current are zero since they are symmetrical as the
area above the horizontal axis is equal to the area below the axis. But for the half cycle of sine wave
we can get the average value by defining the area under the curve and divide by the length of base.
























Average value =
base of length
curve under area
_ _
_ _


Area = |
p p p
I I d I 2 cos sin
0
0
= =
}

0
Ip
t
0
Ip
t 2t
Iave
( )
p
p
ave
I
I
I 637 . 0
2
2 2
= =

Full wave average

(1.11)
Ep Ip
wt wt
T T
e (t) = E
p
sin t
i (t) = I
p
sin t
Figure 1.3(a)

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Similarly, equation 1.11 and 1.12 can be applied to voltage as

m ave
m ave
V V
V V
318 . 0
637 . 0
=
=





R.M.S. Value

Even though an ac waveform can be characterized through instantaneous stage where the term such
as period, frequency and peak value can be obtained, a single form of value that able to run useful
work is required for widen ac measurement. In this case the rms value is also called as effective
value.

By definition, an effective value is an equivalent dc value that showing how many volts or amps of dc
that a time-varying is equal to in terms of its ability to produce average power.

Let consider the dc and an ac circuit below:




DC circuit:












From Figure 1.4(b)

P
dc
= P
ave
= P = I
2
R (1.13)






t
0
Ip
Iave

p
p
ave
I
I
I 318 . 0
2
2
= =

Half- wave average

(1.12)
(Full-wave average)
(Half-wave average)
E R
i P
t
P
dc
= P
ave

Figure 1.4(b)

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AC circuit:














From Figure 1.4(c )

P(t) = i
2
R
= (I
m
sin wt)
2
R = I
m
2
R sin
2
wt
= ( )|

t R I
m
2 cos 1
2
1
2

= t
R I R I
m m
2 cos
2 2
2 2
(1.14)

To get the average value of P(t), the term cos 2 t will be zero, thus equation 1.14 becomes

P
ave
=
2
2
R I
m
(1.15)

Then equate equation 1.13 and 1.15 and R can be cancelled


2
2
2 m
I
I =

m
m
I
I
I 707 . 0
2
2
= = (1.16)

Now , the effective or rms value is defined as


m
m
I
I
I 707 . 0
2
= = (1.17)

Similarly, the effective value for voltage is


m
m
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= = (1.18)








I
m
2
R
E R
i P
t
P
ve
=
2
2
R I
m

Figure 1.4(c)
P(t)

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1.5 Introduction to phasor

A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle information of a sinusoidal
function. The reason of using this concept is to reduce any complex calculation in ac measurement
since there will be inductive and/or capacitive elements involving in the circuit.

Since the rotation of coil will create an angular movement that yields the sinusoidal waveform, basic
illustrative explanation can be observed as in Figure 1.5(a-e).















































i. ii.
Figure 1.5(a)

Figure 1.5(b)

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Figure 1.5(c)

Figure 1.5(d)

Figure 1.5(e)

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1.6 Representation of an alternating quantity by a phasor

It is important to note that when alternating voltages and currents are represented by phasor as the
generated waveforms are assumed sinusoid. The phasor transformation can be done as follows:

e (t) = E
p
sin et e = E
p
Z 0 (V)

i (t) = I
p
sin et I = I
p
Z 0 (A)


Lets consider Figure 1.6(a ) and 1.6(b).







































Phase different

Phase different is defined as an angular displacement between different waveforms of the same
frequency. There are three terms that will be involved to define any redundancy of two waveforms of
the same frequency. There are in phase , lead(s) and lag(s). Lets consider the illustration below:

Figure 1.6(a )
i = I
m
sin(et + u ) = I
m
Z u


i = I
m
sin(et - u ) = I
m
Z -u
Figure 1.6(b)

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However, the term Out of phase can be defined when we find the situation as in Figure 1.6(f). Both of
the waveforms are out of phase each other at an angle of 180










In phase:
V and I are in phase since the angular displacement is
zero.
Figure 1.6 (c )

Lead:
V is leading i for certain amount of angular displacement, u.

Or

Lag:
i is lagging V for certain amount of angular displacement, u.

Figure 1.6(d)

Lead:
i is leading V for certain amount of angular displacement, u.

Or

Lag:
V is lagging i for certain amount of angular displacement, u.

Figure 1.6(e)
V
i
Figure 1.6(f)

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Phasor representation of quantities differing in phase

Many waveforms can be represented in a phasor diagram either they are in phase or not. s As for
example let us consider how two waveforms can be represented in a phasor diagram as in Figure
1.6(g) below:















Analysis from Figure 1.6(g):
OA and OB represents the maximum value of current and voltage. The angle | between OA and OB
must be same as in (ii). At point 0 in (ii), OA lies along the horizontal axis, the value of current is
zero but not for the voltage where OB can be projected to the vertical axis.

After the phasors OA and OB have rotated through an angle u, they become OA
1
and OB
1
at new
position . If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by
I = I
m
sin u
Then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by
V = Vm sin (u + C )

Where I
m
= OA and V
m
= OB

Example 1.6(a)

Voltage and current are out of phase by 40 , and voltage lags. Using current as the reference, sketch
the phasor diagram and the corresponding waveform.
Figure 1.6(g)
i ii


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Solution:
Since current is the reference, place its phasor in the 0 position and the voltage phasor at -40.
Figure 1.6(h) shows the phasors and corresponding waveforms.













Example 1.6(b)

Given v= 20 sin (et + 30) and I=18 sin (et - 40), draw the phasor diagram, determine phase
relationships, and sketch the waveforms.

Solution: The phasors are shown in Figure 1.6(i:a) and we can see that v leads I by 70 and it can be
projected to as in (b).












i(t) = Im sin et
v(t) = Vm sin(et - 40)
Im
Vm
j e
40
40
v(t) = Vm sin(et - 40)
Im
Vm
j e
40
40

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1.7 Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal alternating quantities

Let there are two ac voltages having the same frequency but differing in phase by an angle C are
transformed into the phasor diagram as in Figure 1.7( a).
























Example 1.7(a)

The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented respectively by v1=60 sin u (V)
and V2= 40 sin (u - t/3) (V). Derive an expression for the instantaneous value of :


Figure 1.7 (a ) : Addition of
phasors
Figure 1.7(b) : Substraction
of phasors

OA = V1 sin u (V)


OB = V2 sin (u + |) (V)

OC = Phasor summation
of OA and OB
OA = V1 sin u (V)


OB
1
= V2 sin (u + | - 180) (V)

OD = Phasor differences of OA
and OB
1


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(a) the sum;
(b) the difference of these voltage

Solution:
(a) First of all we need to draw the addition of phasors as in Figure 1.7(c).









by assuming the corresponding u= 0, i.e OA is drawn to scale along the x-axis to represent 60V and
OB is drawn t/3 radians or 60behind OA to represent 40V. The diagonal OC drawn on OC and OB
represents the phasor sum of OA and OB.

Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB, OD = 40 cos 60 = 20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + 20 = 80

Vertical component:
For OA, = 0 V
OB, BD = -40 sin 60 = -34.64V
Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = -34.64

Note: The sign value indicates that the resultant vertical component below the horizontal axis
and that the resultant voltage must be lag relative to the reference phasor OA.

Then OC = \ (80)
2
+ (-36.64)
2
= 87.2 V
C = tan
-1
( EC / OE ) = 23.5

The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is
v = 87 sin (u - 23.5) (V)

(b) Again First of all we need to draw the subtractions of phasors. Since we are going to get the
phase difference and assuming OA as reference phasor, the phasor OB is reflected to 180
becomes OB
1
to show the V
Oc
= V
Oc
-

V
OB1

Figure 1.7(c)

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\


Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB1, OE = - 40 cos 60 = -20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + (-20) = 40


Vertical component:
For OA = 0 V
OB1, BD = 40 sin 60 = 34.64V
Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = 34.64

Then OC = \ (40)
2
+ (36.64)
2
= 52.9 V
C = tan
-1
( DC / OD ) = 40.9

The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is
v = 52.9 sin (u + 40.9) (V)