Chapter-1

LASER
The word LASER is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". As the name suggests, in lasers, the light is amplified with the help of a process called "Stimulated emission" Thus, laser is based on the principle of stimulated emission. In other words, it is a device to produce a monochromatic beam, highly intense and coherent beam of light. The theoretical basis for the development of laser was provided great scientist Albert Einstein in 1917, when he predicted the possibility of stimulated emission of radiations.

1. STIMULATED ABSORPTION
When a photon of light having energy E2 E1 = h is incident on an atom in the ground state, the atom in the ground state E1 may absorb the photon and jump to higher energy state E2. This process is called stimulated absorption or induced absorption. This is called so because the incident photon has stimulated the atom to absorb the energy.

Figure 1. Stimulated absorption

2. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
If the atom in the excited state automatically decays to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy (E2 E1 = h), then this process is called spontaneous emission. Generally an atom/electron in excited state can stay for 10-9 10-8 seconds.

Figure 2. Spontaneous Emission Characteristics of spontaneous emission: a) The emitted photon of energy E2 E1 = h can move in any random direction. b) There will not be any phase relationship between the photons emitted from various atoms. Hence, the radiations coming out due to spontaneous emissions are incoherent.

3. STIMULATED EMISSION
If the atom is in the excited state E2 and a photon of energy exactly equal to E2 E1 = h is incident on it, then the incident photon interacts with the atom in the excited state and then it stimulates or induces the atom to come down to the ground state E1. A fresh photon is emitted in this process. Therefore, when an atom ejects a photon due to its interaction with a photon incident on it, the process is called stimulated emission (or induced emission).

Figure 3. Stimulated emission Characteristics of stimulated emission: a) For each incident photon, there are two outgoing photons moving in the same direction. b) As the emitted photon has exactly the same energy, phase and direction as the incident photon, we will achieve an amplified and unidirectional coherent beam.

Note: The laser is based on the principle of stimulated emission.

4. POPULATION INVERSION IN LASERS

Normally the population density of atoms/electrons is more in the ground state than the excited state. But if the process of stimulated emission dominates over the process of spontaneous emission, then it may be possible that N2 > N1. Where N1 is the number of atoms in the ground state and N2 is the number of atoms in the excited state. The process of achieving greater population density of atoms in the higher energy state as compared to lower energy state is called population inversion. The atoms from lower energy states are raised to excited states by external energy.

Figure 4. Population inversion

5. METASTABLE STATE
It is also the excited state but having life time of 10-5 to 10-3 seconds. Population inversion occurs only in between the metastable state and lower state. The two states in between the population inversion occurs and laser is achieved, the upper one is known as upper laser level (ULL) and lower is known as lower laser level (LLL). Note: Two levels lasers cannot be constructed. Can you explain why? Atleast three levels are required to produce laser.

6. TYPES OF LASERS
The lasers can be classified by various ways, as explained below: a) State of laser medium: According to the state of laser medium, we have solid state lasers like ruby laser, gas lasers like He-Ne laser and liquid laser like dye laser. b) Mechanism of pumping: According to it, we have optical pumping based lasers like ruby laser, electric discharge based lasers like He-Ne laser. Pumping can also be done through chemical reaction. 3

c) Nature of output: According to nature of output, we have pulsed lasers like ruby laser and continuous wave lasers like He-Ne laser. d) Spectral region (wavelength) of output: According to it, we have ultra violet, visible and infrared lasers. Note: Do you know what is pumping or how atoms/electrons are excited?

7. COMPONENTS OF A LASER
Three main components of laser device are: a) Active medium: b) Pumping source c) Optical resonator system

7.1 Active medium of laser When energy is given to laser medium (solid, liquid or gas), then only a small fraction of laser medium shows lasing action. This part of laser medium is called active medium or active centre. Thus, due to this reason, the laser medium is also called the heart of a laser. For example, in case of ruby laser, Al2O3 is doped with Cr2O3. The laser is due to doped chromium ions. Thus Cr3+ ions are active centres. In He-Ne laser, laser is produced due to Ne atoms, therefore, Ne atoms are active centres. 7.2 Pumping Source As we have discussed in the previously, that principle of laser is stimulated emission and for it to take place, population inversion has to be achieved and maintained. For this, there must be a source of external energy, which can continuously supply energy to energy to laser medium, so that population inversion can be achieved. Such a source of external energy is called pump or pumping source and the process of supplying external energy to laser medium so as to achieve the population inversion is called pumping. Types of pumping source Depending upon the type of laser, the most commonly used pumping methods are listed below: a) Optical pumping: In this, the population inversion is achieved by means of light energy delivered from appropriate pumping source such as gaseous discharge or flash tubes. For example, in ruby laser, xenon flash tube is used. b) Electric discharge: pumping: this type of pumping accomplished by means of intense electrical discharge in the medium and is particularly suited to gas media like He-Ne laser and CO2 laser. The electric discharge coverts the gas into a 4

plasma where active centers collide inelastically with free electrons and population inversion is achieved. c) Chemical pumping: It raises active centers into the higher levels by means of suitable exothermal chemical reactions in the active medium. d) Heat pumping: In this type of pumping, the active material is first brought to a high temperature then rapidly cooled down.

7.3 Optical Resonator System An optical resonator is a system or set up, which is used to obtain amplification of stimulated photons by oscillating them back and forth between system of two mirrors. Thus, it consists of two plane or concave mirrors. One of the mirrors is partially reflecting (having reflectivity less than 100%) and other is totally reflecting (having reflectivity 100%). Laser output is received from partially reflecting mirror. The space between the two mirrors is called cavity.

Figure 5. working of optical resonator system

8. TYPES OF LASERS
The lasers can be classified by various ways, as explained below:

a) State of laser medium: According to state of laser medium, we have solid state lasers like ruby laser, gas lasers like helium-neon laser. b) Mechanism of pumping: According to pumping mechanism, we have flash light or optical pumping based lasers like ruby laser, electric discharge based laser like He-Ne laser. c) Nature of output: According to nature of output, we have pulsed lasers like ruby laser and continuous wave lasers like he-Ne laser. d) Wavelength of output: According to wavelength of lasers, we have ultra violet, visible and infrared lasers.

9. PROPERTIES OF LASER
A laser beam has following important characteristics:

Divergence or directionality: laser is highly directional beam. monochromaticity: laser is monochromatic that is it has single wavelength brightness coherence:

9.1 Laser Coherence When a laser beam is emitted from a source, there may be phase difference between the beams at different points that is it may be possible that there may be some time gap between the two atoms to come from upper energy level to lower energy level. The term coherence refers to the degree of co-relation between the phases. In other words, two or more light waves are said to be coherent if they bear a constant phase relation among themselves. Coherence can be classified into two ways: a) Temporal coherence: consider a light wave traveling along +X axis. Consider two different points A and B along the same wave train that is along +X axis.

Figure 6. Temporal coherence If (A) is phase of point A at any time and (B) is phase of point B at any time, then

phase difference between these point is given by = (A) - (B) If is independent of time then points A and B are said to exhibit temporal coherence or longitudinal coherence In other words, a beam of laser is said to exhibit temporal coherence if the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on a plane parallel to the direction of the propagation of beam is independent of time. b) Spatial coherence: consider a light wave traveling along +X axis. Draw a line perpendicular to the direction of the beam. Consider two different points C and D on this line. If (C) is phase of point C at any time and (D) is phase of point D at any time, then phase difference between these point is given by = (C) - (D)

Figure 7. Spatial Coherence

If is independent of time then points C and D are said to exhibit spatial coherence or transverse coherence or lateral coherence. 7

In other words, a beam of laser is said to exhibit spatial coherence if the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of beam is independent of time.

10. THREE LEVEL LASER SYSTEM

In the three level laser system, the atoms are pumped from the ground state E1 to higher state E3 with the help of pumping source. The E3 is called pumping state. The life time of atoms is least in the energy level E3. It means E3 is unstable stable state and here atoms stay for 10-9 (ten power -9) to 10-8 seconds. Atoms make transition from level E3 to E2. Energy level E2 is the metastable state (having life time 10-5 to 10-3 seconds). Thus, population of atoms become more in the energy state E2 as compared to E1.

Figure 8 Three level laser system The stimulated emission occurs between E2 and E1 producing laser. E2 is known as upper laser level (ULL) and E1 is known as lower laser level (E1). The example of three level laser is ruby laser. 10.1 Drawback of three level laser system In the three level laser system, the terminal level is ground level and hence more than half of the atoms are to be transferred to level E2. This requires more pumping power. If the difference of atoms in two levels is small, the power required is also small. But the presence of large number of atoms in level E2 give rise to large number of spontaneous 8

radiationless transitions. This energy is usually carried by lattice photons due to which the efficiency of three level laser system is less.

11. FOUR LEVEL LASER SYSTEM

In the four level laser system, the atoms from ground state E1 are raised to excited state E4 with the help of pumping. From the E4, the atoms decay to energy state E3 by spontaneous emission. The transition rate of atoms from E4 to E3 is much faster as compared to transition rate of atoms from E3 to E2. This is due to the reason that E4 is an excited state with life time of the atoms of the order of 10-8 seconds.

Figure 9. Four level laser system E3 is the metastable state. Thus the number of atoms in E3 exceeds the number of atoms in E2. The population inversion is achieved between E3 and E2. The laser action takes place between E3 and E2 by stimulated emission. The atoms from energy state E2 get deexcited to E1. The atoms from E1 are again pumped to E2. Example: Helium-Neon laser is four level laser system. 11.1 Advantage of four level laser: The rate of relaxation of the atoms from E2 to E1 should be faster than the rate of arrival of atoms from E4 or E2. This is required for better efficiency of laser system. Thus, four level laser is better than three level laser.

12. RUBY LASER

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The first laser to be operated successfully was ruby laser. First demonstration of laser action using ruby crystal was given by T.H. Maiman in 1960. It is a solid state laser.

12.1 Construction

Figure 10a. Construction of Ruby laser Ruby is a crystal of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in which some of the aluminium ions (Al3+) are replaced by chromium ions (Cr3+). This is done by doping small amounts of chromium oxide (Cr2O3) in the melt of purified Al2O3. These chromium ions give the crystal a pink or red color depending upon the concentration of chromium ions. Laser rods are prepared from a single crystal of pink ruby which contains 0.05% (by weight) chromium. Al2O3 does not participate in the laser action. It only acts as the host. The ruby crystal is in the form of cylinder. Length of ruby crystal is usually 2 cm to 30 cm and diameter 0.5 cm to 2 cm. As very high temperature is produced during the operation of the laser, the rod is surrounded by liquid nitrogen to cool the apparatus. Active medium or active center: Chromium ions act as active centers in ruby crystal. So it is the chromium ions that produce the laser. Pumping source: A helical flash lamp filled with xenon is used as a pumping source. The ruby crystal is placed inside a xenon flash lamp. Thus, optical pumping is used to achieve population inversion in ruby laser.

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Optical resonator system: The ends of ruby crystal are polished, grounded and made flat. The one of the ends is completely silvered while the other one is partially silvered to get the output. Thus the two polished ends act as optical resonator system. 12.2 Working Ruby is a three level laser system. Suppose there are three levels E1, E2 and (E3 & E4). E1 is the ground level, E2 is the metastable level, E3 and E4 are the bands. E3 & E4 are considered as only one level because they are very closed to each other Pumping: The ruby crystal is placed inside a xenon flash lamp and the flash lamp is connected to a capacitor which discharges a few thousand joules of energy in a few milliseconds. A part of this energy is absorbed by chromium ions in the ground state. Thus optical pumping raises the chromium ions to energy levels inside the bands E3 and E4. This process is called stimulated absorption. The transition to bands E3 and E4 are caused by absorption of radiations corresponding to wavelengths approximately 6600 angstroms and 4000 angstroms respectively. The levels inside the bands E3 and E4 are also known as pumping levels.

Figure 10b: Energy level diagram of Ruby laser Achievement of population inversion: Cr3+ ions in the excited state loose a part of their energy during interaction with crystal lattice and decay to the metastable state E2. Thus, the transition from excited states to metastable state is non-radiative transition or in other words there is no emission of photons. As E2 is a metastable state, so chromium ions will stay there for longer time. Hence, the number of chromium ions goes on increasing in E2 state, while due to pumping , the number in the ground state E1 goes on decreasing. As a result, the number of chromium ions become more in excited state(metastable state) as compared to ground state E1. Hence, the population inversion is achieved between states E2 and E1. Achievement of laser: Few of the chromium ions will come back from E2 to E1 by the process of spontaneous emission by emitting photons. The wavelength of a photon is 11

6943 . This photon travels through the ruby rod and if it is moving in a direction parallel to the axis of the crystal, then it is reflected to and fro by the silvered ends of the ruby rod until it stimulates the other excited ions and cause it to emit a fresh photon in phase with the stimulating photon. Thus, the reflections will result in stimulated emission and it will result in the amplification of the stimulated emitting photons. This stimulated emission is the laser transition. The two stimulated emitted photons will knock out more photons by stimulating the chromium ions and their total number will be four and so on. This process is repeated again and again, thus photons multiply. When the photon beam become sufficiently intense, then a very powerful and narrow beam of red light of wavelength 6943 emerges through the partially silvered end of the ruby crystal. In the energy level diagram, E2 is the upper laser level and E1 is the lower laser level because laser beam is achieved in between these levels. Thus, the ruby laser fits into the definition of three level laser system. Output: The output wavelength of ruby laser is 6943 and output power is 10 raise to power 4 to 10 raise to power 6 watts and it is in the form of pulses. 12.3 Spiking in Ruby laser: As we have discussed in working of ruby laser that the terminus of laser action is the ground state E1 in ruby laser. Therefore it is difficult to maintain the population inversion. This will result in the depletion of upper laser level E2 population (due to stimulated emission) more rapidly than it can be restored by the flash light that is optical pumping source. The laser emission is made up of spikes of high intensity emissions. This phenomenon is called spiking of the laser. After the depletion of E2 state, the laser action ceases for a few microseconds. Since the flash lamp is still active, it again pumps the ground state chromium ions to upper level and again laser action begins. A series of such pulses is produced until the intensity of the flash light has fallen to such a level that it can no linger rebuild the necessary population inversion. So the output laser will be in the form of pulse in ruby laser or in other words, it will not be continuous. 12.4 Drawbacks of ruby laser 1. As the terminus of laser action is the ground state, it is difficult to maintain the population inversion. This fact results in ruby lasers low efficiency. 2. The ruby laser requires high power pumping source. 3. The laser output is not continuous but occurs in the form of pulses of microsecond duration. 4. The defects due to crystalline imperfection are also present in ruby laser. 12.5 Uses of ruby laser

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1. Ruby laser has very high output power of the order of 104 106 watts. It has wavelength of 6943 Angstroms. 2. Ruby lasers are used for holography, industrial cutting and welding.

13. Nd: YAG LASER

Nd: YAG is a solid state laser four level laser. Nd stands for neodymium and YAG for Yttrium aluminium garnet (Y3Al5O12). It is developed by J.E. Geusic, H.M. Marcos and L.G. Van Vitert in 1964. The rod of Y3Al5O12 is doped 1% with triply ionized neodymium. Nd3+ ions will replace the Y3+ ions in the crystal. Maximum length of the rod is about 10 cm and diameter is 6-9 cm. 13.1 Construction: Active medium: Nd3+ ions act as active medium or active centers. YAG is just the host. Pumping source: The pumping of Nd3+ ions to upper levels is done by krypton arc lamp. Xenon lamp can also be used as pumping source. Thus, the optical pumping is used to achieve population inversion. Optical resonator system: The ends of the Nd:YAG rod are polished and silvered so as to act as the optical resonator system. Nd:YAG is a four level laser system. The pumping of neodynium (Nd3+) ions to upper state (E4) is done using krypton arc lamp. Thus optical pumping is used in this laser. The wavelength of light of wavelength 7200 to 8000 excites the ground state (E1) Nd3+ ions to E4 states. From E4 states, they make a non-radiative transition and come to E3 state. E3 is the metastable state so population inversion is achieved between the levels E3 and E2. Note: Try to make construction diagram yourself. It is same as ruby laser. 13.2 Working After this, the process of stimulated emission will occur. (I have already explained the process of stimulated emission in detail in my previous articles).Thus, the laser emission will occur in between the levels E3 and E2 with the process of stimulated emission. So E3 is the upper laser level and E2 is the lower laser level. Then Nd3+ ions come back to the ground state E1. Laser emission will have wavelength of 10600 so occur in the infrared range of spectrum. Note: Diagram is same as ruby laser. 13.3 Nd YAG laser has following applications or uses or advantages:

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1. They produce continuous laser at room temperature 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. They can be used as portable systems since the rods are small. they have surgical applications. they are used material processing such as drilling, spot welding and marking. They are used as pumping tunable visible light lasers. They have applications in military such as including range finders and target designators. 7. Research applications such as Raman spectroscopy, remote sensing, mass spectrometry.

14. HELIUM- NEON LASER

The helium-neon laser was the first gas laser to be operated successfully. It was fabricated by Ali Javan and his co-workers in Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA in 1961. Helium neon laser used a mixture of 10:1 for its active medium. It consists of a long and narrow discharge tube of diameter of about 1 cm and about 80 cm long. The mixture is at a pressure of about 1 mm of Hg, the partial pressure of helium gas being 5 to 10 times that of neon.

14.1 Construction

Figure 11. Construction He-Ne laser

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Active medium: The gas mixture of He and Ne forms the active medium. Ne act as active center. Pumping Source: Electric discharge method is used for pumping and achieving population inversion. Optical resonator system: A set of mirrors form the optical resonator system.

14.2 Working of Helium Neon Laser In the earlier articles, I have explained the construction of helium neon laser. Today let us discuss the working of helium neon laser: Pumping of He atoms: When electric discharge is passed through the gas mixture of He and Ne, electrons are accelerated down the discharge tube in which mixture of He-Ne is placed. These accelerated electrons collide with helium atoms and excite them to higher energy levels (let us say F2 and F3). These levels happen to be Metastable and thus the He atoms spend a sufficient amount of time there before getting de-excited.

Figure 12. Working He-Ne laser Achievement of population inversion of Neon atoms: Some of the excited states of Ne atoms correspond approximately to the same energy of the excited levels F2 and F3 of He. Thus, when He atoms in levels F2 and F3 collide with the Ne atoms in the ground state E1, then energy exchange takes place and this results in the excitation of Ne atoms to the levels E4 and E6 and de-excitation of the He atoms to the ground level F1. As the helium atoms have longer life time in excited states F2 and F3, thus this process of energy transfer has high probability.

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Therefore, the electric discharge through the gas mixture continuously populates the Ne excited levels E4 and E6. This helps to create a state of population inversion between the levels E4 (or E6) and lower energy levels E5 and E3. Therefore the purpose of He atoms is to help in achieving a population inversion in the Ne atoms. Achievement of laser: The following three transitions will occur: E6 to E5 with laser wavelength of 3.39 m or 33900 Angstroms. E6 to E3 with laser wavelength of 6328 Angstroms. E4 to E3 with laser wavelength of 1.15 m or 11500 Angstroms. The wavelengths of 3.39 m and 1.15 m corresponds to infrared region and wavelength 6328 Angstroms corresponds to red light wavelength (visible region). Mirrors of the optical resonators are so designed to show low reflectivity for wavelengths 3.39 m and 1.15 m. Thus photons of these wavelengths will be eliminated. Therefore, the photons of wavelengths 6328 Angstroms will move back and forth in optical resonator system and thus laser of wavelength 6328 Angstroms emerges through the partially reflected mirror. The excited Ne atoms drop down from levels E3 to E2 through spontaneous emission and this process will emit a photon of wavelength 0.6 m. As the level E2 is also Metastable, there is a probability of excitation of Ne atoms from E2 to E3 leading to quenching of the population inversion. To eliminate quenching, the narrow discharge tube is used because Ne atoms de-excited to level e1 from E2 through collisions with the walls of the tube. Output: The helium neon laser output is continuous and it lies between 1mW and 50 mW for input of about 5-10 W. Disadvantage: As internal mirrors are used in He-Ne laser to act as optical resonators, but these mirrors are usually eroded by the gas discharge and have to be replaced. This problem is eliminated by placing two windows at the ends of the discharge tube at the Brewster angle (Figure 13). For such windows, the light which is polarised in the plane of figure passes through without suffering any reflection loss while light with perpendicular polarisation suffers reflection. Due to use of these windows, the output laser beam is polarised.

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Figure 13 Applications: He-Ne lasers are used in research, spectroscopy, holography, communications and weaponry.

15. WHY HELIUM-NEON LASER IS BETTER THAN RUBY LASER OR WHY FOUR LEVEL LASER IS BETTER THAN THREE LEVEL LASER
Helium neon laser is better than ruby laser or most of the four level lasers are better than three level lasers due to the following reasons: The laser output is continuous in the case of helium-neon laser. But it is in the form of pulse in the ruby laser. 2. Ruby laser requires high power pumping source, whereas Helium-neon laser requires low power pumping source like electric discharge. 3. Efficiency of helium-neon laser is more than ruby laser. 4. The defects due to crystalline imperfections are also present in the ruby laser. But it is not so in the helium-neon laser.
1.

16. CARBONDIOXIDE LASER

Carbondioxide is a four level molecular laser. The CO2 molecules consist of two oxygen atoms and a carbon atom between them. These molecules undergo three different types of vibrational oscillations. These three vibrational configurations are called vibrational modes. The three vibrational modes are:

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i) Symmetric stretching mode: In this mode, the oxygen atoms oscillate along the axis of the molecule simultaneously departing or approaching the carbon atom which is stationary. ii) Asymmetric stretching mode: In this mode, all the three atoms oscillate but oxygen atoms move in one direction and carbon atom moves in the opposite direction. iii) Bending mode: In bending mode, atoms move perpendicular to the molecular axis. As a result of vibrational modes, CO2 molecule is characterized not only by electronic levels but also by vibrational and rotational levels. Each electronic level is split into various vibrational sublevels and each vibrational level is further splitted into rotational sublevels. The energy difference between various electronic levels corresponds to visible and ultraviolet region. The energy difference between various vibrational levels corresponds to the infrared region while the energy difference between various rotational levels corresponds to far infrared region of the spectrum. 16.1 Construction Carbon dioxide laser consists of a discharge tube having a diameter of 2.5cm and a length of about 5m. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases in the ratio of 1:2:3 with water vapors. Pressures maintained are about P (for He)= 7 Torr, P (for N2)= 1.2 Torr and P (for CO2 = 0.33 Torr). Active medium and active centers= The active medium is the CO2, N2 and He in the ratio of 1:2:3. The active centers are the carbon dioxide molecules because laser will be achieved due to these molecules. Pumping source= Electric discharge method is used for pumping and achieving population inversion. In this method, electrons will collide with CO2 molecules and pump them to excited states. The purpose of N2 is to help in excitation of CO2 molecules by colliding with CO2 molecules and transferring the energy to them. So N2 molecules increases the pumping efficiency. Optical resonator system= All the gas mixtures is enclosed between a set of mirrors which forms the optical resonator system. One of mirrors is completely reflecting and the other is partially reflecting. Note: Try to make the construction diagram. It is same as He-Ne laser, just replace HeNe with CO2, N2 and He in the ratio of 1:2:3. 16.2 Working In the earlier articles, I have explained the modes and construction of carbon dioxide laser. Now I will explain the working of the carbon dioxide laser.

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Pumping of nitrogen molecules: As electric discharge is used as pumping source and when electric discharge is passed through the mixture of CO2, N2 and He, electrons are accelerated down the tube. These accelerated electrons collide with the N2 molecules and excite them to higher vibrational energy levels. Let us say the N2 excited from level F1 to F2. The level F2 happens to be Metastable and thus the N2 molecules excited to F2 spend a sufficient amount of time before getting de-excited.

Figure- Energy level diagram of carbon dioxide laser Achievement of population inversion of CO2 molecules: The excited level (Metastable level) of CO2 molecules corresponds approximately to the same energy as the energy of the excited level F2 of nitrogen. Thus when N2 molecules in level F2 collide with the CO2 in the ground state E1, an energy exchange takes place and this result in the excitation of CO2 molecules to level E5 and de-excitation of N2 to the ground level F1. Thus population inversion is achieved between vibrational levels E5 and E4 or E5 and E3. Thus E5 is the upper laser level. E3 and E4 are lower laser levels. Achievement of laser: The following transitions will occur: E5 to E4 with laser wavelength of 10.6 m. E5 to E3 with laser wavelength of 9.6 m. Thus, these transitions produce lasers of wavelength 10.6 m and 9.6 m which lie in the far infra-red region. The CO2 molecules in the states E4 and E3 deexcite to state E2 through inelastic collision with unexcited CO2 molecules. This process is very fast so there will be accumulation of

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CO2 in this level and they can break the population inversion in upper levels because there is probability of excitation of molecules from E2 to E3 and/ or E4. To stop the accumulation of CO2 molecules in E2 special additives like He and water vapors are added into the gas mixture. CO2 molecules return to the ground state E1 through collisions with the He to which it transfers the excitation energy. Other function of He is to conduct the heat away to the walls keeping CO2 cold, this is because helium has high thermal conductivity. 16.3 Why helium is doped in carbon dioxide laser The CO2 molecules in the states E4 and E3 deexcite to state E2 through inelastic collision with unexcited CO2 molecules. This process is very fast so there will be accumulation of CO2 in this level and they can break the population inversion in upper levels because there is probability of excitation of molecules from E2 to E3 and/ or E4. To stop the accumulation of CO2 molecules in E2 special additives like He and water vapors are added into the gas mixture. CO2 molecules return to the ground state E1 through collisions with the He to which it transfers the excitation energy. Other function of He is to conduct the heat away to the walls keeping CO2 cold, this is because helium has high thermal conductivity. 16.4 Wavelength and output of carbon dioxide laser: E5 to E4 with laser wavelength of 10.6 m. E5 to E3 with laser wavelength of 9.6 m. Thus, these transitions produce lasers of wavelength 10.6 m and 9.6 m which lie in the far infra-red region. Output of 10KW is achieved with transition of 10.6 m and it is in continuous wave mode. Efficiency of CO2 laser is approximately 30%. The CO2 laser is more efficient than other gas lasers because in CO2 laser, the levels taking part in laser transitions are the vibrational rotational levels of the lowest electronic level and as these levels are very close to the ground level, thus a large part of the input energy is converted into output laser energy. Thus CO2 laser is more efficient than other gas laser. 16.5 Applications of CO2 laser: CO2 laser have wide applications in industry for welding, cutting and for hole drilling. High energy CO2 lasers are used to destroy cancer tissues.

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17. SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

Before discussing the construction and working of semiconductor laser, let us discuss the review of semiconductors as it will be necessary for you to write the basics of semiconductors in case of exams: A semiconductor is a material whose conductivity lies between those of conductor and insulator. Semiconductors are of two types: a) Intrinsic semiconductors or pure semiconductors b) Extrinsic semiconductors or doped semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified into two types depending upon the type of majority carriers: i) n-type semiconductors where electrons are majority carriers. ii) p- type semiconductors where holes are majority carriers. When a p-type semiconductor and a n- type semiconductor is joined by special techniques, there will be flow of electrons from n side to p side and flow of holes from p side to n side. After some time, an electric field will be created which will oppose this flow and flow stops. Thus, there will be formation of depletion region. This region is called so because it is depleted from charge carriers. 17.1 Construction of a semiconductor laser

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Figure 14 Example of semiconductor laser: One of the examples of semiconductor lasers is gallium arsenide (GaAs). It is heavily doped semiconductor. Its n-region is formed by heavily doping with tellurium in a concentration of 3 x 1018 to 5 x 1018 atoms/cm3 while its p-region is formed by doping with zinc in concentration around 1019 atoms/cm3. Active medium: The active medium in GaAs is GaAS. But it is also commonly said that depletion region is the active medium in semiconductor laser. The thickness of the depletion layer is usually very small (0.1 m). Pumping Source: Forward biasing is used as pumping source. The p-n junction is made forward biased that is p side is connected to positive terminal of the battery and n side to negative. Under the influence of forward biased electric field, conduction electrons will be injected from n side into junction area, while holes will enter will enter the junction from the p side. Thus, there will again be recombination of holes and electrons in depletion region and thus depletion region becomes thinner. Optical resonator system: The two faces of semiconductor which are perpendicular to junction plane make a resonant cavity. The top and bottom faces of diode, which are parallel to junction plane are metallised so as to make external connections. The front and back faces are roughned to suppress the oscillations in unwanted direction. 17.2 Working of semiconductor laser Achievement of population inversion: When p-n junction diode is forward biased, then there will be injection of electrons into the conduction band along n-side and production of more holes in valence band along p-side of the junction. Thus, there will be more number of electrons in conduction band comparable to valence band, so population inversion is achieved. Therefore, when the electrons and holes are injected into the junction region from opposite sides with forward biasing, then population inversion is achieved between levels near the bottom of the conduction band and empty levels near the top of the valence band. Achievement of laser: When electrons recombine with the holes in junction region, then there will be release of energy in the form of photons. This release of energy in the form of photons happen only in special types of semiconductors like GaliumArsenide (GaAs). Otherwise in semiconductors like silicon and germanium, whenever holes and electrons recombine, energy is released in the form of heat, thus Si and Ge can not be used for the production of laser.

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Figure 15. No-biasing

Figure 16. Forward biasing The spontaneously emitted photon during recombination in the junction region of GaAs will trigger laser action near the junction diode. The photons emitted have a wavelength from 8200 to 9000 in the infrared region. Output of semiconductor laser: The output powers of about 10mW are achieved in continuous wave operation and in pulsed opration the peak power runs to 100W. It has output wavelength from 8200 to 9000 angstroms. So the wavelength of semiconductor laser lies in the infrared region.

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Advantages/Applications: Semiconductor lasers are compact and have efficiency of about 50-60%. They can be used as sources for light wave communication systems. They expected to find applications in optical radar equipment and space communications. Disadvantages. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of the semiconductor laser action due to small size of laser region that is junction region. As in semiconductor, the laser emission occurs between two bands of energies instead of two well defined energy levels (like in He-Ne laser), thus the laser emission is not as monochromatic as that from a gas laser.

18. DYE LASER

Dye lasers use liquid organic dyes. These organic dyes are dissolved in solvents like water, ethyl alcohol, methanol. The most widely used dye is rhodamine-6G, also known as Xanthene dye. These lasers are discovered by Sorokin and his colleagues. Dye lasers operate without the intervening metastable state. 18.1 Construction

Figure 17 The dye laser consisted of a 1cm long quartz glass tube filled with solutions of organic dyes such as rhodamine6G. Active Medium. Rhodamine-6G dissolved in a suitable liquid like water, ethyl alcohol or methanol is used as the active medium. The dye solution used in the dye lasers typically has a concentration in the range of 10-2 to 10-4 M. Rhodamine-6G emits in yellow-red region. Pumping source: Energy to excite the dye is supplied by a strong light source that may be a flash lamp or another laser like N2 laser or argon-ion laser. Thus, optical pumping is used to excite the dye and to achieve population inversion. Optical resonator System. The most useful feature of dye lasers is their tunability. The tunability means that the lasing wavelength for a dye may be varied over a wide range. Due to this reason, dye lasers are also called tunable lasers. Tuning over 500 angstrom has been obtained.

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One of the teachniques to obtain tuning is to replace one of the mirrors of the resonant cavity with a diffraction grating. Thus a dye cell is usually placed inside a cavity consisting of a partially reflective mirror on the front and a diffraction grating on the rear. A source light is focused onto the dye to excite it and stimulate laser action. By rotating the diffraction grating , wavelength of laser output can be altered. Thus tuning is obtained. Therefore, this combination of partially reflective mirror and diffraction grating will act as optical resonator system. For radiation to be reflected back along the laser cavity axis, the angle that the normal to the diffraction grating makes with the cavity must satisfy the condition. 2dsin =n (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) Where d is grating spacing is wavelength of radiation. By rotating the grating, angle will be changed and thus the output wavelength will be changed that is tuning of output wavelength will be achieved. 18.2 Working of dye laser The molecules have singlet as well as triplet states. Each electronic state comprises of several vibrational states and each vibrational state comprises of several rotational levels. Due to absorption of light from pumping source, dye molecules get excited from the ground state E1 to upper vibrational rotational levels of excited state E2 which is upper laser level. Most of the dye molecules decay to the lowest vibrational level L of E2 in a time of about 10-11 seconds. This process is due to thermal redistribution in level E2, thus, it is a non-radiative process. Population inversion is achieved at level L. From level L of E2, the dye molecules decay to any higher lying vibrational sublevel of E1. When this process occurs, then the radiation is emitted. This is termed as fluorescence. The life time of level L for dye molecules is about 10-9 seconds. As most of the molecules decay from level E2 by fluorescence, thus laser action occurs at the fluorescence wavelength. Thus laser output is achieved in between states E2 and E1. Molecules from the state E2 can also make a non-radiative transition to the triplet level T1. This transition is known as intersystem crossing. This process of intersystem crossing can limit the laser action because it will lead to reduction of the population of E2 which is upper laser level and thus there will be accumulation of molecules in state T1. As the transition T1 to T2 is allowed, and the wavelength corresponding to absorption spectrum of T1 to T2 usually overlaps the emission spectrum of E2 to E1. Thus, intersystem crossing will lead to reduction of number of molecules in upper laser level

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E2 and it will reduce the laser gain or laser output. Sometimes, it may even prevent laser oscillation. Thus for good laser action, the number of molecules in state E2 should reach the threshold level before a significant number of molecules have dropped to level T1. Therefore, it requires very intense and rapid pumping to maintain population inversion. Addition of oxygen to solution can also reduce the life time T1. Thus oxygen acts as a triplet quenching additive. I have already discussed the construction and working of dye laser. Let us discuss the output and applications of dye lasers. Output: The dye laser provides 3nsec pulses in the spectral range of 360 nm to 950 nm. The typical peak powers are on the order of about 10kW to 20kW. Dye lasers can be operated in both pulsed and continue wave (CW) modes. If a flash lamp is used to pump the dye laser, the output will be pulsed one whereas if the laser is pumped by a continuous wave laser like argon-ion laser, the dye laser will also be continuous. CW dye lasers produce emission with linewidth in the range of 20 to 40 GHz. Applications: Organic dye lasers are used in spectroscopy, holography and in biomedical applications. A recent application of dye laser is its use in isotope separation.

19. APPLICATIONS OF LASERS

Lasers have applications in almost every field like medicine, industry, communication and science and technology. These applications are due to the directional, coherent and monochromatic properties of lasers. a) Holography: Holography is a technique to record the complete picture of an object, that is it will produce the three dimensional picture. The process of holography will be discussed in detail later on. b) Measurement of long distance: The beam spreading in the laser light is very small, laser can travel along distances, without appreciable spreading. The time taken by laser pulse to travel from laser source to a given target and back is measured. As the velocity of light is known, the distance of the target can be calculated using the relation 2d = c x t where d is the distance of the target and c is the velocity of light. c) Applications in scientific research: Due to the coherent nature of laser light, many new optical phenomenon have been observed using laser. Using laser light we investigate the basic laws of interaction of atoms and molecules with electromagnetic waves. d) Application in communication: In the fibre communication system, laser beam is used. The rate at which information is transmitted is proportional to the band width of the information carrier signal. The bandwidth is proportional to the frequency of the carrier. Since the frequency range of laser signal is quite high compared to the microwaves, large bandwidth can be obtained using optical region as compared to the microwave region.

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e) Applications in Industry: Due to the high intensity of laser beam, laser can be used in welding, cutting and in producing very high temperatures. The other advantage of laser is that the beam can be focused onto a fine spot. The small spot size implies that high energy densities are possible. Lasers are also found suitable for machining and drilling holes. f) Lasers in Isotope separation: The light emerging from a laser is extremely monochromatic. When laser light falls on a mixture of two isotopes, the laser light excites the atoms of only one of the isotopes thus separating it from the other isotope. In addition to the high monochromaticity, the high intensity of the laser is also responsible for its application for isotope separation because with low intensity beams the separation rate would be too low for practical use. g) Applications in Medicine: i) Laser Surgery: The focused laser beam is capable of bloodless surgery, since the beam not only cuts but also welds blood vessels being cut. Laser surgery is painless because operations are very fast and there is not enough time for the patient to respond to the incision and sense pain. ii) Lasers in opthamology: Lasers are used for several years to treat the detachment of retina. The beam is focused on a certain point of the retina after it has passed through the lens of the eye and vitreous chamber without being absorbed in them. The green beam of laser is strongly absorbed by the red blood cells of the retina and the consequent thermal effects leads to re-attachment of the retina. The operation is carried out by a 0.01 sec pulse and being very short, is virtually painless. Other illnesses treated by the focused laser beam are cataract, tumors and glaucoma. iii) Laser Therapy: He-Ne laser has produced curing effect on trophic ulcers, poorly healing wounds, and bone fractures. Laser can also be guided through optical fiber into blood vessels to remove the clothings, in case of heart patients, through heating. It has also found application in treating the decaying teeth. Laser can replace dental drills.

20. HOLOGRAPHY
The word holography originates from the Greek words ``holos'' (complete) and ``graphos'' (writing). Thus, it is the technique to record the complete picture of an object. The technique was proposed by Gabor in 1947. An ordinary photograph records the two dimensional image of the picture because it records only the amplitude or intensity distribution. But in holography technique, both, the intensity as well as phase of the light wave is recorded. In holography, the light waves reflected from an object is recorded. These light waves consist of intensity and phase and the record is called a hologram. The hologram has no resemblance to the original object but it contains all the information about the object in a optical code. The formation of hologram is done by a process called recording process. The formation of three- dimensional image from hologram is done with a process called reconstruction process. Thus holography consists of two processes : I Recording of hologram

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II Reconstruction of image 1. Recording of hologram. The recording of hologram is based on the phenomenon of interference. It requires a laser source, a plane mirror or beam splitter, an object and a photographic plate. A laser beam from the laser source is incident on a plane mirror or beam splitter. As the name suggests, the function of the beam splitter is to split the laser beam. One part of splitted beam, after reflection from the beam splitter, strikes on the photographic plate. This beam is called reference beam. While other part of splitted beam (transmitted from beam splitter) strikes on the photographic plate after suffering reflection from the various points of object. This beam is called object beam.

Figure 18. Recording process The object beam reflected from the object interferes with the reference beam when both the beams reach the photographic plate. The superposition of these two beams produces an interference pattern (in the form of dark and bright fringes) and this pattern is recorded on the photographic plate. The photographic plate with recorded interference pattern is called hologram. Photographic plate is also known as Gabor zone plate in honour of Denis Gabor who developed the phenomenon of holography. Each and every part of the hologram receives light from various points of the object. Thus, even if hologram is broken into parts, each part is capable of reconstructing the whole object. 2. Reconstruction of image.. In the reconstruction process, the hologram is illuminated by laser beam and this beam is called reconstruction beam. This beam is identical to reference beam used in construction of hologram.

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The hologram acts a diffraction grating. This reconstruction beam will undergo phenomenon of diffraction during passage through the hologram. The reconstruction beam after passing through the hologram produces a real as well as virtual image of the object.

Figure 19. Reconstruction process One of the diffracted beams emerging from the hologram appears to diverge from an apparent object when project back. Thus, virtual image is formed behind the hologram at the original site of the object and real image in front of the hologram. Thus an observer sees light waves diverging from the virtual image and the image is identical to the object. If the observer moves round the virtual image then other sides of the object which were not noticed earlier would be observed. Therefore, the virtual image exhibits all the true three dimensional characteristics. The real image can be recorded on a photographic plate.

21. DIFFERENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

BETWEEN

HOLOGRAPHY

AND

1. In photography, only intensity is recorded so photography produces two dimensional picture of the object whereas in holography, both intensity as well as phase of light wave is recorded, thus holography gives three dimensional picture of the object. 2. Negative is prepared first in photography whereas in holography no negative is required. The hologram is negative and image it gives is positive. 3. If the hologram is broken into parts, each part is capable of reconstructing the entire object. But in photography the destruction of even very small portion of negative or photography results in a irrepareable loss of information. 4. Holography has high information capacity as compared to photography.

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22. Q-SWITCHING
Q-switching is a technique used to produce a high output pulse. It is accomplished by using a device to prevent the reflection of photons back and forth in the active medium. This produces a higher population inversion in the metastable state. Then suddenly the optical cavity is opened to permit a large fraction of stored energy to be emitted in the form of very intense pulse of laser radiation. Q-switched lasers produce pulses of 10 to 250 nanoseconds. Q-switching is also known as Q-spoiling. As the quality factor Q of a laser cavity shows the ability of the cavity to store energy, thus, high Q means that high energy can be stored in the cavity and a low Q means that the cavity will rapidly dissipate its energy. As the technique of Q-switching involves switching the optical cavity quality factor Q from a low to a high value, therefore, it is known as Q-switching. Techniques of the Q-Switching : There are four different techniques of Q-switching known as: a) Mechanical Shutters b) The rotating reflector method c) Electro-optical shutters d) Passive shutter Let us discuss them one by one: a) Mechanical Shutters. In this case, a shutter is introduced in front of one of the mirrors in laser cavity. If the active medium is continuously pumped keeping the shutter closed, then the population inversion in the cavity goes on increasing and reaches a high value. Now, if the shutter is opened suddenly, the population inversion would correspond to a value much above the threshold and the energy stored in the cavity will be released in the form of a short pulse of light with a high value of intensity. If the shutter is opened in a time much shorter than the time required for the building of laser oscillation, the output would consist of a giant pulse of light. If the shutter opening is slow, the output would be a series of pulses having smaller peak power. Last time I have discussed the basics of Q-switching and one of its techniques known as mechanical shutters. Toady I will discuss two more following techniques of Q-switching: b) The rotating reflector method. In this method of Q- switching, one of the end mirrors of the cavity is replaced with a total reflection prism which spins rapidly around its axis set at right angle to the resonator axis. As the prism revolves, it faces the cavity with its reflecting side and makes the laser cavity quality factor Q high for a short time. When the prism is out of this position, the Q value drops. As it revolves on further rotation, Q value drops to minimum.

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Figure 20. Thus, it shows that laser action can occur only when the prism is brought into alignment with the laser cavity. If the rotating reflector rotates at 1000 revolutions per second, then the time in which the Q value of cavity switches from its maximum to minimum value is about 10-7 seconds.

Figure 21 In place of total reflecting prism, the total reflecting mirror of optical resonator can be made to rotate with the help of motor. The speed required for a optical resonator of length 50 cm is of the order of 30,000 revolutions per minute. c) Passive shutter. Passive shutters use saturable dyes.

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As the name suggests, it consists of a cell containing dye solution. For example, vanadium phthalocyanine in nitrobenzene is used in the case of ruby laser. These dyes are chosen because their energy difference correspond to that of laser transition. The concentration is adjusted such that the oscillations can just take place with the dye cell in the cavity. The laser pumps the dye molecules into the upper energy levels, where they remain for a short duration. As the dye molecules in the lower level are few, thus, the dye is transparent to laser light and therefore, the Q-switching has been done. d) Electro-optical Shutters. To obtain faster switching, the suitable electro-optical effects of altering the refractive index of a cell by applying an electic field is used. Two such effects are: i) Pockels effect ii) Kerr effect. i) Pockels effect. A crystal cell like potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) is a device which when subjected to an applied DC voltage, becomes birefringent. Birefringent crystal is those crystal which split the light wave into two waves travelling at different velocities that is the crystal offers different refractive indices for different polarized light. One wave is called ordinary wave having refractive index n0 and other is called extraordinary wave having refractive index ne. In Pockels effect, the refractive index of material varies linearly with the applied electric field.

Figure 22 In the laser arrangement designed for Q-switching with a Pockels cell there, in between the active medium and the output reflecting mirror, there are two polarisers (P1 and P2 ) oriented in the same sense that is transmitted light is polarized in the same plane S. The pockels cell is placed between the polarisers P1 and P2. In the polarizer-Pockels cell-polariser combination, the light travelling to the cell has to pass a polariser P1 and becomes polarised in the S plane. When no voltage is applied to

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the Pockels cell that is when the cell is OFF, the light traverses the polariser and the cell without any loss except the loss suffered due to absorption. When voltage is applied to the Pockels cell that is when the cell is ON, then the cell becomes birefringent and rotates the polarisation vector of the light passing through it by 900. S1 is the new plane of polarisation and is perpendicular to the orientation of polariser P2. Thus, it will not allow the light to pass through output reflecting mirror. Therefore, when the cell is ON, the passage of light is blocked. In other words, laser cavity Quality factor Q is maximum with the Pockels cell OFF and minimum when the cell is ON.

Figure 23 The switching rate depends on the frequency of the voltage applied to the cell. A Pockel cell requires a small voltage of 1-5 KV. The switching time is about 10-9 sec which is smaller than that with the mechanical shutters. Pulses of 10-8 sec duration with peak power of 106 to 109 watts can be generated with this method. Above discussion shows that the Pockels cell is used as shutter that is why the name of the process is electro-optical shutter.

ii) Kerr effect. This effect is different from the Pockel effect in the sense that in Kerr effect the birefringence is proportional to the square of the applied electric field or in other words, in Kerr effect, the refractive index varies as the square of the electric field intensity. The process of Q-switching is same as discussed in Pockels effect. Here as the name suggests, Kerr cell is used as electro- optical shutter. The voltage requires for operation is about 10-20 KV. Example of the Kerr cell is Nitrobenzene cell.

23. MODE LOCKING

Definition: It is a technique for producing periodic, high power and ultrashort duration laser pulses. 33

As a laser oscillates in large number of modes and the modes do not oscillate at the same time and their phases have random values, thus output is in the form of irregular spikes. Now if modes are forced to oscillate with approximate same amplitude and with their phases maintained constant, then this operation is called mode locked operation and this process of obtaining ultrashort pulses of high peak power is called mode locking. Methods of Mode locking : The most commonly used methods of mode locking are : 1. Active mode locking 2. Passive mode locking. Let us discuss the active mode locking: a) Active mode locking: In this case, mode locking is achieved by forcing the longitudinal modes to maintain fixed phase relationships. This can be done by modulating the loss or gain of the laser cavity at a frequency equal to the intermode frequency separation = c/2L Wher c is the speed of light and L is the length of the laser cavity. Let us discuss, how it happens : For example, a loss modulator like a polished quartz piece is placed inside the resonator. Let us assume that the loss of the laser cavity is varied at a frequency equal to the intermode separation that is = c/2L. As the laser is switched ON, the mode that lies nearest to the line center (say o ) would start oscillating first. As the loss is modulated at frequency , the amplitude of this mode would also oscillate at frequency . Thus, this modulation converts a mode at frequency o to the three synchronously phased modes at o + , o and o . The modes at o + , and o coincide with the modes that have been adjacent to the basic mode at o. As a result, the oscillating field at frequencies o + , and o forces the modes corresponding to these frequencies into oscillation and therefore, these new modes have a perfect phase relationship with the mode o. The amplitudes of these modes are also modulated at frequency and they create additional frequencies in addition to already present frequencies. Thus all the modes are forced into oscillations in a definite phase and this will result in mode locking. b) Passive mode locking: In passive mode locking, saturable absorbers like organic dyes are placed into the laser cavity to mode lock. These are those absorbers which absorb light at the laser wavelength but is saturated very soon and become transparent for the light as if bleached and is, thus, also called bleachable cell. Thus, these are the dyes whose absorption decreases with increasing intensity. Let us discuss, how passive mode locking happens : The laser medium emits radiations due to spontaneous emission and this give rise to incoherent fluctuations in the energy density with in the cavity. Some of these radiations or fluctuations may be amplified by the laser medium and grow in intensity to such an extent that peak power of fluctuation is transmitted by the absorber with little attenuation.

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The low power parts of fluctuations are much strongly attenuated and thus a high power pulse can grow within the cavity. Because of this non-linear bleaching mechanism, the shortest and most intense fluctuations grow at the expense of the weaker ones. With use of such bleachable dyes with careful concentrations, with in the cavity, an initial fluctuation can grow into a narrow pulse bouncing back and forth within the cavity producing a periodic train of active mode locked pulse.

Chapter-2
The Theory of Relativity
1.1 The concept of Relativity and frames of reference
The term relativity comes from the word relative that is in relation. In this universe, everything is relative, there is nothing like absolute rest. If you think that you are sitting somewhere and you are in the state of rest, then my dear you are wrong. You are also in the state of motion, because if someone is able to see you from outside the earth (suppose from moon), then you are also moving. Therefore, everything is relative. Here question arises with respect to which we can study the motion of another object? This problem is solved with the concept of frame of reference. Definition: The frame of reference is defined as any coordinate system with respect to which one can study the motion of the another object. For example, a bus can be a frame of reference with respect to which one can study the motion of another object.

1.2 Types of the frame of reference

a) Inertial frame of reference: [This you can understand only if you know the Newtons first law or law of inertia. So what is that? Remember of forgot! Let us revise it. Newtons first law is that a body at rest will remain at rest; a body in uniform motion will remain in uniform motion, until and unless some external force is applied on it. Here a body at rest will remain at rest, until and unless some external force is applied on it is also called law of inertia of rest. A body in uniform motion will remain in uniform motion until and unless some external force is applied on it is also called law of inertia of uniform motion.] Thus inertial frame of reference is that frame in which the law of inertia is obeyed. In other words, the non-accelerated frame of reference is called inertial frame of reference. b) Non - inertial frame of reference: [It should be simple for you know if you understood the inertial frame of reference]. Non-inertial frame of reference is that frame of reference in which the law of inertia is not obeyed. In other words, the accelerated frame of reference is called inertial frame of reference.

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Brain Teaser: Can you give an example of inertial frame of reference that is nonaccelerated one? Answer: The answer is nothing can be perfect inertial frame. But we consider earth as an inertial frame because acceleration of the earth is negligible.

1.3 Types of theory of relativity

On the basis of this, theory of relativity is divided into two types: 1. Special theory of relativity: This theory deals with inertial frames of reference. 2. General theory of relativity: This theory deals with non-inertial frames of reference.

2.1 Galilean transformation equations for space and time

Figure 1 Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Let an event happen at position P in the frame S. The coordinate of the P will be x according to the observer in S and it will be x according to O in S. The frame S has moved a distance vt in time t (refer figure 1). What should be the relation between x and x. As we can see from the figure that x = x + vt But here the t = t thus x = x + vt (1) Where t and t are the time measured from S and S frames respectively. But what should be x = ? Yes you are right, it is x = x - vt (2) It can be achieved by just exchanging the sides of the equation (1). But there is more to it. It is just not by exchanging the sides. If we see equation 1, we will find that it is the position measured by O when S is moving with +v velocity. But if the same thing is measured by O then velocity of S should be v. (For example, when we travel in a train, then according to the outside observers, we are travelling in x direction (suppose), but the outside objects, according to me travel in the opposite direction with the same but negative velocity). What should be the relation of y with y? 36

It will be y = y (3) or y = y (4) because there is no movement of frame along y-axis. Similarly z = z (5) And z = z (6) And here t = t (7) And t = t (8) Equations 1, 3, 5 and 7 are known as Galilean inverse transformation equations for space and time. Equations 2, 4, 6 and 8 are known as Galilean transformation equations for space and time.

3.1 Concept of ether and Michelson-Morley experiment

Aim of the Michelson-Morley experiment: The Michelson-Morley experiment was done to confirm the presence of hypothetical medium called ether. Therefore, one question should be there what was ether? Yes, I have used was ether not is ether. Let us discuss why? As we have already discussed in earlier articles that there is nothing like absolute rest. Thus the scientists in the 19th century assumed that our universe is filled with hypothetical medium called ether. Ether was supposed to be transparent and highly elastic. The main objective of this Michelson-Morley experiment was to check the presence of this medium called ether. The aim was supposed to be fulfilled by measuring the velocity of the earth with respect to the ether. If earth is supposed to be propagating through the stationary ether with a uniform velocity and if a beam of light is sent from source to observer towards the direction of the motion of the earth, then it should take more time if sent through the opposite direction. If this time difference can be measured then velocity of earth with respect to ether can be measured. Experimental arrangement of Michelson-Morley experiment: The light is emitted from source S and is incident on a collimating lens L (Refer figure 2). The L will make the light parallel and the beams will now incident on a plate P which is inclined at an angle of 450. The P will divide the light into two parts, one reflected part and other transmitted beam. The reflected beam will incident on a mirror M1 and transmitted on M2. The separation between the P and M1 and P and M2 is same and that is equal to l (suppose) and this separation is called length of the arm. The light will reflected back from mirrors M1 and M2 respectively and will interfere at P. This interference pattern is noticed by Telescope T.

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Figure 2 Derivation and Discussion of Michelson-Morley experiment:

Figure 3 (Special Note to students: The Michelson and Morley started the experiment in his laboratory and they themselves tried to derive the results theoretically using certain physics laws. If the theory and experiments results matched, then it is alright. If it does not, then either theory is wrong or experiment. So students, now assume you are Michelson and Morley and you are doing the theoretical calculations in your respective copies. Then we will match the result with the experiment. Therefore, Let us start and wait what will happen? As the observer is assumed to be on ether and he is studying the motion of the earth wit respect to ether. Thus the light beam when incident on P and reflected towards M1. It will catch the M1 at new position M1 at B (according to Michelson-Morley). Then the light reflected back to P at C. 38

Here the all the apparatus are assumed to be moving with the speed of the earth that is v and speed of light is c. As A to B is more distance than A to P, even then the light will catch the M1 at the same time as from A to P. This is because c > v. Thus the time taken for light to reach at M1 and for P to reach at P will be taken same as t. Calculation for time taken for reflected path that is from A to B and then B to C: Take triangle ABP and apply Pythagoras theorem: (AB)2 = (BP)2 + (AP)2 Where AB is the path covered by light in time t and AP is path covered by the Plate P in same time t. BP is the length of the arm that is equal to l. Thus the equation becomes c2t2 = l2 + v2t2 or t2(c2 - v2) = l2 or t2 = l2/(c2 - v2) or t2 = l2/ c2 (1 - v2/ c2) t = l/ c [(1 - v2/ c2)]1/2 or t = l[(1 - v2/ c2)]-1/2/c Apply Binomial theorem and neglect higher terms t = l[(1 + v2/2 c2)]/c This is the time taken by light from A to B. Same time will be taken from B to C. Therefore, the total time for the reflected path will be t1 = 2t or t1 = 2l[(1 + v2/2 c2)]/c (1) Calculation for time taken for transmitted path that is from A to M2 and then M2 to A: As the apparatus and the light both are moving in same direction that is when light is going towards M2. Thus the relative velocity will be c v. After reflection, the apparatus and the light both are moving in the opposite direction that is when light is going towards P. Thus the relative velocity will be c + v. Thus the time taken from A to M2 and from M2 to C will be t2 = l/(c v) + l/(c + v) Further solving, we get 2l(1 - v2/ c2)-1/c Apply binomial theorem to the RHS and neglect higher terms, we get t2 = 2l(1 + v2/ c2)/c (2) Therefore the time difference between the transmitted and reflected rays will be t = t2 t1 Put equations (1) and (2) t = 2l(1 + v2/ c2)/c - 2l[(1 + v2/2 c2)]/c Or t = lv2/c3 Path difference for the transmitted and reflected rays will be x1 = c t x1 = c lv2/c3 Or x1 = lv2/c2 (3) After this the apparatus is rotated through 900 so that mirrors will exchange their positions and path difference is again calculated. It will come out x2 = -lv2/c2 (4)

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Therefore the total path difference will be x = x2 - x1 x = 2 lv2/c2 (5) Then the number of fringe shift is calculated by following relation (fringes are the pattern obtained by interference of two more rays that is by constructive and destructive interference): N = path difference/wavelength of light N = x/ Put equation (5) N = 2 lv2/c2 (6) Then N is calculated by putting l = 11m, v = 3 x 104m/s, c = 3 x 108m/s and = 5800 angstroms Thus N = 0.37 fringes But experimentally N = 0 Thus the theory and experiment results are not matched. But the experimental were right. So there was some problem in theory calculation. Different scientists tried to explain these negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment. The explanation of negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment is given in separate article here. (The main reason lies in equation (2), when c v and c + v is done. Can you add any velocity in c or subtract any velocity from c? The answer is given in another article in the explanation of negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment.)

3.2 Explanation of the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment

As the theoretical results of the M-M experiment did not match with the experimental results (Theoretically fringe shift result was not zero, it was about 0.4 but the experimentally it was 0). Even then the scientists of that time had conviction that ether exist and earth moves with respect to it. Thus there was lot of debate and discussion regarding this as why there were negative results (that is why the theory and experiment result did not match?). Following are the reasons given by the scientists: 1. Ether Drag Hypothesis: The then scientists assumed that ether exits and it is attached with the earth. Thus it will be dragged with the earth so the relative velocity of ether and earth will be zero. If this is taken then theory and experimental will get matched. But this hypothesis is discarded as there was no proof for this. 2. Lorentz-Fitzgerald Hypothesis: Lorentz told that the length of the arm (distance between the pale and the mirror M2) towards the transmitted side should be L(1 v2/c2) but not L. If this is taken then theory and experimental will get matched. But this hypothesis is discarded as there was no proof for this.

3.3 Einstein explanation of negative results of M-M experiment (Einsteins postulates of theory of relativity)
Then Einstein gave his postulates by suggesting that there is no medium like ether. There are two postulates of the theory of relativity given by Einstein: 1. Einsteins First Postulate of theory of relativity:

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All the laws of physics are same (or have the same form) in all the inertial frames of reference moving with uniform velocity with respect to each other. (This postulate is also called the law of equivalence). 2. Einsteins second Postulate of theory of relativity: The speed of light is constant in free space or in vacuum in all the inertial frames of reference moving with uniform velocity with respect to each other. (This postulate is also called the law of constancy).

4.1 Lorentz transformation equations for space and time

Figure 4 Galilean Transformation equations can not be applied for the objects moving with a speed comparative to the speed of the light. Therefore new transformations equations are derived by Lorentz for these objects and these are known as Lorentz transformation equations for space and time. Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Let an event happen at position P in the frame S. The coordinate of the P will be x according to the observer in S and it will be x according to O in S. The frame S has moved a distance vt in time t (refer figure). What should be the relation between x and x? As we can see from the figure that from frame S x x vt or x = k (x vt) (1) where k is constant of proportionality that we will determine. Similarly from frame S x = k(x + vt) (2) Put equation (1) in (2) x = k[k(x vt) + vt] or x/k = kx kvt + vt 41

or vt = x/k kx + kvt or t = x/kv kx + kvt or t = kt kx (1 1/k2)/v (3) Similarly from frame S, time t will be t = kt + kx (1 1/k2)/v (4) (This equation can be derived by putting equation 2 in 1 and then solving.) Calculation of k: Let us suppose a flash of light is emitted from the common origin of S and S at time t=t=0. From Einsteins 2nd second postulate, the flash of light travels with the velocity of light c and which remains same in both the frames. After sometime, the position of the flash of the light as seen from observer O will be x = ct And as seen from O will be x = ct (Here the form of Physics law is same that is position = (velocity)(time) from st Einstein 1 postulate) Put these two values in equation (1) and (2) respectively, we get ct = k (ct vt) = kt (c v) and ct = kt (c + v) Multiply above two equations c2tt = k2tt(c2 v2) or k2 = c2/(c2 v2) or k2 = 1/ (1- v2/c2) (5) (6) or k = 1/(1- v2/c2) The k is known as relativistic factor. Substitute equation (6) in (1), we get x = (x vt)/(1 v2/c2) (7) As it is assumed that frame S is moving only along x direction, therefore along y and z direction y = y (8) And z = z (9) Equations 7-9 are known as Lorentz transformation equations for space. Let us derive Lorentz transformation equation for time: Cross-multiply equation (5) 1/k2 = 1 v2/c2 Or 1 1/k2 = v2/c2 Put the above equation in equation (3) t = kt kx(v2/c2)/v or t = k (t kxv/c2) Put value of k from equation 5 in above equation, we get t = (t kxv/c2)/ (1 v2/c2) (10) Equation (10) is Lorentz transformation equation for time. Equations 7 -10 are known as Lorentz transformation equations for space and time. These are again rewritten below: x = (x vt)/(1 v2/c2) y = y z = z

42

t = (t xv/c2)/(1 v2/c2) If the frame is changed (that is from S), then the equations are known as Lorentz inverse transformation equations for space and time. These are given as: x = (x+ vt)/(1 v2/c2) y = y z = z t = (t + xv/c2)/(1 v2/c2) Special case: If v <<< c Then Lorentz equations will become Galilean by neglecting v2/c2 or v/c2 wherever necessary as shown below: x = x vt y = y z = z t = t

5.1 Length Contraction

Figure 5 Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Let an object is placed in the frame S. The coordinate of the initial point (A) of the object will be x1 (see the second line till A from S in figure) according to the observer in S and the coordinate of the final point will be will be x2 according to same observer. The coordinate of the initial point (A) of the object will be x1 (see the second last line till A from S in figure) according to the observer in S and the coordinate of the final point will be will be x2 according to same observer. Therefore the length of the object as seen by observer O in s will be L = x2 x1 (1) The length L is called the proper length of the object. Proper length is defined as the length of the object measured by the observer which is in the same frame in which the object is placed. 43

The apparent length of the object from frame S at any time t will be L = x2 x1 (2) Now use Lorentz transformation equations for space, that is x1 = (x1 vt)/(1 v2/c2) (3) x 2= (x2 vt)/(1 v2/c2) (4) By putting equations (3) and (4) in equation (1) and solving, we get L = (x2 x1)/ (1 v2/c2) Substitute equation (2) in above equation, L = L/(1 v2/c2) Or Apparent length that is the length from frame S will be (5) L = L(1 v2/c2) This is the relation of the length contraction. Why it known as length contraction, if we solve (1 v2/c2), then the value will always be in decimal (except when v = c). If we multiply L with a decimal value, then L will be lesser than L. This is the reason that it is called length contraction. For example let us discuss a numerical: If an object is moving with speed 0.8c and its length is 1 meter, then what will be its apparent length? Solution: Given v = 0.8c Proper length L = 1 m To calculate L As L = L(1 v2/c2), If we substitute the given values, we get L = 0.6 m Thus L < L Special Case: If v <<< c, then v2/c2 will be negligible in L(1 v2/c2) and it can be neglected Then equation (5) becomes L=L

6.1 Time Dilation

Figure 6

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Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S1. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Let a clock is placed in the frame S. The time coordinate of the initial time of the clock will be t1 according to the observer in S and the time coordinate of the final tick (time ) will be will be t2 according to same observer. The time coordinate of the initial time of the clock will be t1 according to the observer in S and the time coordinate of the final tick (time ) will be will be t2 according to same observer. Therefore the time of the object as seen by observer O in S at the position x will be t = t2 t1 (1) The time t is called the proper time of the event. Proper time is defined as the time of an event measured by the observer which is in the same frame in which the event is occurred. The apparent time of the same event from frame S at the same position x will be t = t2 t1 (2) Now use Lorentz inverse transformation equations for time, that is (3) t1 = (t1 + xv/c2)/(1 v2/c2) 2) 2 2 t2 = (t2 + xv/c /(1 v /c ) (4) By putting equations (3) and (4) in equation (2) and solving, we get t = (t2 t1)/ (1 v2/c2) Substitute equation (1) in above equation, t = t/(1 v2/c2) This is the relation of the time dilation. Why it known as time dilation, if we solve (1 v2/c2), then the value will always be in decimal (except when v = c). If we divide t with a decimal value, then t will be more than t. This is the reason that it is called time dilation as dilation means to get increase. Thus the clock will appear to be slower now. For example let us discuss a numerical: If an object is moving with speed 0.8c and its keeping the time 1 second, then what will be its apparent time? Solution: Given v = 0.8c Proper length t = 1 sec To calculate t As t = t/(1 v2/c2) If we substitute the given values, we get t = 1.67 sec Thus t > t Special Case: If v <<< c, then v2/c2 will be negligible in t/(1 v2/c2) and it can be neglected Then t = t

6.2 Real example of time dilation

As we have already discussed the concept of time dilation. Let us discuss its example: Decay of - mesons:

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- mesons are the particles formed in the earth atmosphere. The half life time of mesons is 3.1 microseconds. They travel with the speed of 0.9c. where c is the speed of the light. So they must covered the distance d = vt d = 3.1 x 10-6 x 0.9c = 840m It means there population should become half after this distance. But this does not happen. Population remains much higher than the half value. Why this happened? This is because the time here should be dilated time and 3.1 microseconds should be the proper time. This is because the - mesons are travelling with speed comparable to the speed of the light. So t = t/(1 v2/c2) Here t = 3.1 microseconds After solving, we get t = 7.2 microseconds thus distance traveled by - mesons will be d = vt or d = 7.2 x 10-6 x 0.9c or d = 1920 m Now when the population is measured after this distance it was approximately half. It proves that the time dilation is a real effect.

6.3 Twin paradox

Paradox means confusion and meaning of twins you know. This is related with the concept of time dilation in relativity. Suppose there are twins A and B. In the twin paradox, one of the twins say A was sent to space in a spaceship which is traveling with a speed comparative to the speed of the light. B remains at earth. So according to the time dilation, time should be dilated (increased) or in other words clock should be moving slower. But out of A and B, whom clock should be slower? In other words, whose age will be different after certain time? According to B (which remains at earth), age of A will be different as he is travelling with relativistic speed. But according to A, age of B will be different as he is travelling with relativistic speed in opposite direction. So who is speaking truth? Both are right at their places. This is called twin paradox. What is your view on this?

7.1 Simultaneity in relativity

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Figure 7 Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Let two events in frame S occur simultaneously at positions P1 and P2. The coordinates of the P1 will be (x1,y1,z1,t1) and of P2 will be (x2,y2,z2,t2). The events will be simultaneous (occur at the same time) according to the observer in frame S. Therefore t1 = t2 (1) The question arises here will the event be simultaneous from frame S? Let us discuss it? From Lorentz transformation equations of time: (2) t1 = (t1 x1v/c2)/(1 v2/c2) 2 2 2 and t2 = (t2 x2v/c )/(1 v /c ) (3) Subtracting equation (2) from equation (3), we get t2 t1 = (t2 x2v/c2)/(1 v2/c2) - (t1 x1v/c2)/(1 v2/c2) or t2 t1 = (t2 t1)/ )/(1 v2/c2) - v/c2(x2 x1)/(1 v2/c2) Put equation (1) in above equation, we get (4) t2 t1 = - v/c2(x2 x1)/(1 v2/c2) As the two events occur at different positions, that is x2 x1 Therefore L.H.S of equation (4) will not be zero, thus t2 t1 0 or t1 t2 It proves that the same events will not be simultaneous from frame S, that is it will not appear to occur at the same time from S.

8.1 Addition of velocity

Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. 47

Suppose a particle P is place in frame S and it is moving.

Figure 8 The velocity component of particle P from observer O in frame S will be: ux = dx/dt (1a) uy = dy/dt (1b) (1c) uz = dz/dt The velocity component of particle P from observer O in frame S will be: ux = dx/dt (2a) uy = dy/dt (2b) uz = dz/dt (2c) From Lorentz transformation equations: (3a) x = (x vt)/(1 v2/c2) y = y (3b) z = z (3c) 2 2 2 t = (t xv/c )/(1 v /c ) (3d) Differentiate equations (3) dx = (dx vdt)/(1 v2/c2) (4a) dy =d y (4b) dz = dz (4c) dt = (dt dxv/c2)/(1 v2/c2) (4d) Now substitute equations (4a) and (4d) in equation (1a), we get ux = (dx vdt)/ (dt dxv/c2) Divide numerator and denominator of R.H.S with dt, we get ux = (dx/dt v)/ (1 dx/dt(v/c2)) Put equation (2a) in above equation, ux = (ux v)/ (1 ux(v/c2)) (5) Similarly by putting equations (4b) and 4d) in equation (1b) and then dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S with dt, and then putting equation (2b), we get uy = uy(1 v2/c2)/ (1 ux(v/c2)) (6) Similarly by putting equations (4c) and 4d) in equation (1c) and then dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S with dt, and then putting equation (2c), we get 48

uz = uz(1 v2/c2)/ (1 ux(v/c2)) (7) Equations (5, 6 and 7) represent the addition of velocity relations as observed by observers O from frame S. From the observer O in frame S, the relations (5, 6 and 7) will become: ux = (ux + v)/ (1 + ux(v/c2)) (8) uy = uy(1 v2/c2)/ (1 + ux(v/c2)) (9) 2 2 2 uz = uz(1 v /c )/ (1 + ux(v/c )) (10) Generally equation (8) is written as u = (u + v)/ (1 + u(v/c2)) (11) Special case: If v <<< c, then v/c2 will get neglected and the equation 11 will become u = u + v 8.2 Brain Teaser: Prove that no signal can travel faster than the speed of the light. Solution: Method 1 From Addition of velocity relation u = (u + v)/ (1 + u(v/c2)) Suppose there is a signal which travels equal to the speed of light that is put u = c and then try to solve, the answer will be u=c If we put u = c and v = c then solve, we get u=c It proves that no signal can travel faster than the speed of the light. Method 2: Suppose there is a signal which travels faster than the speed of light, that is v>c By length contraction l = l(1 v2/c2) if we put v > c, then l become imaginary but length can not be imaginary. Therefore it prove that no signal can travel faster than the speed of the light.

9.1 Variation of mass with velocity

Let there are two inertial frames of references S and S1. S is the stationary frame of reference and S is the moving frame of reference. At time t=t=0 that is in the start, they are at the same position that is Observers O and O coincides. After that S frame starts moving with a uniform velocity v along x axis. Suppose there are two particles moving in opposite direction in frame S. velocity of particle A will be u and of B will be u according to the observer O.

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Figure 9 Let us study the velocities and mass of these particles from frame S. Velocity of A is u1 and B is u2 from frame S and these are given by addition of velocity relation respectively: u1 = (u + v)/(1 +uv/c2) (1) 2 (2) u2 = (-u + v)/(1 -uv/c ) Let m1 and m2 are the mass of A and B from frame S respectively. As the particles are moving to each other, at certain instant they will collide and momentarily came to rest. But even when they came to rest, they travel with the velocity of the frame S that is with v. According to the law of conservation of momentum: Momentum before collision = momentum after collision Thus m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v = m1v + m2v Or m1(u1 v) = m2(u2 v) Put equations (1) and (2) in above equations, we get m1[(u + v)/(1 +uv/c2) v] = m2[v - (-u + v)/(1 -uv/c2)] Then take LCM of terms in the bracket and solve, we get m1[1/(1 +uv/c2)] = m2[1/(1 -uv/c2)] or m1/m2 = (1 +uv/c2)/ (1 -uv/c2) (3) Now square equation (1), then divide both sides by c2 and subtract both sides by 1, we get 1 u12/c2 = 1 [(u + v)/c/(1 +uv/c2)]2 By taking LCM on RHS and solving, we get 1 u12/c2 = (1 + u2v2/c4 u2/c2 v2/c2)/ (1 +uv/c2)2 (4) Similarly by squaring equation (2), then dividing both sides by c2 and subtracting both sides by 1, we get 1 u22/c2 = (1 + u2v2/c4 u2/c2 v2/c2)/ (1 -uv/c2)2 (5) On dividing equation (5) by (4), we get (1 u22/c2)/(1 u12/c2) = (1 +uv/c2)2/(1 -uv/c2)2 Take square root on both sides (1 u22/c2)1/2/(1 u12/c2)1/2 = (1 +uv/c2)/(1 -uv/c2) (6) Now compare equations (3) and (6), we get 50

m1/m2 = (1 u22/c2)1/2/(1 u12/c2)1/2 (7) This is more of a complicated result. To make this result simple, let us assume that the particle B is in the state of rest from frame S that is it has zero velocity before collision Thus u2 = 0 And m2 = m0 Where m0 is the rest mass of the particle, Therefore equation (7) becomes m1/m0 =1 /(1 u12/c2)1/2 Also assume u1 = v and m1 = m Therefore above equation becomes m/m0 =1 /(1 v2/c2)1/2 or m =mo /(1 v2/c2)1/2 (8) This equation represents the equation of the variation of mass with the velocity. It shows that if a particle or anything moves with a speed comparable to the speed of the light then its mass will appeared increased because the factor /(1 v2/c2)1/2 will always be in decimal and something divided by decimal will be more. For example on dividing 1 by .1, we get 10. Numerical: An object is moving with relativistic speed and it has mass equals to 3 times its rest mass. Calculate its velocity. Solution: Given m = 3m0 Put this is in equation (8) 3m0 =mo /(1 v2/c2)1/2 Or 3 = 1/(1 v2/c2)1/2 Squaring and solving, we will get c. Try yourself.

10.1 Einsteins mass energy relation

You must have known the relation E = mc2. Let us derive it: Derivation: Consider an object of rest mass m. If force is applied to the object such that it starts moving with relativistic velocity (that is comparable with the speed of light), then its mass will also vary with relation m = m/(1-v2/c2)1/2 (1) Now suppose that work dw will be done due to this force. If the object is displaced along x axis, then work will be: dw = Fdx or dw = (dp/dt)dx (because from Newtons 2nd law F = dp/dt) or dw = [d(mv)/dt]dx (because p =mv) Differentiate R.H.S. dw = (mdv/dt + vdm/dt)dx (here m is also a variable quantity, thus m is also differentiated) or dw = mdvdx/dt + vdmdx/dt or dw = mvdv + v2dm (2) Now square equation (1) and cross-multiply m2 (1-v2/c2) = m

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or m2 [(c2-v2)/c2] = m or m2c2 m2v2 = m2c2 Differentiating, we get c2(2mdm) m2(2vdv) v2(2mdm) or v2dm + mvdv = c2dm (3) Comparing equations (2) and (3), we get dw = c2dm (4) The total amount of work done by the applied force in order to change its velocity from 0 to v (or mass from m to m) is achieved by integrating the L.H.S of the following equation with limits 0 to W and R.H.S. from m to m (because when work is 0 then body has rest mass m and when work W is done then body has variable mass m). dw = c2dm Or W = c2(m m) (5) As this work W is done to give motion to the object. Therefore, W will appear in the form of kinetic energy acquired by the body, Thus relativistic kinetic energy will be K = = c2(m m) (6) By definition of potential energy or the rest mass energy, it is equal to the internal energy of the body. It is also equal to the work done to bring all the particles which make the object of rest mass m. Thus the rest mass energy of the body is derived as by integrating the L.H.S of the following equation with limits 0 to W and R.H.S. from 0 to m (because when work is 0 then body has rest mass does not exist and when work W is done then all the particles make an object of rest mass m). dw = c2dm Thus W = mc2 Therefore, W will appear in the form of rest mass energy of the body, Thus rest mass energy will be R = mc2 (7) The total energy of the object will be E = kinetic energy + rest mass energy Put equations (6) and (7) in this equation, we get E = c2(m m) + mc2 Or E = mc2 This is the famous Einstein mass-energy equivalence relation. Significance: This equation represents that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can change its form. Example: Pair Annihilation: In pair annihilation, electron and positron reacts to release photons. e- + e+ As electron and positron have mass but photon has energy but not mass. Therefore, here mass is changed into energy. The opposite of this reaction is called pair production.

11.1 Relativistic energy momentum relation

From Einstein mass energy relation

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E = mc2 (1) Also from variation of mass with velocity relation m = m0/(1 v2/c2)1/2 (2) Where m0 is the rest mass of the object Put value of m in equation (1) and then square both sides, we get (3) E2= m02c4/(1 v2/c2) As momentum is given by p = mv Put equation (2) and square p2 = m02v2/(1 v2/c2) Multiply both sides by c2 p2c2 = m02v2 c2/(1 v2/c2) (4) Subtract equation (4) from (3) and solve, we get E2 - p2c2 = m02c4 Or E = (p2c2 + m02c4) This is Relativistic energy momentum relation.

Chapter 4 Superconductors
1. Definition Superconductors: Superconductors are the materials whose conductivity tends to infinite as resistivity tends to zero at critical temperature (transition temperature). 2. Critical temperature (Tc): The temperature at which a conductor becomes a superconductor is known as critical temperature. 3. Critical Magnetic Field (Hc): The magnetic field required to convert the superconductor into a conductor is known as critical magnetic field. 4. Critical magnetic field is related with critical temperature as: Hc(T) = Hc(0)[1 T2/Tc2] 5. Meissner Effect: Suppose there is a conductor placed in a magnetic field at temperature T (refer figure). Then the temperature is decreased till the critical temperature. See what happened (figure). Lines of force are expelled from the superconductor. This is called Meissner effect. Definition Meissner Effect: The expulsion of magnetic lines of force from a superconducting specimen when it is cooled below the critical temperature is called Meissner effect. 5.1. To prove that superconductors are diamagnetic by nature:

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B is not 0 at T > Tc B=0 at T < Tc As B = 0 (H +M) Where B is magnetic induction or magnetic flux density, H is applied magnetic field or magnetic field intensity And M is intensity of magnetization. For superconductors B = 0 Thus either 0 = 0 or H + M = 0 But 0 can not be zero, Thus H + M =0 Or M = -H (1) By definition of magnetic susceptibility X = M/H Put equation (1) Thus X = -1 But magnetic susceptibility is negative for diamagnetic materials, thus it proves that superconductors are diamagnetic by nature. 6. Silsbee rule Current Strength: An important result of the existence of critical magnetic field is that there is also critical strength of current Ic flowing in the superconductor. Exceeding this limit also causes the disturbance of superconductivity. To derive the relation between critical current field consider a superconductor wire of radius r carrying a current I. This current will produce a magnetic field given by: H=I/2 r (Using Amperes Circuital law) If the current through wire is such that H>Hc then Ic the superconductivity will be destroyed and material will go to normal state. Therefore if Ic is the current for which H=Hc then Ic is called critical current and is given by Ic=2 rHc This is known as Silsbees rule. Critical current density is given by Jc =Ic/ Area =2 r Hc/ r2 Or Jc=2Hc/r 7. Properties which change in the superconducting Transition:54

(i) The magnetic properties in superconductors undergo change. In the pure superconducting state practically no magnetic flux is able to enter the metal which thus behaves as if it had zero permeability or strong diamagnetic susceptibility. This effect is called Meissner effect. (ii) The specific heat changes discontinuously at the transition temperature. There is small change of volume at transition in the presence of magnetic field. (iii)All the thermoelectric effects disappear in the superconducting state. (iv) The thermal conductivity changes discontinuously when the superconductivity is destroyed in magnetic field. It is lower in the superconducting state for pure metal but higher for certain alloys. (v) The entropy in the superconducting state is lesser comparative to the normal state, that is the superconductive state is more ordered state.

8. Type I and Type II superconductors Depending upon their behavior in an external magnetic field, superconductors are divided into two types: a) Type I superconductors and b) Type II superconductors Let us discuss them one by one: 1) Type I superconductors: a). Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity very easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the Type I superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily looses its superconductivity at critical magnetic field (Hc) (point A).

After Hc, the Type I superconductor will become conductor. b). Type I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors because of this reason that is they loose their superconductivity easily. c) Type I superconductors perfectly obey Meissner effect. 55

d) Example of Type I superconductors: Aluminum (Hc = 0.0105 Tesla), Zinc (Hc = 0.0054) 2) Type II superconductors: a). Type II superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually looses its superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to loose their superconductivity at lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and completely loose their superconductivity at upper critical magnetic field (Hc2).

b) The state between the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and upper critical magnetic field (Hc2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state. After Hc2, the Type II superconductor will become conductor. c). Type I superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because of this reason that is they loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily. c) Type I superconductors obey Meissner effect but not completely. d) Example of Type I superconductors: NbN (Hc = 8 x 106 Tesla), Babi3 (Hc = 59 x 103 Tesla) e) Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for strong field superconducting magnets. 9. London Equations As discussed in the Meissner effect that one of the conditions of the superconducting state is that Magnetic flux density (B) = 0 inside the superconductors that is the magnetic flux cannot penetrate inside the superconductor. But experimentally it is not so. The magnetic flux does not suddenly drop to zero inside the surface. The phenomenon of flux penetration inside the superconductors was explained by H. London and F. London. Derivation of London first equation: Let ns and vs be the number density (number/volume) and velocity of superconducting electrons respectively. The equation of motion or acceleration of electrons in the superconducting state is given by m(dvs/dt) = -eE 56

or dvs/dt = -eE/m (1) where m is the mass of electrons and e is the charge on the electrons. Also the current density is given by Js = -nsevs Differentiate it with respect to time, dJs/dt = -nse(dvs/dt) Put equation (1) in above equation, we get dJs/dt = (nse2 E)/m (2) Equation (2) is known as Londons first equation Derivation of London second equation: Take curl (that is cross or vector product of del operator with a vector) of Londons first equation, we get del operator x dJs/dt = [(nse2 )del operator x E]/m (3) By differential form of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction (or Maxwells third equation) del x E = -dB/dt Put this in equation (3), we get del x dJs/dt = -[(nse2(dB/dt)/m) Integrate both sides with respect to time, we get del x Js = -[(nse2(B)/m] (4) This is known as Londons second equation. Explanation of flux penetration (Meissner effect) from London equations: To explain Meissner effect from London equations consider the differential form of Amperes circuital law: del x B = oJs where B is magnetic flux density and Js is current density Take curl on both sides of above equation (5) del x (del x B) = o (del x Js) 2 As del x (del x B)= del(del.B) - del B Put above equation and London second equation (equation 4 is derived in last article) in equation (5), we get del(del.B) - del2B = -[( o nse2(B)/m] But del.B = 0 (Maxwells second equation or Gauss law for magnetism) Therefore above equation becomes del2B = [( o nse2(B)/m] (6) del2B = B/l2 (7) where l2 = m/ o nse2 or l = (m/ o nse2)1/2 where l is known as Londons penetration depth and it has units of length. The solution of differential equation (7) is B = B(0)e-x/ l (8) Where B(0) is the field at the surface and x is the depth inside the superconductor. The equation (8) shows that a uniform magnetic field equal to zero can not exist in a superconductor, which is Meissner effect. In the pure superconducting state the only field allowed in the exponentially decreasing field as the flux penetrated from external surface and it is given by equation (8) (Refer figure).

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Suppose x = l Then equation (8) becomes B = B(0)/e Definition of London penetration depth: The London penetration depth is the distance inside the surface of a superconductor at which the magnetic field reduces to 1/e times its value at the surface. The London penetration depth depends strongly on the temperature and becomes much larger as T approaches critical temperature Tc. The relation is l(T)/ l(0)= [1 T/Tc)4]-1/2 where l(T) and l(0) are the London penetration depths at temperature T kelvin and 0 k respectively. 10. APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS Applications of superconductivity Phenomenon: Superconductors are useful in a number of following applications: 1. Generation and transmission of electric power. 2. Medical diagnosis 3. Electromagnets (superconducting magnets): - The type 2 superconducting wires are wound in the form of solenoids to generate strong magnetic field of an induction about 20 tests. The size of these magnets will be small compared to the ordinary metal wire wound electromagnets. 4. In making of Super computers 5. Magnetically levitating worlds fastest trains. 6. Magnetic Energy storage Devices. 7. Electromagnetic shielding 8. Superconducting transformers. 9. In medical industry as superconducting quantum Interferometers (SQUIDS). 10. Bearings: . The Meissner effect is made use of in the bearings. . The mutual repulsion between the two superconductors due to the repulsion between the magnetic fields they generate can be embodied in the bearings and the bearings would operate without power loss and friction. 11. High power transmission (transmission lines): . The superconducting cables permit high power transmission without the power loss.

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.The superconducting wires used in the above applications are produced from the solid solution alloys such as niobium-zirconium,niobium or niobium titaniumzirconium. . High temperature superconducting wires may soon replace the wires operating at liquid- Helium temperatures. 12. Particle accelerators: .Superconductors has very poor mechanical strength. . Hence superconducting solenoid is already in use to provide the high magnetic fields needed for the large particle accelerators using Nb3Sn Magnetic levitation: . The only alternatives to airplanes, cars, buses, ships and convential trains are just too slow for todays fast paced society . However, there is a form of transportation that could revolutionize transportation of the 21istcentury the way airplanes did in the 20th century. . A few countries are using powerful superconducting electromagnets todevelop high-speed trains,called maglev trains. Maglev is short for magnetic levitation, which means that these trains will float over a guideway using the basic principle of magnets to replace the old steel wheel and track trains.Electromagnetic propulsion is used to provide highspeed to maglev trains. .Electromagnetic suspension: is used to reduce friction between the train and its tracks. There are three components to magnetic train: . A large electrical power source . Metal coils lining a guideway or track . Large guidance superconducting magnets attached to the underside of the train. Superconducting magnetic coils produce the magnetic repulsion required to levitate the train .Maglev trains will not slide over the rails but will float on an air cushion over a magnetized track. There in a 1 cm air gap between the railway track and superconducting magnets attached underside of the train. This process virtually eliminating friction between the train and its tracks, so that speeds upto 500 km/hr can be achieved easily. The big difference between a maglev train and a conventional train is that maglev trains do not have an engine at least not the kind of engine used to pull typical train, cars along steel tracks. The engine for Maglev trains is rather inconspicuous ,Instead of using fossil fuels, the magnetic field created by the electrified coils in the guideway walls and the track combine to propel the train As iron is not required for the production of magnetic field ,so maglev train could be much lighter in weight, The worlds first MAGLEV train to be adapted in to commercial service, a shuttle in Birmingham England shut down in 1997 after operating for 11 years. A sino-

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German maglev is currently operating over a 30-km course at Pudong International Airport in Shanghai,China.

11. BCS THERORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY A qualitative discussion of a successful theory of superconductivity was given by Bardeen, Copper and Schrieffer, known as BCS theory after the initials of their names. This theory accounts for all properties of superconductors. (a) Electron phonon Interaction. BCS theory showed that the basic interaction responsible for superconductivity appears to be that of a pair of electrons by means of an interchange of virtual phonons. This is explained as follows:Suppose an electron approaches a positive ion core. It suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attraction ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice. Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the energy of the second electron. The two electrons therefore interact indirectly, via lattice distortion or the phonon field, thus lowering the energy of electrons. This type of interaction is called electronlattice is quantized in terms of phonons the above interaction can also be interpreted as electron electron interaction through phonons. Let an electron of wave vector K emits phonon q, which is absorbed by an electron of wave number K .K is thus scattered as K-q and K as K q the process being a virtual one. The nature of the resulting electron-electron interactions depends on the relative magnitudes of the electronic energy change and the phonon energy. If this phonon energy exceeds electronic energy, the interaction is attractive. (b) Copper Pairs. The fundamental postulate of BCS theory is that the superconductivity occurs when an attractive interaction mentioned above, between two electrons by means of a phonon exchange, dominate the usual repulsive coulomb interaction. Two such electrons which interact attractively in the phonon field are called copper pair. (c) Coherence length. The paired electrons are not scattered and can maintain their coupled motion up to certain distance called the coherence length. It is a measure of the distance within which the gap parameter does not change very much in varying magnetic field.

Chapter 3 THE BASICS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 1. ORIGIN OF QUANTUM HYPOTHESIS Broadly, there are two types of mechanics called classical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics or physics explained successfully motion of the objects

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which can either be observed directly or can be made observable by instruments like microscope. But, the classical mechanics can not explain the mechanics of subatomic particles like electron, proton, neutron etc. Then there comes in picture the quantum mechanics, which explain the mechanics of these subatomic particles successfully. Following examples will show that classical mechanics was inadequate to give explanation of observed facts: (a) Photoelectric effect: when a photon of light falls on the metal surface and if the frequency of light is more than the certain minimum frequency (called threshold frequency), then electrons are ejected from metal surface. This effect is known as photoelectric effect. According to classical theory of light, there should be no threshold frequency, the photoelectric current should increase with increase in frequency of light and kinetic energy of ejected electrons should increase with increase in intensity of light. There must also be a finite delay between the incidence of photons and ejection of electrons from metal surface. But experimental results were totally opposite ,like, photoelectric effect is instantaneous ,and other observations were contradicted to aforementioned classical theory based observations. Therefore classical mechanics failed to explain the photoelectric effect. These observations successfully later on by Einsteins theory of photoelectric emission, which is based on Plancks Quantum theory of Radiation. (b) Stability of atom: Atomic model prepared by Rutherford was based on classical physics. This model assumes the atom to be consisting of a positively charged nucleus in the centre and negatively charged electrons revolved the nucleus in the circular orbit. Classical theory says that whenever a charged particle undergoes accelerated motion, it emits electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, an electron must emit energy continuously as its motion is accelerated. Thus, the orbital radius should decrease continuously and ultimately electron would fall in to nucleus. Therefore, an atom would collapse at the end. But, this does not happen. As atom is stable and stability of atom could not be established by classical physics .This stability of atom was explained by Bohrs quantum theory of atom. Conclusion Similarly, there were a lot of other observations like black body radiation, optical spectra, Compton Effect etc. which were not explained by classical mechanics. Therefore, it can be concluded that classical mechanics is inadequate to discuss the subatomic phenomenon. Hence, there is a need to introduce a new theory, which can deal with mechanics or motion of the subatomic or microscopic particles. Thus, the quantum hypothesis originated and the branch of physics dealing with motion of subatomic particles is called quantum mechanics. 2. MATTER WAVES : dE-BROGLIE CONCEPT

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In 1924, Lewis de-Broglie proposed that matter has dual characteristic just like radiation. His concept about the dual nature of matter was based on the following observations:(a) The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiations. Since both are forms of energy so can be transformed into each other. (b) The matter loves symmetry. As the radiation has dual nature, matter should also possess dual character. According to his hypothesis, a moving particle (e,p,n) has wave property associated with it. The waves associated with moving particles are matter waves or de-Broglie waves. 2.1 WAVELENGTH OF DE-BROGLIE WAVES Consider a photon whose energy is given by E=h=hc/ - - (1) If a photon possesses mass (rest mass is zero), then according to the theory of relatively, its energy is given by E=mc2 - - (2) From (1) and (2) ,we have Mass of photon m= h/c Therefore Momentum of photon P=mc=hc/c=h/ - - (3) Or = h/p If instead of a photon, we consider a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v,then the momentum of the particle ,p=mv. Therefore, the wavelength of the wave associated with this moving particle is given by: h/mv Or = h/p (But here p = mv) (4) This wavelength is called DE-Broglie wavelength. Special Cases: a). de-Broglie wavelength for material particle: If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle of mass m moving with velocity v,then E=1/2 mv2=1/2 m2v2=p2/2m Or p=2mE Therefore the by putting above equation in equation (4), we get de-Broglie wavelength equation for material particle as: = h/2mE - - (5) b). de-Broglie wavelength for particle in gaseous state: According to kinetic theory of gases , the average kinetic energy of the material particle is given by 62

E=(3/2) kT Where k=1.38 x 10-23 J/K is the Boltzmanns constant and T is the absolute temperature of the particle. Also E = p2/2m Comparing above two equations, we get: p2/2m = (3/2) kT or p = /3mKT Therefore Equation (4) becomes =h/3mKT This is the de-Broglie wavelength for particle in gaseous state: c). de-Broglie wavelength for an accelerated electron: Suppose an electron accelerates through a potential difference of V volt. The work done by electric field on the electron appears as the gain in its kinetic energy That is E = eV Also E = p2/2m Where e is the charge on the electron, m is the mass of electron and v is the velocity of electron, then Comparing above two equations, we get: eV= p2/2m or p = 2meV Thus by putting this equation in equation (4), we get the the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron as = h/2meV 6.63 x 10-34/2 x 9.1 x 10-31 x1.6 x 10-19 V =12.27/V This is the de-Broglie wavelength for electron moving in a potential difference of V volt.

3. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle Statement: According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously within the wave packet. We know, group velocity of the wave packet is given by vg = / k Where is the angular frequency and k is the propagation constant or wave number But vg is equal to the particle velocity v Thus vg = v = / k (1) But =2f Where f is the frequency Therefore = 2 f (2)

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Also k=2 / Since de-Broglie wavelength =h/p By putting this value in equation of k, we get k=2p/ Therefore k=2 p / (3) Put equations (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get v= 2h f/2 p =h f / (4) Let the particle covers distance x in time t, then particle velocity is given by v = x/ t (5) Compare equations (4) and (5), we get x/ t=h f/ p Or x. p=h f t (6) The frequency f is related to t by relation t 1/ f (7) Hence equations (6) becomes x. p h A more sophisticated derivation of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle gives x. p=h/2 (8) This is the expression of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. As the particle is moving along x-axis, therefore, the momentum in equation (8) of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle should be the component of the momentum in the xdirection, thus equation Heisenbergs uncertainty principle can be written as, x. px=h/2 (9) Note: There can not be any uncertainty if momentum is along y direction. 3.1 Applications of Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle The Heisenberg uncertainty principle based on quantum physics explains a number of facts which could not be explained by classical physics. One of the applications is to prove that electron can not exist inside the nucleus. It is as follows:a) Non-existence of electrons in the nucleus In this article, we will prove that electrons cannot exist inside the nucleus. But to prove it, let us assume that electrons exist in the nucleus. As the radius of the nucleus in approximately 10-14 m. If electron is to exist inside the nucleus, then uncertainty in the position of the electron is given by x= 10-14 m According to uncertainty principle, x px =h/2 Thus px=h/2 x Or px =6.62 x10-34/2 x 3.14 x 10-14 px=1.05 x 10-20 kg m/ sec If this is p the uncertainty in the momentum of electron ,then the momentum of electron should be at least of this order, that is p=1.05*10-20 kg m/sec.

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An electron having this much high momentum must have a velocity comparable to the velocity of light. Thus, its energy should be calculated by the following relativistic formula E= m20 c4 + p2c2 E = (9.1*10-31)2 (3*108)4 + (1.05*10-20)2(3*108)2 = (6707.61*10-30) +(9.92*10-24) =(0.006707*10-24) +(9.92*10-24) = 9.9267*10-24 E= 3.15*10-12 J Or E=3.15*10-12/1.6*10-19 eV E= 19.6* 106 eV Or E= 19.6 MeV Therefore, if the electron exists in the nucleus, it should have an energy of the order of 19.6 MeV. However, it is observed that b-particles (electrons) ejected from the nucleus during b decay have energies of approximately 3 Me V, which is quite different from the calculated value of 19.6 MeV. Second reason that electron can not exist inside the nucleus is that experimental results show that no electron or particle in the atom possess energy greater than 4 MeV. Therefore, it is confirmed that electrons do not exist inside the nucleus.

b) Applications of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: The Radius of Bohrs First Orbit In one of my earlier articles, I have discussed the one the applications of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle that is non-existence of electron in the nucleus. Let us discuss today the one more application of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle that is the determination of the radius of the Bohrs first orbit. Let us start: If x and px are the uncertainties in the simultaneous measurements of position and momentum of the electron in the first orbit, then from uncertainty principle x px = Where = h/2 Or px = / x (1) As kinetic energy is given as K = p2/2m Then uncertainty in K.E is K = p2x/2m Put equation (i) in above equation K= 2 /2m( x)2 (2) As potential energy is given by V= -1/40 Ze2/ x (3) The uncertainty in total energy is given by adding equations (2) and (3), that is E= K+ V = 2 /2( x)2 Ze2/40 x 65

If x = r= radius of Bohrs orbit, then E= 2 /2mr2 Ze2/40r (4) The Uncertainty in total energy will be minimum if d( E)/dr=0 and d2(( E)/dr2 is positive Differentiating equation (4) w.r.t. r, we get (5) d( E)/dr=0= - 2/mr3+Ze2/4 0r2 For minimum value of E d( E)/dr=0= - 2/mr2+Ze2/4 0r2 or Ze2/4 0r2= 2/mr3 Or r=4 0 2/me2 (6) Further differentiating equation (5), we get d2( E)/dr2=3 2/mr4-2Ze2/4 0r3 By putting value of r from equation (6) in above equation, we get positive value of d2( E)/dr2 Therefore equation (4) represents the condition of minimum in the first orbit. Hence, the radius of first orbit is given by r=4 0 2/me2=0.53 A (For H atom Z=1) Put value of r in equation (4), we get Emin= -13.6 e V This value is same as determined by using Bohrs theory. Therefore, with the help of Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, one can determine the radius of the Bohrs first orbit. 4. WAVE FUNCTION If there is a wave associated with a particle, then there must be a function to represent it. This function is called wave function. Wave function is defined as that quantity whose variations make up matter waves. It is represented by Greek symbol (psi), consists of real and imaginary parts. =A+iB 5. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTIONS (BORNS INTER PRETATION) Borns interpretation The wave function itself has no physical significance but the square of its absolute magnitude |2| has significance when evaluated at a particular point and at a particular time |2| gives the probability of finding the particle there at that time. The wave function (x,t) is a quantity such that the product P(x,t)=*(x,t)(x,t) Is the probability per unit length of finding the particle at the position x at time t. P(x,t) is the probability density and *(x,t) is complex conjugate of (x,t) Hence the probability of finding the particle is large wherever is large and vice-versa. 6. NORMALIZATION CONDITION The probability per unit length of finding the particle at position x at time t is P=*(x,t)(x,t) So, probability of finding the particle in the length dx is Pdx=*(x,t)(x,t)dx Total probability of finding the particle somewhere along x-axis is

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-4 pdx =-4 *(x,t)(x,t)dx If the particle exists , it must be somewhere on the x-axis . so the total probability of finding the particle must be unity i.e. -+ *(x,t)(x,t)dx=1 (1) This is called the normalization condition . So a wave function (x,t) is said to be normalized if it satisfies the condition(1) 7. ORTHOGONAL WAVE FUNCTIONS Consider two different wave functions m and n such that both satisfies Schrodinger equation .These two wave functions are said to be orthogonal if they satisfy the conditions. Or n* (x,t) m(x,t) dV=0 for nm] ( 1) n* (x,t) m(x,t) dV=0 for mn ] If both the wave functions are simultaneously normal then m m* d V=1=nn* dV (2) Orthonormal wave functions The sets of wave functions , which are both normalized as well as orthogonal are called orthonormal wave functions. Equations(16) and (17) are collectively written as *mndV={ o if mn =[1 if m=n 8. SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION 8.1 TIME DEPENDENT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION In quantum mechanics, the wave function corresponds to the variable y of wave motion. We know that the wave function for a particle is given by (x,t)=A exp[-i(t-kx)] Put =2 and K=2/h (x,t)=A exp[ -i(2vt-2/h x)] (1) If E= total energy of the particle P= momentum of the particle then E=hv=2/p Where = h/2 Putting in equation (1), we get (x,t)= A exp[-i(E/ t p/ x)] (x,t) = A exp[-i/ (Et-px)] (2) This equation is a description of the wave equivalent of a free particle moving in the +ve x- direction. But generally we are interested in situations where particle is not free i.e it is subjected to some external force. Differentiating equation (2) w.r.t. x d/d x =A exp[-i/ (Et-px] / x[-i/h(Et-px)] = A exp[-i/ (Et-px)](i/ p) d/ dx = Aip/ exp[-i/ (Et-px)] Again differentiating wr.t. x d/d x2 =Aip/ exp[ -i/ (Et-px)](i/ p) = A(ip/ )2 exp [-i/ (Et-px)] d/dx2= -p2/h2 (3)[ using equation(2)] Or p2 = - 2 d2/ dx2

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Also on differentiating (2) wr.t. t ,we get d(x,t)/dt= A exp [-i/ (Et-px)] (-i/ E) d/dt =-(i/ ) E or E =(i ) / t (4) When the particle is acted upon by a force then its total energy is the sum of Kinetic and potential energies i.e. Total energy = Kinetic energy + potential energy E=p2/2m +V E = p2/2m + V (5) Putting equations (3) and (4) in equations (5), we get -/t d/dt=-h2/2m d2/dx2+V i d/dt= - 2/2m( /x2) + V (6) Which is time dependent form of Schroedinger wave equation In three dimensional form i /t =- 2/2m(d2/dx2+ d2/dy2+ d/dz2)+ V where the particle potential V is a function of x,y,z and t . Any restriction on the particle motion will effect the potential energy V. once V is known, Schroedinger equation may be solved for the wave function of the particle form where 2 may be determined. 8.2 Time Independent Schrdinger Wave Equation As discussed in the article of time dependent Schrodinger wave equation: V=A exp[-i/(Et-px] = A exp(-i/ Et) exp(i/) = exp(-iEt/) (1) Where = h/2 So, is a product of a time dependent function exp(-i/ Et) and a position dependent function = A exp(-i/ px) Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t.x, We have d/dx = exp(-i/Et) d/dx and d2/dx2= exp(-i/ Et) d2/dx2 (2) Also on differentiating w.r.t. t, we have d/dt= exp (-iEt/) (I E/) d/dt=-(iE/) exp(-I Et/) (3) Put equations [1-3] in time dependent Schrodinger wave equation (discussed earlier), i[-iE/ exp(-iEt/)]= -2/2m[exp(i/Et) d2/dx2] +V exp(iEt/) E exp(iEt/) = -2/2m exp(i/ Et) d2/dx2 + V exp(iEt/) Dividing throughout by expression (i/ Et) we have E= (-2/2) d2/dx2+V Or (E-V)=-2/2m d/dx2 d2/dx2 + (2m/2)(E-V) (4) This is time independent form of Schrdinger wave equation in one dimension. In three-dimensional form: d2 /dx2+ d2/dy2+ d2/ d2x2+2m/2(E-V)=0 In this equation, equation, (x) is also called the wave function. The potential V(x) does not contain the time explicitly and E, the total energy of the particle is a constant. 68

9. APPLICATIONS OF SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION Particle in One- dimensional Box Consider one dimensional closed box of width L. A particle of mass m is moving in a one-dimensional region along X-axis specified by the limits x=0 and x=L as shown in fig. The potential energy of particle inside the box is zero and infinity elsewhere. I.e Potential energy V(x) is of the form V(x) = {o; if o<x<L : elsewhere

The one-dimensional time independent Schrdinger wave equation is given by d2/dx2+ 2m/2[E-V] =0 (1) Here we have changed partial derivatives in to exact because equation now contains only one variable i.e x-Co-ordinate. Inside the box V(x) =0 Therefore the Schrdinger equation in this region becomes d2//dx2+ 2m/2E=0 Or d2/dx2+ K2=0 (2) 2 Where k= 2mE/h (3) K is called the Propagation constant of the wave associated with particle and it has dimensions reciprocal of length. The general solution of eq (2) is =A sin Kx + B cos K x (4) Where A and B are arbitrary conditions and these will be determined by the boundary conditions. (ii) Boundary Conditions

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The particle will always remain inside the box because of infinite potential barrier at the walls .So the probability of finding the particle outside the box is zero i.e.x=0 outside the box. We know that the wave function must be continuous at the boundaries of potential well at x=0 and x=L, i.e. (x)=0 at x=0 (5) (x)=0 at x= L (6) These equations are known as Boundary conditions. (iii) Determination of Energy of Particle Apply Boundary condition of eq.(5) to eq.(4) 0=A sin (X*0) +B cos (K*0) 0= 0+B*1 B=0 (7) Therefore eq.(4) becomes (x) = A sin Kx (8) Applying the boundary condition of eq.(6) to eq.(8) ,we have 0=A sin KL Sin KL=0 KL=n K=n/L (9) Where n= 1, 2, 3 - - - A Cannot be zero in eq. (9) because then both A and B would be zero. This will give a zero wave function every where which means particle is not inside the box. Put this value of K in eq. (3) n/L = 2m E/2 Squaring both sides n22/L2=2mE/2 E=n222/2mL2 Where n= 1, 2, 3 Is called the Quantum number As E depends on n, we shall denote the energy of particle ar En. Thus En= n222/2mL2 (10) (iv) Energy level diagram When n=1 E1= (1)2n22/2mL2=22/2mL2 It is called the Ground state energy of the particle. When n=1, the state of the particle is called Ground state. When n= 2, 3, 4 then corresponding states of the particle are called Excited states. The energies of excited states are E2= (2)2n22/2mL2 =422/2mL2=4E1

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E3 =(3)2 22/2mL2=922/2mL2=9E1 The energy of the particle in the box is quantized because a particle inside the infinite potential well cannot have any arbitrary energy but only discrete energy values given by E1,E2,E3,. The energy separation between successive levels is not uniform. Zero point energy . The minimum allowed energy to the particle in infinite potential well is called Zero point Energy. E1=22/2mL2(zero point energy) (11) Wave functions. Substitute the value of K from eq. (9) in eq. (8) to get (x)=A sin(n/Lx) As the wave function depends on quantum number so we write it n. Thus n=A sin (nx/L)0<x<L (12) n=0 outside the box (v) Determination of Normalization constant The Normalization condition is given by -4- n n* dx=1 (13) As the wave function of particle exists in the region 0 to L and zero outside. L0 n*ndx=1 Thus L0 A sin (nx/L) A sin (nx/L)dx=1 A2L0sin2(nx/L)dx=1 A2L0 (1-cos2(nx/L)/2)dx=1 A2/2 L0 (1-cos 2nx/L)dx=1 A2/2 [L0 dx- L0 cos 2nx/L dx]=1 A2/2[(x)0L [sin 2nx/L/(2n/L)])=1 A2//2 [(L-0) L/2n(sin 2nL/L-sin 0)]=1 A2/2 [L-L/2n(sin2n-sin0]=0 A2/2[L-0]=0 A2=2/L A=2/L=(2/L)1/2 Substitute in eq. (12) ,we have n=2/l sin(nx/L)

(14)

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