NorLianMFKE2008 DU

INTERFACE DEVELOPING FOR HATA MODEL USING MATLAB
NOR LIAN BINTI MOHD NORDIN

A project report submitted in partial fulfillments of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Electrical (Electronics and Telecommunications)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2008

iii

Especially dedicated to;

My beloved husband,
Azli B.Moh,
My son and daughter,

My mother
Pn Sharifah Ain Bt Syed Rasdi

And in memory of my father
En Mohd Nordin B. Hj Othman

&

To all my family

Thank you for your support

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Highest praise to the almighty for giving the determination and ability to
complete this project.

First of all, I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest thanks
to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Tharek B. Abd. Rahman for his invaluable guidance,
encouragement and suggestion throughout this project. Ive really appreciate the
knowledge and advises he generously share with me. His attitude in helping me to
successful my project are cannot be fully expressed.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks and appreciation to my colleagues
friends for their friendship, co-operation and encouragement during study.

Most of all, I would like to express my indebtedness to my family especially
my husband for their moral support, affection and encouragement in all my
undertaking.

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ABSTRACT

Mobile radio communications in cellular radio take place between a fixed
base station (bs) and a number of roaming mobile stations (ms). From the research
that have been taken place over the years, those involving characterisation an
modeling of the radio propagation channel are amongst the most important and
fundamental. The propagation channel is the principal contributor to many
problems and limitations the best mobile radio systems. One obvious example is
multipath propagation which is the major characteristic of mobile radio channels. It
is caused by diffraction and scattering from terrain features and buildings, that leads
to distortion in analogue communication systems and severely affects the
performance of digital systems by reducing the carrier to-noise and carrier-to-
interference ratios. A physical understanding on mathematical modeling of the
channel is very important because it facilitates more accurate prediction of system
performance and provides the mechanism to test and evaluate methods to see the
effects caused by the radio channel. The main objectives of this project is to select
one of the propagation prediction model and used this model to develop an interface
using Matlab software. With this simulation, hope that this interface can be one of
the friendly interface to the user.

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ABSTRAK

Perhubungan komunikasi handphone dalam sistem komunikasi radio adalah
komunikasi antara satu stesen tetap dengan beberapa lingkaran sel komunikasi
handphone. Dari penyelidikan yang telah dilakukan, kajian mengenai faktor-faktor
yang mempengaruhi sistem perhubungan radio adalah yang paling penting dan
terkini. Saluran yang digunakan dalam sistem perhubungan radio adalah faktor yang
penting mempengaruhi kepada kebaikan dan keburukan sesuatu sistem. Salah satu
dari masalah yang timbul adalah daripada pelbagai isyarat yang terbentuk daripada
pantulan dinding, bangunan dan sebagainya yang membawa kepada perubahan pada
isyarat analog dan juga kesan dari sistem digital. Pemahaman yang mendalam
mengenai bagaimana isyarat dan saluran perhubungan itu dicipta perlu untuk
meramalkan atau memperbaiki lagi sistem perhubungan ke arah sistem yang lebih
berkualiti dan mampu mewujudkan satu mekanisma yang boleh dilakukan untuk
menguji sistem tersebut. Objektif projek ini dilaksanakan adalah memilih salah satu
daripada model yang digunakan dalam system perhubungan dan menggunakan
model ini sebagai antaramuka dengan menggunakan program Matlab. Moga
antaramuka ini akan menjadi satu antaramuka yang mudah dan senang digunakan.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF APPENDICES xiii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Project Objectives 1
1.1 Problem Statement 1
1.2 Thesis Outline 2
1.3 Wireless Communication 2
1.4 Radio Spectrum Classification 3
1.5 Propagation in free space loss 6
1.6 Summary 10

2 RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Types of radio propagation 12
2.2.1 Indoor Attenuations 12
2.2.1.1 Physical Effects 12
2.2.1.2 Examples of Indoor Models 14
a) ITU Indoor Model 14

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b) Log Distance Path Loss Model 16
2.2.2 Outdoor Attenuations 18
2.2.2.1 Foliage Models 18
a) Weissbergers Modeified Model 18
b) Early ITU Model 19
2.2.2.2 Terrain Models 20
a) Egli Model 20
b) Longley-Rice Model 20
c) ITU Terrain Model 21
2.2.2.3 City Models 22
a) Young Model 22
b) Okumura Model 23
c) Hata Model 27
d) Cost 231 Model 29
e) Cost 231 Walfish-Ikegami Model 30
f) Lee Model 33
2.2.3 Environmental Effects 37
a) ITU Rain Attenuation Model 37
b) Crane Model 39
2.3 Summary 39

3 SIMULATION USING MATLAB 41
3.1 Overview of Matlab 41
3.2 Why do I choose Matlab Software? 41
3.3 Graphical User Interface (GUI) 42
3.4 GUI works 43
3.4.1 Components 43
3.4.2 Figures 43
3.4.3 Callback 44
3.5 Creating and Displaying GUI 46
3.6 Summary 46

4 INTERFACE FOR HATA MODEL 47
4.1 Flow chart on how to make interface 47

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4.2 Layout for Hata Model 48
4.3 Set the properties of the button 49
4.4 M-File 50
4.5 Error Dialog Box 51
4.6 Interface for Hata Model 52

5 DISCUSSION 53
5.1 Conclusions and recommendations 53
5.2 Summary on some propagation model 55

References 56
Appendices A - C 59 - 74

x

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Measure of accuracy of simple model 13
2.2 Loss of signal power with distance 15
2.3 Floor penetration loss factor 16
2.4 Calculations of coefficients 10 and in dB 17
2.5 Estimated values of h 21
2.6 Relevant value for rooftop-to-street diffraction
and scatter-loss (Lrts) 32
2.7 Relevant value for multiscreen diffraction loss
Lmsd 33
2.8 Values for P ro and 36
3.1 Some basic GUI 45
5.1 Path loss model 55

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Block diagram of a typical Wireless
Communication System 3
1.2 Frequencies of radio spectrum is classified into
multiple groups 5
1.3 Received power for different value of Loss
parameter v 6
1.4 Mechanisms of propagation model 7
1.5 Reflection mechanisms 8
1.6 Diffraction mechanisms 9
2.1 Basic median path loss relative to free space in
urban areas over quasi-smooth terrain 25
2.2 Base station height/gain factor in urban areas as
a function of range with reference height = 200m 25
2.3 Vehicular antenna height/gain factor in urban
areas as a function of frequency and urbanisation
with reference height = 3m 26
2.4 Method of calculating the effective base station
antenna height 26
2.5 Example path loss predicted by Hatas model 28
2.6 Average Path Loss for Urban Areas 29
2.7 Parameters used in Walfisch-Ikegami model 31
2.8 Definition of street orientation 31
2.9 Parameter for Lee Model 34
2.10 Rain Loss for ITU Rain Zones at 0.9999
Availability (or 0.01% Un-availability) 38
3.1 Figure Window showing examples of

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MATLAB GUI elements 44
4.1 Flow chart on interface for Hata Model 47
4.2 Hata model Interface 48
4.3 Property Inspector 49
4.4 M-file automatically created by guide after
save the layout area 50
4.5 Warning Box 51
4.6 Interface 52

xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Callbacks Function / Command 59
B Comparisons of various types of model 73
C Glossary of terms 74

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Project Objectives

The objective of this project is related to the study of various prediction
models for mobile radio communication system in order to predict the coverage of
the base station. It also involves literature review of different prediction models
available.

This project will also involve a simulation model based on propagation
prediction model which the simulation will be design on Hata - Okumura Model
using Matlab software.

At the end of this project, complete reports on designing simulations using
Matlab will be produced.

1.1 Problem Statement

Hata Model is the popular model that being used to calculated the losses in
urban, sub-urban and open areas. This model can improve the problems that came
from rough terrain, buildings, reflection, moving vehicle and shadowing which bring
bad accuracy to the radio communication. This model is being extended from
Okumura Model which all of the graphical form is described into mathematical form
in Hata Model. In order to make sure that all of the calculations is easier to know and

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accurate, a design on Interface for Hata Model has to be made. This interface can be
very useful for the user to make calculations without any doubt and easy.

1.2 Thesis Outline

The first chapter will be focus on basic communication where it describe
radio wave propagation , studied the channel and their limitations and some basic
problems such as reflection, scattering, diffraction of signal by natural and human-
made structures which result to attenuation problems.

Chapter two is focus on various types of radio propagation model which will
be covered Indoor and Outdoor Attenuation model. Some overview on Matlab and
GUI software will be covered in chapter three. It will describe on GUI basic tools
that will be used in this simulation.

The result for this project and outcomes is in chapter four which include the
interface development for Hata Model. Lastly, some discussion and summary about
this project is covered in the last chapter.

1.3 Wireless Communication

Communication between the sending and receiving is accomplished by the
propagation of electromagnetic radio waves through the ground and atmosphere. All
communication system operates in the same channel and this will make interference
from every other. This interference can be avoided by implementing geographic or
frequency separation. Below is depicts of typical wireless communication system.

3

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a typical Wireless Communication System

1.4 Radio Spectrum Classification

The radio spectrum is divided into sub-bands based on each frequency range's
suitability for a given set of applications. Suitability is determined as a function of
the atmospheric propagation characteristics of the given frequencies as well as
system aspects, such as required antenna size and power limitations.

Based on these considerations, the radio spectrum has been divided into the
following sub bands:

a) Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 300 - 3000 Hz ( =1000 - 100 km)
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 - 30 kHz ( =100 - 10 km)

Propagation Characteristics: Propagates between the surface of the Earth and
the Ionosphere. Can penetrate deep underground and underwater. As the required
antenna size is proportional to the wavelength, the large wavelength in this case
mandates the use of large antennas.
Applications: mining, underwater communication (submarines), SONAR.

b) Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz ( =10 - 1 km)

Propagation Characteristics: The sky wave can be separated from the ground
wave for frequencies above 100 kHz. This enables communication over large
distances by reflecting the sky wave off the atmosphere.

4
Applications: broadcasting, radio navigation.

c) Medium Frequency (MF) 300 - 3000 kHz ( =1000 - 100 m)

Propagation Characteristics: The sky wave separates from the ground wave in
this range. Ground wave gives usable signal strength up to 100 km from transmitter.
Applications: AM radio broadcasting (550 - 1600 kHz).

d) High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz ( =100 - 10 m)

Propagation Characteristics: The sky wave is the main propagation mode.
The ground wave is used for communication over shorter distances than the sky
wave. As propagation loss increases with frequency increases, the use of repeaters is
required.
Applications: Broadcasting over large areas, amateur radio (ham), citizens band (CB)
radio.

e) Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 - 300 MHz ( =10 - 1 m)

Propagation Characteristics: Diffraction (bending of waves due to
obstruction) and reflection give rise to communication beyond the horizon.
Propagation distances are thousands of kilometers. The diffraction and reflection
enables reception within buildings.
Applications: broadcast TV, FM radio (88 - 108 MHz), radio beacons for air traffic
control.

f) Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 - 3000 MHz ( =1 m - 10 cm)

Propagation Characteristics: Reflections from atmospheric layers are
possible. Effects of rain and moisture are negligible.
Applications: broadcasting, satellite (TV) broadcasting, all (1G to 3G) land mobile
phones, cordless phones, some air traffic control.

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g) Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 - 30 GHz ( =10 - 1 cm)

Propagation Characteristics: Range becomes limited by obstacles as
frequency increases. Propagation is limited by absorption by rain and clouds.
Applications: Satellite service for telephony and TV, mobile services in the future.

h) Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 - 300 GHz ( =10 - 1 mm)

Propagation Characteristics: Very high losses due to water, oxygen, vapor.
Applications: communications at short distances (within line of sight), broadcast
satellite for HDTV (for communication between satellites in space, not space to
earth).

Figure 1.2 Frequencies of radio spectrum is classified into multiple groups

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1.5 Propagation in free space loss

Propagation in free space is the ideal. Generally the received power can be
expressed as:

For non-Line of sight received power at any distance d can be expressed as:

| |
|
|
\
|
+ =
d
d
v d P d P
ref
ref r r 10 10
log 10 ) ( log 10 ) (

Figure 1.3 Received power for different value of Loss parameter v

Path Loss formula is expressed as:

(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)

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When propagation takes place close to obstacles, the following propagation
mechanisms occur:

Figure 1.4 Mechanisms of propagation model

a) Reflection will occur when a radio wave strikes an object with dimensions
that are large relative to its wavelength, for example buildings. Perfect conductors
will reflect with no attenuation. Dielectrics reflect a fraction of incident energy such
as Grazing angles reflect max and steep angles transmit max. (max -The exact
fraction depends on the materials and frequencies involved). The reflection induces
180 phase shift.

When electrical signal propagating through a medium impinges on a different
medium with different electrical characteristics, the electrical signal is partly
reflected back to the previous media and part of the signal is transmitted through the
obstructing medium. If the signal is propagating through a dielectric medium, there is
no absorption of the signal due to reflection. Otherwise part of the energy of the
signal will be absorbed by the medium. If the reflected media is a perfect conductor,
all energy of the signal is reflected back to the first medium.

The intensity of the electric field for the transmitted and reflected signals are
related to the incident electrical signal through the Fresnel Reflection Coefficient
(G). The Fresnel Reflection Coefficient depends on the properties of the material,
like permeability(m), permittivity(e) and conductance(s) of the two media and the
frequency of the propagating wave.

8

Figure 1.5 Reflection mechanisms

b) Diffraction

Diffraction will occurs when a radio wave is obstructed by surfaces with
irregularities. Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved
surface of the earth and that in turn allows the propagation to travel behind a building
or obstruction. The received signal drops significantly as the receiver moves deep
behind an obstruction. The phenomenon of diffraction is explained by Huygens
principle. It states that all signal points on the signal wave acts as a point source to
produce the secondary signal waves that travels in the direction of propagation.

Secondary waves arise from the obstructing surface and give rise to the
bending of waves around and behind obstacles. Secondary waves propagated into
the shadowed region. This make the excess path length results in a phase shift.
Fresnel zones relate phase shifts to the positions of obstacles. These secondary
waves reaches the shadowed region of the obstruction and the vector sums of all
these secondary waves provides the signal to the receiver.

The phase difference between the direct line of sight path and the diffracted
path depends upon the height of the obstruction and the locations of the transmitter
and receiver.

t

9

Figure 1.6 Difraction mechanisms.

c) Scattering

Scattering will occurs when a radio wave travels through a medium
containing lots of small (compared to wavelength) objects.

The actual signal received at a mobile station, is often stronger than the signal
strength estimated by considering reflection and diffraction of signals. The reason for
this is the Scattering. When radio waves hits a rough surface, the reflected energy is
scattered in different directions. Many natural objects like trees and man-made
structures like electrical lamp posts scatter radio energy in all directions. This
scattered signal reaches the receiver and increases the signal strength. The scattering
depends upon the roughness of the surface. Surface Roughness is stated in terms of
the Rayleigh criteria, defined in terms of critical height (hc) of surface protuberances
for given incident angle of reflection(i)

hc = l / 8SinI (1.4)

A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberances is
less than hc. and it is considered rough when the minimum to maximum
protuberances is more than hc . On rough surface, the reflected signal energy is
reduced due to this scattering effect. For distant objects, where the physical location
T
R
1st Fresnel zone
Obstruction

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of the object is known, Radar Cross Section Model of the object can be used to
predict the scattering effect.

1.6 Summary

Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation, which was discovered
in the late 19
th
century. The branch of physics that describes how antennas and
radiation behave is called electrodynamics. Many design decisions in layers above
wave propagation are affected by the issues mentioned.

There are several factors have to be taken into account in deciding what
frequency band should be used for a particular type of radio communication service.
Operating frequencies must be chosen in a region of the RF spectrum where it is
possible to design efficient antennas of a size suitable for mounting on base station
masts, vehicles and on hand portable equipment. Since the mobiles can moved
around freely within the area covered by the radio system, their exact location is
unknown and the antennas must therefore radiate energy uniformly in all directions.

Based on the fact that each individual telecommunication link has to
encounter different terrain, path, obstructions, atmospheric conditions and other
phenomena, it is impossible to formulate the exact loss for all telecommunication
systems in a single mathematical equation. As a result, different models exist for
different types of radio links under different conditions. The models rely on
computing the median path loss for a link under a certain probability that the
considered conditions will occur.

Finally, mobile systems must efficiently manage the scarce frequency bands.
Choosing the correct frequency will leads to a better and sufficient outcomes.

CHAPTER 2

RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS

2.1 Introduction

There are two basic types of propagation prediction models which are
empirically based and calculation based.

Empirical models are generally based on the original work of Okumura in the
mid 1960s. This provides coefficients which are applied to the ideal propagation
figures depending on the nature of the terrain in the propagation path.

Calculation models are making use of the unknown characteristics of objects
in a propagation path. A detailed terrain and clutter database must then be used to
calculate the propagation path loss from the transmitter to the point under
consideration.

A Radio Propagation, is also known as the Radio Wave Propagation Model
is an empirical mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio wave
propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other conditions. A single
model is usually developed to predict the behavior of propagation for all similar links
under similar constraints.

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2.2 Types of Radio Propagation

2.2.1 Indoor Attenuations

2.2.1.1 Physical Effects

Indoor attenuations will have effects from obstacles such as walls, ceilings
and furniture usually block the path between receiver and transmitter. It also depends
on the building construction and layout, the signal usually propagates along corridors
and into other open areas.

Indoor radio propagation is ruled by multiple reflection, diffraction and
scattering from natural and man-made obstructions in the indoor channel. However
the circumstances vary much more than in outdoor environments. The received
signal of an antenna mounted on a desk at an open space office with partitions are
very different from those received at an antenna mounted on the outdoor propagation
links. The small propagation distances make it more difficult to insure far-field
radiation for al the receiver locations and types of antennas. Partitions are amongst
the main indoor signals losses reasons, they occur when terminal antennas are
assembled at the same floor and losses between floors occur when terminals are in
clutter (NLOS) conditions.

The problem of modeling radio wave penetration into buildings differs from
the more familiar vehicular case in several respects. In particular:

a) The problem is truly three-dimensional because at fixed distance from the
base station the mobile can be at a number of heights depending on the floor of the
building where it is located. In an urban environment it may result in there being an
LOS path to the upper floors of many buildings, whereas it is a relatively rare
occurrence in city streets.

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b) The local environment within a building consists of a large number of
obstructions. These are constructed of a variety of materials in close proximity to the
mobile and their nature and number can change over quite short distances.

Indoor radio differs from normal mobile radio in two important respects
which are the interference environment and the fading rate. The interference
environment is often caused by spurious emissions from electronic equipment such
as computers and the level sometimes be much greater than measured outside. It also
have a substantial variations in signal strength from place to place within a building.
The signal can be highly attenuated after propagating a few metres through walls,
ceilings and floors or may still be very strong after propagating several hundred
metres along a corridor. The signal to interference ratio is unpredictable and
highly variable.

Unsatisfactory performance in wideband systems can also be caused by
intersymbol interference due to delay spread and limits of data rate. In narrowband
systems, multipath and shadow fading limit the coverage whereas interference causes
major problems even within the intended coverage area.

Table 2. 1 Measure of accuracy of simple model.

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2.2.1.2 Examples of Indoor Models

a) ITU Indoor Propagation Model

The ITU Indoor Propagation Model is used to estimates the path loss inside a
room or a closed area inside a building delimited by walls of any form. It is suitable
for appliances designed for indoor use which it approximates the total path loss an
indoor link may experienced. This model is applicable to only indoor environments.
Typically such appliances use lower microwave bands around 2.4 GHz. The
coverage is 900 MHz to 5.2 GHz. The formula that being used is:

L = 20 log f + N log d + P
f
(n) 28 (2.1)

Where;
L = the total path loss. Unit: decibel (dB).
f = Frequency of transmission. Unit: megahertz (MHz).
d = Distance. Unit: meter (m).
N = The distance power loss coefficient.
n = Number of floors between the transmitter and receiver.
P
f
(n) = the floor loss penetration factor.

The distance of power loss coefficient, N is the quantity that expresses the
loss of signal power with distance. This coefficient is an empirical and some of the
values are provided as below:

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Table 2.2 Loss of signal power with distance
Frequency Band Residential Area Office Area Commercial Area
900 MHz N/A 33 20
1.2 GHz N/A 32 22
1.3 GHz N/A 32 22
1.8 GHz 28 30 22
4 GHz N/A 28 22
5.2 GHz N/A 31 N/A

The floor penetration loss factor is an empirical constant dependent on the
number of floors the waves need to penetrate. Some of the values are tabulated in
Table 2.3:

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Table 2.3 Floor penetration loss factor.
[Frequency
Band
Number of
Floors
Residential
Area
Office
Area
Commercial
Area
900 MHz 1 N/A 9 N/A
900 MHz 2 N/A 19 N/A
900 MHz 3 N/A 24 N/A
1.8 GHz n 4n 15+4(n-1) 6 + 3(n-1)
2.0 GHz n 4n 15+4(n-1) 6 + 3(n-1)
5.2 GHz 1 N/A 16 N/A

b) Log Distance Path Loss Model

This model predicts path loss a signal encounters inside a building over
distance. This model is applicable to indoor propagation modeling.
Log Distance Path Loss model is formally expressed as:

L = Lo + 10 log10
do
d
+ Xg (2.2)

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Where;
L = The total path loss inside a building. Unit: Decibel (dB)
L
0
= The path loss at reference distance, usually, 1 km or 1 mile. Unit: Decibel (dB)
= The path loss distance exponent.
X
g
= A Gaussian random variable with zero mean and standard deviation, reflecting
the shadow fading or slow fading.

The calculation of empirical coefficients is shown in the table below:
Table 2.4 Calculations of coefficients 10 and in dB
Building Type Frequency of Transmission 10
Retail store 914 MHz 22 8.7
Grocery store 914 MHz 18 5.2
Office with hard paritition 1.5 GHz 30 7
Office with soft partition 900 MHz 24 9.6
Office with soft partition 1.9 GHz 26 14.1
Textile or chemical 1.3 GHz 20 3.0
Textile or chemical 4 GHz 21 7.0, 9.7
Metalworking 1.3 GHz 16 5.8
Metalworking 1.3 GHz 33 6.8

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2.2.2 Outdoor Attenuations

Outdoor propagation models are used to understand the link performance of
Macro Cellular systems. The propagation of radio waves is strongly influenced by
the nature of the environment, the size and buildings. A qualitative description of the
environment is often used a term such as rural, urban, suburban and open areas. The
term rural defines open farmland with sparse buildings, woodland and forests. These
qualitative descriptions are open to different interpretations by different users based
on measurements made in one city are generally applicable elsewhere.

Examples of Outdoor Attenuations are stated as below:

2.2.2.1 Foliage Models

a) Weissbergers Modified Exponential Decay Model

Weissbergers Modified Exponential Decay Model, or simply, Weissbergers
Model, is a radio wave propagation model that estimates the path loss due to the
presence of one or more trees in a point-to-point telecommunication link. This model
belongs to the category Foliage or Vegetation models. It is formulated in 1982 being
develop of ITU Model for Exponential Decay.

This model is applicable to the cases of line of sight propagation. For
example is microwave transmission. This model only applicable when there is an
obstruction made by some foliage in the link between the transmitter and receiver. It
is ideal in the situation where the LOS path is blocked by dense, dry and leafy trees.
The frequency for this model is 230 MHz to 95 GHz and the depth of foliage is up to
400 m.

This model is only significant for frequency range 230 MHz to 95 GHz as
pointed by Blaunstein. The limitations for this model are it does not defines the

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operation if the depth of vegetations is more than 400m. Weissbergers is formally
formulated as:

L = 1.33 f
0.284
d
0.588
, if 14 < d 400
0.45 f
0.284
d , if 0 < d 14 (2.3)

Where

L = The loss due to foliage. Unit: decibels (dB)
f = The transmission frequency. Unit: gigahertz (GHz)
d = The depth of foliage along the path. Unit: meters (m)

b) Early ITU Model

The ITU Vegetation Model is a radio propagation model that estimates the
path loss encountered due to the presence of one or more trees inside a point to point
telecommunication link. The predictions found from this model is congruent to those
found from Weissbergers Modified Exponential Decay Model in low frequencies.
This model is adopted in late 1986 from the CCIR predecessor of ITU.

This model is applicable on the situations where the telecommunication link
has some obstructions made by trees along its way. It also suitable for point-to-point
microwave links that has a vegetation in their path. The typical application of this
model is to predict the path loss for microwave links.

The limitation of this model is the result of this model will be impractical at
high frequencies. The model is formulated as:

L = 0.2 f
0.3
d
0.6
(2.4)

Where;
L = The path loss. Unit: decibel (dB)
f = The frequency of transmission. Unit: megahertz (MHz)
d = The depth of foliage along the link: Unit: meter (m)

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2.2.2.2 Terrain Models

a) Egli Model

Egli Model is a terrain model for radio frequency propagation. This model
predicts the total path loss for a point-to-point link. Typically used for Line of Sight
transmission, this model provides the path loss as a single quantity.

This model is suitable for cellular communication scenarios where one
antenna is fixed and other is mobile. It is applicable to the scenario where the
transmission has to go over an irregular terrain. Egli model is not applicable to a
scenario where some vegetative obstruction is in the middle of the link. This model
predicts the path loss as a whole and does not subdivide the loss into space loss and
other losses.

Egli model is formally expressed as:

L = G
B
G
M

2
2
2
40
(
f d
hbhm
(2.5)

Where;
G
B
= Gain of the base station antenna. Unit: dimensionless
G
M
= Gain of the mobile station antenna. Unit: dimensionless
h
B
= Height of the base station antenna. Unit: meter (m)
h
M
= Height of the mobile station antenna. Unit: meter (m)
d = Distance from base station antenna. Unit: meter (m)
f = Frequency of transmission. Unit: megahertz (MHz)

b) Longley-Rice Model

The Longley-Rice (LR) radio propagation model is a method for predicting
median path loss for a telecommunication link in the frequency range of 20 MHz to
20 GHz. LR is also known as Irregular Terrain Model (ITM). It was created for the

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needs of frequency planning in TV broadcasting in USA in 1960s and was
extensively used for preparing the tables of channel allocations for VHF/UHF public
broadcasting in USA. LR has two parts which are a model for predictions over an
area and a model for point-to-point link predictions.

The method may be used either with detailed terrain profiles for actual paths
or with profiles representatives of median terrain characteristics for a given area. It
includes estimates of variability with time and location and a method of computing
service probability. The range for this model is 1 to 2000 km and antenna heights are
from 0.5 to 3000 m. The formulation can be expressed as:

L = d
(
1 2
2 1
d d
A A
+ 5 log 10 | |
(
(
(
(
|
|
\
|
+
5
4
1
10 ) ( 5 . 0 ) ( 78 . 0 1 x d h d h f h h
c b m
(2.6)
Where:

A
1
and A
2
is diffraction losses
h is as stated in table 2.4 below:

Table 2.5 Estimated values of h
Type of terrain h
Water or very smooth plains 0 5
Plains ~ 30
Hills 80 150
Mountains 150 300
Rugged Mountains 300 - 700

c) ITU Terrain Model

The ITU Terrain Loss Model is a radio propagation model that provides a
method to predict the median path loss for a telecommunication link. Developed on
the basis of diffraction theory, this model predicts the path loss as a function of the
height of path blockage and the First Fresnel zone for the transmission link.

22
This model is applicable on any terrain. This model accounts for obstructions
in the middle of the telecommunications link, and is suitable to be used inside cities
as well as in open fields. It is ideal for modeling a Line of sight link in any terrain.
This model is considered valid for losses over 15 dB.

The model is mathematically formulated as:

A = 10 20 ( h
L
h
0
) ( 17.3
fd
d d
2 1
) (2.7)
C
N
= h F
1

Where:

A = Empirical Diffraction Loss. Unit: Decibel(dB)
C
N
= Normalized terrain clearance. Unit: None.
h = The height difference. Unit: Meter (m)
h
L
= Height of the line of sight link. Unit: Meter(m)
h
0
= Height of the obstruction. Unit: Meter(m)
F
1
= Height of First Fresnel Zone. Unit: Meter(m)
d
1
= Distance of obstruction from one terminal. Unit: Meter(m)
d
2
= Distance of obstruction from the other terminal. Unit: Meter(m)
f = Frequency of transmission. Unit: Megahertz(m)
d = Distance from transmitter to receiver. Unit: Meter (m)

2.2.2.3 City Models

a) Young Model

Young model is a Radio propagation model that was builds on the data
collected on New York City. It typically models the behaviour of cellular
communication systems in large cities. It was built on the data at New York City in

23
1952. This model is ideal for modelling the behaviour of the cellular communications
in large cities with tall structures. The coverage for this model is 150 MHz to 3700
MHz.
The mathematical formulation for Young Model is:

L = G
B
G
M

2
2
|
\
|
d
h h
M B
(2.8)
Where:

L = The Path loss. Unit: Decibel (dB)
G
B
= Gain of Base transmitter. Unit: Decibel (dB)
G
M
= Gain of Mobile transmitter. Unit: Decibel (dB)
h
B
= Height of Base station antenna. Unit: Meter (m)
h
M
= Height of Mobile station antenna. Unit: Meter (m)
d = Link distance. Unit: Kilo Meter (km)
= Clutter factor

b) Okumura Model

This is the most popular model that being used widely The Okumura model
for Urban Areas is a Radio propagation model that was built using the data collected
in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban
structures but not many tall blocking structures. The model served as a base for Hata
models. Okumura model was built into three modes which are urban, suburban and
open areas. The model for urban areas was built first and used as the base for others.

Clutter and terrain categories for open areas are there are no tall trees or
buildings in path, plot of land cleared for 200 400m. For examples at farmland, rice
fields and open fields. For suburban area the categories is village or highway
scattered with trees and houses, few obstacles near the mobile. Urban area categories
is built up city or large town with large buildings and houses with two or more storey
or larger villager with close houses and tall, thickly grown trees.

24
Formula for Okumura Model is expressed below:

Lm(dB) = LF(d)+ Amu(f,d) G(hM) G(hB) G
AREA
(2.9)

Where;

Lm = (i.e., median) of path loss
LF(d) = free space propagation pathloss.
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hB) = base station antenna heigh gain factor
G(hM) = mobile antenna height gain factor

G(hB) = 20log(hB/200) 1000m > hB > 30m
G(hM) = 10log(hM/3) hM<= 3m
G(hM) = 20log(hM/3) 10m > hM > 3m
G
AREA
: gain due to type of environment given in suburban, urban or open areas

Correction factors like terrain related parameters can be added using a
graphical form to allow for street orientation as well as transmission in suburban and
open areas and over irregular terrain. Irregular terrain is divided into rolling hilly
terrain, isolated mountain, general sloping terrain and mixed land-sea path. The
terrain related parameters that must be evaluated to determine the various corrections
factors areas shown in the figure below:

25

Figure 2.1 Basic median path loss relative to free space in urban areas over
quasi-smooth terrain.

Figure 2.2 Base station height/gain factor in urban areas as a function of range
with reference height = 200m.

26

Figure 2.3 Vehicular antenna height/gain factor in urban areas as a function of
frequency and urbanisation with reference height = 3m.

Figure 2.4 Method of calculating the effective base station antenna height.

Where:

H
b
(Effective base station antenna height) = the height of the base station antenna
above the average ground level calculated over the range interval 3-15 km or less in a
direction towards the receiver.

27
This Okumura model probably remains the most widely quoted of he
available models. It has come to be used as a standard by which to compare others
since it is intended for use over a wide variety of radio paths encompassing not only
urban areas but also different types of terrain.

c) Hata Model

Hata established empirical mathematical relationships to describe the
graphical information given by Okumura. Hatas formulation is limited to certain
ranges of input parameters and is applicable only over quasi-smooth terrain. The
mathematical expression and their ranges of applicability are as follows:

Carrier Frequency: 150 MHz fc 1500 MHz
Base Station (BS) Antenna Height: 30 m hb 200 m
Mobile Station (MS) Antenna Height: 1 m hm 10 m
Transmission Distance: 1 km d 20 km

(2.10)

Where:

(2.11)

28

(2.12)
The path loss predicted by Hata's model, example values (hb =70 m, hm=1.5
m, fc=900 MHz) is depicted in figure below:

Figure 2.5 Example path loss predicted by Hatas model

Below is figure for path loss in urban areas for Carrier frequency = 900 MHz, h
b
=
150m and h
m
= 1.5m

29

Figure 2.6 Average Path Loss for Urban Areas

These expressions have considerably enhanced the practical value of the
Okumura method, although Hatas formulations do not include any of the path
specific corrections available in the original model.

d) Cost 231 Model

Most future PCS systems are expected to operate in the 1800-2000 MHz
frequency band. It has been shown that path loss can be more dramatic at these
frequencies than those in the 900 MHz range. Some studies have suggested that the
path loss experienced at 1845 MHz is approximately 10 dB larger than those
experienced at 955 MHz, all other parameters being kept constant.

30
The COST231-Hata model extends Hata's model for use in the 1500-2000
MHz frequency range, where it is known to underestimate path loss. The model is
expressed in terms of the following parameters:

Carrier Frequency fc 1500-2000 MHz
BS Antenna Height hb 30-200 m
MS Antenna Height hm 1-10 m
Transmission Distance d 1-20 km
The path loss according to the COST231-Hata model is expressed as:

(2.13)

Where;

(2.14)

While both the Hata and COST231 are designed for use with base station
antenna heights greater than 30 meters, they may be used with shorter antennas
provided that surrounding buildings are well below this height. Neither model should
be used to predict path loss in an urban canyon. Lastly, the model should not be used
for prediction with transmission distances below 1 km, as path losses become highly
dependent on local topography below this range.

e) Cost 231 Walfisch-Ikegami Model

This model is proposed of a combination of the Walfisch-Bertoni method and
Ikegami model to improve path loss estimation through the inclusion of more data.
Four factors are included which are heights of building, width of roads, building

31
separation and road orientation with respect to the LOS path. This model is restricted
to the following range of parameters:

fc = 800 to 2000 MHz
hb = 4 to 50 m
hm = 1 to 3 m
d = 0.02 to 5 km

Figure 2.7 Parameters used in Walfisch-Ikegami model

Figure 2.8 Definition of street orientation

32
This model distinguishes between LOS and non-LOS paths as follows. For
LOS paths the equation is as below:

L = 42.6 + 26log d + 20log f for d 0.020 km (2.15)

Where :

L = L
0
+ Lrts + Lmsd
L =32.4 +20log d+ 20log f
Lrts = rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter-loss.
Lrts = -16.9 -10 log w+10log f + 20 log (hb - hr ) + Lori for hb > hr
Lmsd = the multiscreen diffraction loss.
Lmsd= Lbsh+ ka+ kd log d+ k
f
log f - 9 log b

Table 2.6 Relevant value for rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter-loss (Lrts)

33
Table 2.7 Relevant value for multiscreen diffraction loss Lmsd:

If the structure of buildings and streets are unknown, the following values are
recommended :

b =20 to 50 m
w=b/2
hr=3{number of floors}+roof (roof=3 for pitched, roof=0 for flat)
=90o

This model gives predictions which agree quite well with measurements
when the base station antenna is above rooftop height, producing mean errors of
about 3db with standard deviations in the range 4-8 db. However the performance
deteriorates as hb approaches hr and is quite poor when hb<<hr. The model produces
large errors in the microcellular situation.

f) Lee Model

Named after W.C.Y. Lee, this empirically derived path loss model is
parameterized by ro P , the power at the 1-mile point of interception, and , an
experimentally determined path loss slope. It is indicated for use with flat terrain and
is specified as follows:

34

Figure 2.9 Parameter for Lee Model

(2.16)

Where:

Pr = field strength of the received signal at a distance r from the transmitter
P ro = received power at 1 mile (1.6 km)
r = distance between MS and BS antennas
r0 = 1 mile (1.6 km)
= path loss slope (experimentally determined)
f = actual carrier frequency
f0 = nominal carrier frequency, (= 900 MHz)
n = empirically derived exponent. depends on geographical locations and operating
frequency ranges. 2 n 3.
n=2 is recommended for a suburban or open area with f < 450 MHz. Use n=3 for an
urban area with f > 450 MHz.
0 = correction factoraccounts for antenna heights, transmit power and antenna
gains which differ from nominal values.

The limitations for this model is:

Carrier frequency = 900 MHz
Base Station antenna height = 30.48m
r
o
= 1mil
= 1,6
km
r
P
r
P

35
Bs transmit power = 10 watts
Bs antenna gain = 6db above dipole gain
Mobile station antenna height = 3m
Mobile station Gain = 0 db above dipole gain

Correction Factor (
0
):

Note that the actual frequency of the transmitted signal does not explicitly appear in
the formulae specifying
0
. The formula is a general one which is valid for all
frequencies greater than 30 MHz.

(2.17)

The exponent v, which appears in the expression above for
2
is also derived
from empirical data and is specified as:

(2.18)

36
The following table lists some example values for the empirically derived
quantities P ro and :

Table 2.8 Values for P ro and

The path loss formula is express as below:

(2.19)

Where :

Pt is the transmit power.

The data in Table 2.8 is used to write the path los expressions for the various
environment as stated below:

37

(2.19)

2.2.3 Environmental Effects

There are differences between the two most popular models, ITU terrestrial
model and Crane model. Crane has produced three models; the Crane Global model,
Crane two-component model, and revised Crane two-component model that produce
slightly different estimates of the long term mean fade probability. The Crane models
tend to produce higher attenuation than the ITU model. But the uncertainty of either
of these models or alternatively the short-term expectation of fade is quite large.
Uncertainty stems from variations from year-to-year and location-to-location.

a) ITU Rain Attenuation model

This is also one example of environmental effects. Rain attenuation is a major
constraint in microwave radio link design above 10 GHz. Several empirical and non-
empirical rain attenuation prediction models that have been developed are based on
the measured data obtained from temperate regions. Most of these existing rain
attenuation prediction models do not appear to perform well in high rainfall regions.
cumulative distribution empirical evidence shows that the ITU-R model
underestimates the measured rain attenuation cumulative distribution when applied to

38
tropical regions, leading to a poor prediction. Other impairments are due to gaseous
absorption, cloud, troposphere refractive effects, scintillation, wet antenna etc.

The specific attenuation, is a function of the rainfall rate, R0.01exceeded at
0.01% of time is given by:

) (
01 . 0
R k =
dB/km (2.20)

where:

k and are frequency and polarization parameters, given by ITU-R recommendation

Figure 2.10 Rain Loss for ITU Rain Zones at 0.9999 Availability (or 0.01% Un-
availability)

39
Rain loss for ITU rain zones is shown in Figure 2.10 for path lengths up to 5
km and for an availability of 0.9999. Capabilities are shown in dotted lines for an
example QPSK system with EIRP density values of the US FCC EIRP limit,
Canadian limit, and a typical system having 0 dBW/MHz EIRP. An EIRP density of
0 dBW/MHz is within todays technology and provides fade margin from 20 30
dB. With a subscriber antenna gain of 35 dBi, this would support links up to 5 km in
some rain zones.

b) Crane model

Crane determined that the distribution of deviations was lognormal and
presents a model for variability in terms of risk. Standard deviation of the natural
logarithm of rain-rate, Sm, was obtained as follows:

Year-to-year, Sm = 0.21
Location-to-location, Sm = 0.17
Combined year-to-year and location-to-location, Sm = 0.28

The year-to-year standard deviation corresponds to 23% in dB and the
combined standard deviation corresponds to 32% in dB. A risk model is presented by
Crane to estimate the attenuation for any year over a selected number of years using
the variability standard deviation.

2.3 Summary

Several predictions method has been described in his chapter. They all aim to
predict the median signal strength either at a specified receiving point or in a small
area. Receiving point methods are needed for point-to-point links whereas small area
methods are useful for base-to-mobile paths where the precise location of the
receiver is not known. All of these methods have been available for many years and
have stood the test possibly with modification and updating. They differ widely in

40
approach, complexity and accuracy. But sometimes, when it comes to accuracy, no
one method outperforms all others in all conditions.

Statistical methods are based on measured and average losses along typical
classes of radio links. Among the most commonly used such methods are COST 231,
Okumura-Hata, Lee model and others.

Deterministic methods based on the physical laws of wave propagation are
also used Ray Tracing is such one method. These methods are expected to produce
more accurate and reliable predictions of the path loss than the empirical methods.
However they are significantly more expensive in computational effort and depend
on the detailed and accurate description of all objects in the propagation space such
as buildings, roofs, windows, doors and walls. For these reasons they are used
predominantly for short propagation paths.

Every propagation models has its own advantage and disadvantage. Choosing
a method appropriate to the specific problem under consideration is a vital step in
reaching a valid prediction.

CHAPTER 3

SIMULATION USING MATLAB

3.1 Overview of Matlab

Matlab is a high performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization and programming in an easy to use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.

Matlab stands for matrix laboratory. It is an interactive system whose basic
data element is an array that does not require dimensioning that will allows us to
solve many technical computing problems especially those with matrix formulas, in a
fraction of time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language
as C or FORTRAN.

3.2 Why do I choose Matlab Software?

Matlab has many advantages compared to conventional computer language
for technical problem solving. Among them are:

a) Easy to use

Matlab has an interpreted language an its very easy to use. The program can
be used as a scratch to evaluate expressions type at the command line or it can be

42
used to execute large pre-written programs. Because the language is so easy to use, it
is ideal for educational use and for the rapid prototyping of new programs.

b) Platform independence

Matlab is supported on many different computer systems, provide large
measure of platform independence. Programs written on any platform will run on all
of the other platform and data files written on any platform can be read transparently
on any other platform. As a result, program written in Matlab can migrate to new
platform when the needs of the user change.

c) Graphical User Interface

Matlab also include tools that allow a programmer to interactively construct a
graphical user interface (GUI) for her program. With this capability, the programmer
can design sophisticated data analysis programs that can be operated by relatively
inexperienced users.

3.3 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A graphical user interface (GUI) is a pictorial interface to a program. A good
GUI can make programs easier to use by providing them with a consistent
appearance and with intuitive controls like pushbuttons, list boxes, sliders, menus,
and so forth. The GUI should behave in an understandable and predictable manner,
so that a user knows what to expect when he or she performs an action.

For example, when a mouse click occurs on a pushbutton, the GUI should
initiate the action described on the label of the button. This chapter introduces the
basic elements of the MATLAB GUIs.

43
3.4 GUI works

A graphical user interface provides the user with a familiar environment in
which to work. This environment contains pushbuttons, toggle buttons, lists, menus,
text boxes, and so forth, all of which are already familiar to the user, so that he or she
can concentrate on using the application rather than on the mechanics involved in
doing things.

However, GUIs are harder for the programmer because a GUI-based program
must be prepared for mouse clicks (or possibly keyboard input) for any GUI element
at any time. Such inputs are known as events, and a program that responds to events
is said to be event driven. The three principal elements required to create a MATLAB
Graphical User Interface are :

3.4.1) Components

Each item on a MATLAB GUI (pushbuttons, labels, edit boxes, etc.) is a
graphical component. The types of components include graphical controls
(pushbuttons, edit boxes, lists, sliders, etc.), static elements (frames and text strings),
menus, and axes. Graphical controls and static elements are created by the function
uicontrol, and menus are created by the functions uimenu and uicontext menu. Axes,
which are used to display graphical data, are created by the function axes.

3.4.2) Figures.

The components of a GUI must be arranged within a figure, which is a
window on the computer screen. Empty figures can be created with the function
figure and can be used to hold any combination of components.

44
3.4.3) Callbacks

Clicks a mouse on a button or types information on a keyboard. A mouse
click or a key press is an event, and the MATLAB program must respond to each
event if the program is to perform its function. For example, if a user clicks on a
button, that event must cause the MATLAB code that implements the function of the
button to be executed. The code executed in response to an event is known as a call
back. There must be a callback to implement the function of each graphical
component on the GUI. The basic GUI elements are summarized in Table 3.1, and
sample elements are shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 A Figure Window showing examples of MA TLAB GUI elements.
From top to bottom and left to right, the elements are: (1) a pushbutton; (2) a toggle
button in the 'on' state; (3) two radio buttons surrounded by a frame; (4) a check box;
(5) a text field and an edit box; (6) a slider; (7) a set of axes; and (8) a list box.

45
Table 3.1 Some basic GUI

46
3.5 Creating and displaying GUI

a) Choosing what tools that been used to create Interface

b) Use a MATLAB tool called guide (GUI Development Environment) to layout
the components on a figure. The size of the figure and the alignment and spacing of
components on the figure can be adjusted using the tools built into guide.

c) Use a MATLAB tool called the Property Inspector (built into guide) to give
each component a name (a "tag") and to set the characteristics of each component,
such as its color, the text it displays, and so on.

d) Write code to implement the behavior associated with each callback function.

3.6 Summary

Above is some basic tools and guide on how to use the GUI tools. All of this
basic information is very useful in designing the interface. By using all of the
instruction above, we can easily create the interface.

CHAPTER 4

INTERFACE FOR HATA MODEL

4.1 Flow chart on how to make interface

Draw layout using
Matlab tool
Write code to
implement behavior
each callback
Ok?
Yes
No
Property Inspector to
characterize each
component
Save figure
to m-file
Done
Start
Sketch layout
to design

48
Figure 4.1 Flow chart on interface for Hata Model

4.2 Layout for Hata Model

Figure 4.2 Hata model Interface

Sketch the GUI and design the layout at the guide tool window. To create the
design, is by dragging the all the chosen button in to the layout window.

49
4.3 Set the properties of the button

Figure 4.3 Property Inspector

In this property Inspector, we can set many properties such as color, size,
font, text, alignment and others. We must set two properties which is the String
property that contains the text to be displayed and the Tag property which is the
name of the pushbutton. This two button is important to locate and update the text
field.

50
4.4 M-file

Figure 4.4 M-file automatically created by guide after save the layout area.

51
The M-file contains code that loads the figure file and creates the GUI with a
callback function for each active GUI component. Each callback function handles
event from a single GUI component. If a mouse click occurs on the GUI component,
then the components callback function will be automatically called by Matlab.The
name of the Callback function will be the value in the Tag property of the GUI
component plus the character Callback.

4.5 Error Dialog Box

Figure 4.5 Warning Box

This figure shows that if the user gives the wrong values or invalid input, this
dialog error box will appear. A dialog box is a special type of figure that is used to
display information or to get input from the user. Dialog box are used to display

52
errors, provide warnings, answer question or get user input. A dialog box does not
allow any other window in the application to be access until it is dismissed.

4.6 Interfaces for Hata Model

Figure 4.6 Interface

If all the function is called without arguments then the function displays the
GUI contained in proper file with its layout. If there is an arguments, its must be an
error in the m-file callback functions.

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

5.1 Conclusion and recommendations

The prediction of path loss is very important step in planning a mobile radio
system. An accurate predictions method is needed to determine the parameters of
radio base stations which will provide efficient and reliable coverage of specified
areas. None of the model stands out as being ideally suited to all environments. As a
result, choosing an appropriate method to the specific problem under consideration is
a vital step in reaching a valid prediction.

Although there appears to be a huge potential for improved predictions
methods based on deterministic process through the availability of improved
databases of various kinds and the ready availability of small, powerful computers,
the fact remain that currently for macro cells, the hata-Okumura model is still the
most used. This is undoubtedly due to its simplicity and its proven reliability.
However, many variations of the original approach have been proposed where the
basic loss has been combine with further losses calculated using various knife-edge
diffraction model. Alternative methods of defining parameters such as the effective
base station antenna height and establishing the correction factor in irregular terrain
have also been investigated.

It is clear that accurate ways of representing geographical data and efficient
methods of extracting information from the database are essential for the
development of improved and computationally efficient propagation tools.

54
Nevertheless, the strength of the chain is that its weakness link and nowhere
is that more obvious than here. There is little point in having highly accurate methods
for calculating diffraction loss if is depend on obstacles shape still only coarsely
defined. A strategic, integrated approach is surely needed.

In this project, finally the developing of the software on Hata prediction
model has been used to determine the accurate value of the path loss in urban,
suburban and open areas.

Hata model is used as an experiment to make GUI Interface for formal and
informal user. Hata model is used for this experiment because this method is easy to
apply and it is established in mathematical relationship to describe the graphical
information given by Okumura model.

Hopefully by using this interface the calculation on Hata Model will be easy,
simple and accurate to use. This interface is a friendly user where the user only have
to input all the data and push the calculate button to calculate total path loss.

For future works, this interface can be used or implement to other predictions
model by replacing the formulas and layout design according to the chosen
prediction model.

55
5.2 Summary on some propagation model

Table 5.1 Path loss model

In general, the models described are a mixture of empiricism and the
application of the propagation theory. The empirical approach relies on fitting curves
or analytical expressions to sets of measured data and has the advantage of implicitly
taking into account all factors.

The prediction method gives only the median value of the path loss and do
not deal with the subject of variability either implicitly or explicitly. In practice
however, a quantitative measure of signal variability is essential. It should be
claimed that an estimate of the variability is no less important than a prediction of the
median signal strength itself.

56

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(November): 1,5. In-Building/In-Tunnel User Considerations C-2 August
2002
15. Mohan, Ananda and Suzuki, Hajime. (July 2000). .Measurement and
Prediction of High Spatial Resolution Indoor Radio Channel
Characteristic Map.. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 49,
no.4, 1321.1333. http://www.ieee.org/organizations/
pubs/pub_preview/VT/49vt04_toc.html
16. Mohan, Ananda, Suzuki, Hajime, Wang, James, and Yabe, Hatsuo.
(September 1996). .Measurement and Prediction of Two-Dimensional
Fading Map in a Hallway.. IEEE Transactions on Communication, vol.
E79-B, no. 9, 1192.1198. http://www.ee.uts.edu.au/~hajime/
17. Neskovic, Aleksandar, Neskovic, Natasa, and Paunovic, George. (2000). .
Modern Approaches in Modeling of Mobile Radio Systems

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Propagation Environment.. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials,
http://www.comsoc.org/pubs/surveys/3q00issue/neskovic.html
18. Nilsson, Martin, Slettenmark, Jesper, and Beckman Claes. (1998). .Wave
Propagation in Curved Road Tunnels.. IEEE AP-S International
Symposium. http://rf.rfglobalnet.com/library/Papers/files/7/apstunnels.pdf
19. Orange, Matthew. (March 1998). .Propagation in Outdoor Cellular and In-
Building Pico- Cellular Systems.. Packetised Wireless Communication
Systems in Interference Limited Environments, 35.50.
http://www.ele.auckland.ac.nz/students/orange/thesis/toc_final.pdf
20. Rapport, Theodore S. (1998). Wireless Communications: Principles &
Practices, Prentice Hall PTR, Saddle River, New Jersey, 140.141.
21. R. Vaughan, J. Bach Andersen (2003), Channels, Propagation and
Antennas for Mobile Communications, IEE, 753 p.
22. Saunders, Simon. (1999 & 2000). Antennas and Propagation for Wireless
Communication Systems. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
23. SSS Online. (January 2001). .Introduction to Indoor Radio Propagation..
Spread Spectrum Scene, 1.6. http://sss-mag.com/indoor.html
24. Thompson, Richard. (2000). .Introduction to HF Radio Propagation.. IPS
Radio & Space Services, 1.28.
http://www.ips.gov.au/papers/richard/hfreport/webrep.html
25. Tripathi, Nishith, Reed, Jeffrey, and Van Landingham, Hugh. (December
1998). .Handoff in Cellular Systems.. IEEE Personal Communications,
26.36. http://ntrg.cs.tcd.ie/htewari/papers/tripathi98.pdf
26. W. Backman (2003), Error Correction on Predicted Signal levels in Mobile
Communications, master thesis.
27. Zeus Wireless. (1999, 2000). .Wireless Data Telemetry.. Zeus Whitepaper
Series, 6.9.http://www.zeuswireless.com/html/about/wirelessconn.html

59

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A CALLBACKS FUNCTION / COMMAND

function varargout = tryprojek4(varargin)
% TRYPROJEK4 M-file for tryprojek4.fig
% TRYPROJEK4, by itself, creates a new TRYPROJEK4 or raises the existing
% singleton*.
%
% H = TRYPROJEK4 returns the handle to a new TRYPROJEK4 or the handle to
% the existing singleton*.
%
% TRYPROJEK4('CALLBACK',hObject,eventData,handles,...) calls the local
% function named CALLBACK in TRYPROJEK4.M with the given input
arguments.
%
% TRYPROJEK4('Property','Value',...) creates a new TRYPROJEK4 or raises the
% existing singleton*. Starting from the left, property value pairs are
% applied to the GUI before tryprojek4_OpeningFunction gets called. An
% unrecognized property name or invalid value makes property application
% stop. All inputs are passed to tryprojek4_OpeningFcn via varargin.
%
% *See GUI Options on GUIDE's Tools menu. Choose "GUI allows only one
% instance to run (singleton)".
%
% See also: GUIDE, GUIDATA, GUIHANDLES

% Edit the above text to modify the response to help tryprojek4

% Last Modified by GUIDE v2.5 16-Feb-2008 15:44:12

% Begin initialization code - DO NOT EDIT

60
gui_Singleton = 1;
gui_State = struct('gui_Name', mfilename, ...
'gui_Singleton', gui_Singleton, ...
'gui_OpeningFcn', @tryprojek4_OpeningFcn, ...
'gui_OutputFcn', @tryprojek4_OutputFcn, ...
'gui_LayoutFcn', [] , ...
'gui_Callback', []);
if nargin & isstr(varargin{1})
gui_State.gui_Callback = str2func(varargin{1});
end

if nargout
[varargout{1:nargout}] = gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:});
else
gui_mainfcn(gui_State, varargin{:});
end
% End initialization code - DO NOT EDIT

% --- Executes just before tryprojek4 is made visible.
function tryprojek4_OpeningFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles, varargin)
% This function has no output args, see OutputFcn.
% hObject handle to figure
% eventdata reserved - to be defined in a future version of MATLAB
% handles structure with handles and user data (see GUIDATA)
% varargin command line arguments to tryprojek4 (see VARARGIN)

% Choose default command line output for tryprojek4
handles.output = hObject;

% Update handles structure
guidata(hObject, handles);

if strcmp(get(hObject,'Visible'),'off')

61
initialize_gui(hObject, handles);
end

% UIWAIT makes tryprojek4 wait for user response (see UIRESUME)
% uiwait(handles.figure1);

% --- Outputs from this function are returned to the command line.
function varargout = tryprojek4_OutputFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% varargout cell array for returning output args (see VARARGOUT);
% hObject handle to figure

% Get default command line output from handles structure
varargout{1} = handles.output;

% --- Executes during object creation, after setting all properties.
function freq_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to freq (see GCBO)
% handles empty - handles not created until after all CreateFcns called

% Hint: edit controls usually have a white background, change
% 'usewhitebg' to 0 to use default. See ISPC and COMPUTER.
usewhitebg = 1;
if usewhitebg
set(hObject,'BackgroundColor','white');
else
set(hObject,'BackgroundColor',get(0,'defaultUicontrolBackgroundColor'));
end

62

function freq_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to freq (see GCBO)

% Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of freq as text
% str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of freq as a double
freq = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if freq < 100 | freq > 1500
set(hObject, 'String', 0);
errordlg('Invalid input values!','Error Dialog Box');
end

freq = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if isnan(freq)
errordlg('Input must be a number!','Error Dialog Box');
end

data = getappdata(gcbf, 'metricdata');
data.freq = freq;
setappdata(gcbf, 'metricdata', data);

function dist_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to dist (see GCBO)

usewhitebg = 1;
if usewhitebg

63
else
end

function dist_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to dist (see GCBO)

% Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of dist as text
% str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of dist as a double
dist = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if dist < 1 | dist > 20
end

dist = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if isnan(dist)
errordlg('Input must be a number','Error');
end

data.dist = dist;

function hb_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to hb (see GCBO)

64

usewhitebg = 1;
if usewhitebg
else
end

function hb_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to hb (see GCBO)

% Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of hb as text
% str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of hb as a double
hb = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if hb < 30 | hb > 200
end

hb = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if isnan(hb)
end

data.hb = hb;

65
function hm_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to hm (see GCBO)

usewhitebg = 1;
if usewhitebg
else
end

function hm_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to hm (see GCBO)

% Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of hm as text
% str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of hm as a double
hm = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if hm < 1 | hm > 10
end

hm = str2double(get(hObject, 'String'));
if isnan(hm)
end

66

data.hm = hm;

% --- Executes on button press in urbanarea.
function urbanarea_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to urbanarea (see GCBO)

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of urbanarea

set(handles.urbanarea, 'Value', 1);
set(handles.suburbanarea, 'Value', 0);
set(handles.openarea, 'Value', 0);

% --- Executes on button press in suburbanarea.
function suburbanarea_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to suburbanarea (see GCBO)

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of suburbanarea


% --- Executes on button press in openarea.
function openarea_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to openarea (see GCBO)

67

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of openarea


% --- Executes on button press in medium.
function medium_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to medium (see GCBO)

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of medium

set(handles.medium, 'Value', 1);
set(handles.freq200, 'Value', 0);

% --- Executes on button press in freq200.
function freq200_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to freq200 (see GCBO)

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of freq200


% --- Executes on button press in freq400.
function freq400_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to freq400 (see GCBO)

68

% Hint: get(hObject,'Value') returns toggle state of freq400


% --- Executes on button press in calculate.
function calculate_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to calculate (see GCBO)

value = get(handles.urbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.medium, 'Value');
if value == 1
total = 69.55 + (26.16 * log10(data.freq))- (13.82 * log10( data.hb )) + (44.9 -
(6.55 * log10( data.hb ))) * log10(data.dist)...
- ((1.1 * log10(data.freq)-0.7)*(data.hm)-((1.56 * log10(data.freq)) - 0.8));
end

value = get(handles.urbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq200, 'Value');
if value == 1
- ((8.29*(log10(1.54*(data.hm)))^2) - 1.1);
end

value = get(handles.urbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq400, 'Value');
if value == 1

69
- ((3.2*(log10(11.75*(data.hm)))^2) - 4.97);
end

value = get(handles.suburbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.medium, 'Value');
if value ==1
total = 69.55 + (26.16 * log10(data.freq))- (13.82 * log10(data.hb)) + (44.9 - (6.55
* log10(data.hb)))* log10(data.dist) - (5.4 + 2 * (log10(data.freq/28))^2)...
end

value = get(handles.suburbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq200, 'Value');
if value == 1
- ((8.29*(log10(1.54*(data.hm)))^2) - 1.1);
end

value = get(handles.suburbanarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq400, 'Value');
if value == 1
- ((3.2*(log10(11.75*(data.hm)))^2) - 4.97);
end

value = get(handles.openarea, 'Value')& get(handles.medium, 'Value');
if value ==1
* log10(data.hb)))* log10(data.dist) - (40.94 + (4.78 * (log10(data.freq))^2) - (18.33
* log10(data.freq)))...
end

value = get(handles.openarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq200, 'Value');
if value ==1

70
- ((8.29*(log10(1.54*(data.hm)))^2) - 1.1);
end

value = get(handles.openarea, 'Value')& get(handles.freq400, 'Value');
if value ==1
- ((3.2*(log10(11.75*(data.hm)))^2) - 4.97);
end

set(handles.total, 'String', total);

% --- Executes on button press in reset.
function reset_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to reset (see GCBO)

initialize_gui(gcbf, handles);

function initialize_gui(fig_handle, handles)
data.freq = 0;
data.dist = 0;
data.hb = 0;
data.hm = 0;
setappdata(fig_handle, 'metricdata', data);

set(handles.freq, 'String', data.freq);

71
set(handles.dist, 'String', data.dist);
set(handles.hb, 'String', data.hb);
set(handles.hm, 'String', data.hm);
set(handles.total, 'String', 0);


% --- Executes on button press in pushbutton3.
function pushbutton3_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to pushbutton3 (see GCBO)

function total_CreateFcn(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to total (see GCBO)

usewhitebg = 1;
if usewhitebg
else
end

72

function total_Callback(hObject, eventdata, handles)
% hObject handle to total (see GCBO)

% Hints: get(hObject,'String') returns contents of total as text
% str2double(get(hObject,'String')) returns contents of total as a double

73
APPENDIX B COMPARISONS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MODEL

74
APPENDIX C GLOSSARY OF TERMS

75

76

77

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