Coaching Process A

Learning and the Learner

Aims
 Aims

• The learning process

 Aims

• The learning process

• The learner
 Aims

• The learning process

• The learner
• Measuring learning
 Aims

• The learning process

• The learner
• Measuring learning
• The stages of learning
The Learning Process
 The Learning Process

• There are two main theories of learning the

behaviourist approach and the constructivist
approach
 The Learning Process

• There are two main theories of learning the

behaviourist approach and the constructivist
approach
• It is important to note that these approaches not a
particular pedagogy. These theories describe how
learning happens.
Behaviourist Approach
 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.
 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.

• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers.

They cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.
 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.

• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers.

They cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.

• Continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning.

 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.

• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers.

They cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.

• Continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning.

• Intermittent reinforcement contributes to longer retention of what is

learned.
 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.

• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers.

They cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.

• Continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning.

• Intermittent reinforcement contributes to longer retention of what is

learned.

• Both positive and negative reinforcement can shape behavior.

 Behaviourist Approach
• Pleasant experiences (such as rewards or praise) are positive rein-
forcers. They cause learners to make desired connections between
stimuli and responses.

• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers.

They cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.

• Continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning.

• Intermittent reinforcement contributes to longer retention of what is

learned.

• Both positive and negative reinforcement can shape behavior.

• A lack of any reinforcement can also shape behavior. If people receive no

acknowledgement of their behavior, they will likely change that behavior
until they receive some kind of reinforcement.
Constructivist Approach
 Constructivist Approach
• Through processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
 Constructivist Approach
• Through processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

• When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new

experience into an already existing framework without
changing that framework
 Constructivist Approach
• Through processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

• When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new

experience into an already existing framework without
changing that framework

• Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by

which failure leads to learning
 Constructivist Approach
• Through processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

• When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new

experience into an already existing framework without
changing that framework

• Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by

which failure leads to learning

• Humans do not make or find knowledge they construct or

build it
 Constructivist Approach
• Through processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

• When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new

experience into an already existing framework without
changing that framework

• Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by

which failure leads to learning

• Humans do not make or find knowledge they construct or

build it

• We invent concepts, models and schemes to make sense of

experiences
Alex & Dennis
 Behaviourist
orientations to learning
 Behaviourist
orientations to learning

• Law of Effect (Carlson & Buskist, 1997)

 Behaviourist
orientations to learning

• Law of Effect (Carlson & Buskist, 1997)

• Alex- smile and praise, press ups
 Behaviourist
orientations to learning

• Law of Effect (Carlson & Buskist, 1997)

• Alex- smile and praise, press ups
• Skinner went on to describe reinforcement in more
detail - positive & negative, presentation & removal
 Behaviourist
orientations to learning

• Law of Effect (Carlson & Buskist, 1997)

• Alex- smile and praise, press ups
• Skinner went on to describe reinforcement in more
detail - positive & negative, presentation & removal
• Law of Exercise
Constructivist approach
 Constructivist approach
• Socio-cultural learning perspective (Vygotsky),
cognitive approach (Piaget), ecological/collaborative
approach (Doyle)
 Constructivist approach
• Socio-cultural learning perspective (Vygotsky),
cognitive approach (Piaget), ecological/collaborative
approach (Doyle)
• Denis’s practice of opposition analysis would be
ecological because in puts athletes into a “natural” or
“realistic” setting
 Constructivist approach
• Socio-cultural learning perspective (Vygotsky),
cognitive approach (Piaget), ecological/collaborative
approach (Doyle)
• Denis’s practice of opposition analysis would be
ecological because in puts athletes into a “natural” or
“realistic” setting
• Denis’s practice of learning over a period of time
relates to Vygotsky’s socio-cultural learning
Behaviourist
 Behaviourist
Advantages
 Behaviourist
Advantages

• Control
 Behaviourist
Advantages

• Control

• Fitness
 Behaviourist
Advantages

• Control

• Fitness

• No ambiguity
 Behaviourist
Advantages

• Control

• Fitness

• No ambiguity

• Coach appears very

knowledgeable
 Behaviourist
Advantages Disadvantages

• Control

• Fitness

• No ambiguity

• Coach appears very

knowledgeable
 Behaviourist
Advantages Disadvantages

• Control • Some athletes feel

undervalued
• Fitness

• No ambiguity

• Coach appears very

knowledgeable
 Behaviourist
Advantages Disadvantages

• Control • Some athletes feel

undervalued
• Fitness
• Psychomotor domain
• No ambiguity developed at the expense of
cognitive domains
• Coach appears very
knowledgeable
Constructivist approach
 Constructivist approach
Advantages
 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development
 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation
 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation

• Athletes become confident in

own ability
 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation

• Athletes become confident in

own ability

• Athlete become more

independent
 Constructivist approach
Advantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation

• Athletes become confident in

own ability

• Athlete become more

independent
 Constructivist approach
Advantages Disadvantages

• Cognitive development

• Athletes feel they have input

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation

• Athletes become confident in

own ability

• Athlete become more

independent
 Constructivist approach
Advantages Disadvantages

• Cognitive development • Athletes and administrators

may worry about coaches
• Athletes feel they have input knowledge base

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more

innovation

• Athletes become confident in

own ability

• Athlete become more

independent
 Constructivist approach
Advantages Disadvantages

• Cognitive development • Athletes and administrators

may worry about coaches
• Athletes feel they have input knowledge base

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more • Sometimes a lack of respect for

innovation the coach

• Athletes become confident in

own ability

• Athlete become more

independent
 Constructivist approach
Advantages Disadvantages

• Cognitive development • Athletes and administrators

may worry about coaches
• Athletes feel they have input knowledge base

• Co-learning, shared ideas, more • Sometimes a lack of respect for

innovation the coach

• Athletes become confident in • Should be aware that athletes

own ability who share the same experience
do not necessarily share the
• Athlete become more same understanding
independent
Any Questions?
Learning Styles
 Learning Styles

• Activist
 Learning Styles

• Activist
• Reflectors
 Learning Styles

• Activist
• Reflectors
• Theorist
 Learning Styles

• Activist
• Reflectors
• Theorist
• Pragmatists
Activists
 Activists

• Open minded
 Activists

• Open minded
• Willingness to become involved
 Activists

• Open minded
• Willingness to become involved
• Like to be challenged
 Activists

• Open minded
• Willingness to become involved
• Like to be challenged
• Not afraid to make mistakes
 Activists

• Open minded
• Willingness to become involved
• Like to be challenged
• Not afraid to make mistakes
• Males are more likely to be activists
Reflectors
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
• Listen to what he coach has to say about
how to perform the skill
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
• Listen to what he coach has to say about
how to perform the skill
• Cautious
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
• Listen to what he coach has to say about
how to perform the skill
• Cautious
• May find alternative means to an end
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
• Listen to what he coach has to say about
how to perform the skill
• Cautious
• May find alternative means to an end
• Like to work in small groups or pairs
 Reflectors
• Prefer to think through problem before
trying
• Listen to what he coach has to say about
how to perform the skill
• Cautious
• May find alternative means to an end
• Like to work in small groups or pairs
• More females than males
Theorists
 Theorists
• Similar to reflectors
 Theorists
• Similar to reflectors
• More analytical but less cautious than
reflectors
 Theorists
• Similar to reflectors
• More analytical but less cautious than
reflectors
• Will only try out a movement that theory
suggests will work
 Theorists
• Similar to reflectors
• More analytical but less cautious than
reflectors
• Will only try out a movement that theory
suggests will work
• Prefer to work alone
Pragmatists
 Pragmatists
• More like activists
 Pragmatists
• More like activists
• Prefer to ‘give it a go’
 Pragmatists
• More like activists
• Prefer to ‘give it a go’
• They use some theorisation in that they
like to see if ideas will work
 Pragmatists
• More like activists
• Prefer to ‘give it a go’
• They use some theorisation in that they
like to see if ideas will work
• Unlike theorists and reflectors the have a
minimal amount of cognitive questioning
 Pragmatists
• More like activists
• Prefer to ‘give it a go’
• They use some theorisation in that they
like to see if ideas will work
• Unlike theorists and reflectors the have a
minimal amount of cognitive questioning
• Like to find out answers through actions
rather than reflection
Questions
 Questions

• Which learning style(s) are you?

 Questions

• Which learning style(s) are you?

• Are there any coaches/teachers that make it
harder for you to learn
 Questions

• Which learning style(s) are you?

• Are there any coaches/teachers that make it
harder for you to learn
• How might you structure sessions so that all
types of learner are included?
 Learning

• Visual
• Audible
• Kinaesthetic
Seven types of intelligence
Seven types of intelligence
1. Linguistic- Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing,
reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
Seven types of intelligence
1. Linguistic- Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing,
reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
2. Logical/Mathematical- Children with lots of logical intelligence
are interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are
drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
Seven types of intelligence
1. Linguistic- Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing,
reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
2. Logical/Mathematical- Children with lots of logical intelligence
are interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are
drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
3. Kinesthetic -These kids process knowledge through bodily
sensations. They are often athletic, dancers or good at crafts such
as sewing or woodworking.
Seven types of intelligence
1. Linguistic- Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing,
reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
2. Logical/Mathematical- Children with lots of logical intelligence
are interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are
drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
3. Kinesthetic -These kids process knowledge through bodily
sensations. They are often athletic, dancers or good at crafts such
as sewing or woodworking.
4. Spatial - These children think in images and pictures. They may
be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time
drawing, building with Leggos or daydreaming.
Seven types of intelligence
1. Linguistic- Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing,
reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
2. Logical/Mathematical- Children with lots of logical intelligence
are interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are
drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
3. Kinesthetic -These kids process knowledge through bodily
sensations. They are often athletic, dancers or good at crafts such
as sewing or woodworking.
4. Spatial - These children think in images and pictures. They may
be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time
drawing, building with Leggos or daydreaming.
Seven types of intelligence
 Seven types of intelligence

• 5. Musical-Musical children are always singing or drumming to

themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may
miss. These kids are often discriminating listeners.
 Seven types of intelligence

• 5. Musical-Musical children are always singing or drumming to

themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may
miss. These kids are often discriminating listeners.

• 6. Interpersonal-Children who are leaders among their peers,

who are good at communicating and who seem to understand
others' feelings and motives possess interpersonal intelligence.
 Seven types of intelligence

• 5. Musical-Musical children are always singing or drumming to

themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may
miss. These kids are often discriminating listeners.

• 6. Interpersonal-Children who are leaders among their peers,

who are good at communicating and who seem to understand
others' feelings and motives possess interpersonal intelligence.

• 7. Intrapersonal -These children may be shy. They are very

aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated
Any Questions?
Measuring Learning
 Measuring Learning

• Strictly speaking it is not possible to test learning

 Measuring Learning

• Strictly speaking it is not possible to test learning

• Coaches generally use three methods to assess
learning: retention tests, transfer tests and plotting
performance
 Measuring Learning

• Strictly speaking it is not possible to test learning

• Coaches generally use three methods to assess
learning: retention tests, transfer tests and plotting
performance
• Performance curves
Any questions?
Stages of learning
 Stages of learning

• Various authors have discussed the stages

of learning including Adams (1971), Fitts &
Posner (1967), Gentile (1972)
 Stages of learning

• Various authors have discussed the stages

of learning including Adams (1971), Fitts &
Posner (1967), Gentile (1972)
• Although they use differing terminology the
majority of authors are saying the same
thing.
Fitts & Posner (1967)
Fitts & Posner (1967)

Three stages of learning:

Fitts & Posner (1967)

Three stages of learning:

1. Verbal Cognitive stage
Fitts & Posner (1967)

Three stages of learning:

1. Verbal Cognitive stage
2. Motor stage
Fitts & Posner (1967)

Three stages of learning:

1. Verbal Cognitive stage
2. Motor stage
3. Autonomous stage
Verbal-Cognitive stage
 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task
 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements
 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements

• You should expect performance to halting, jerky, uncertain

and poorly timed with the external environment
 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements

• You should expect performance to halting, jerky, uncertain

and poorly timed with the external environment

• Demonstration, verbal, visual and reinforcement are useful at

this stage
 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements

• You should expect performance to halting, jerky, uncertain

and poorly timed with the external environment

• Demonstration, verbal, visual and reinforcement are useful at

this stage

• Coaches should consider the athletes dominant ‘intelligence’

 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements

• You should expect performance to halting, jerky, uncertain

and poorly timed with the external environment

• Demonstration, verbal, visual and reinforcement are useful at

this stage

• Coaches should consider the athletes dominant ‘intelligence’

• Coaches should encourage transfer

 Verbal-Cognitive stage
• Unfamiliar task

• A lot of time “talking to themselves”

• A lot of time thinking of corrections

• Rapid improvements

• You should expect performance to halting, jerky, uncertain

and poorly timed with the external environment

• Demonstration, verbal, visual and reinforcement are useful at

this stage

• Coaches should consider the athletes dominant ‘intelligence’

• Coaches should encourage transfer

• Coaches should encourage trial and error

Motor Stage
 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements
 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

• Refinement is also different for open and closed skills

 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

• Refinement is also different for open and closed skills

• Movement appears smoother, less mistakes are made and

learners are more able to anticipate
 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

• Refinement is also different for open and closed skills

• Movement appears smoother, less mistakes are made and

learners are more able to anticipate

• Learners are able to give their own feedback (to an extent)

and can detect their own errors
 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

• Refinement is also different for open and closed skills

• Movement appears smoother, less mistakes are made and

learners are more able to anticipate

• Learners are able to give their own feedback (to an extent)

and can detect their own errors

• This stage is generally longer than the verbal-cognitive stage

 Motor Stage
• Learners now posses most of the strategic and cognitive
elements

• Focus now shifts to refining the movement patterns

• Refinement is different for fast skills and slow skills

• Refinement is also different for open and closed skills

• Movement appears smoother, less mistakes are made and

learners are more able to anticipate

• Learners are able to give their own feedback (to an extent)

and can detect their own errors

• This stage is generally longer than the verbal-cognitive stage

• Feedback should be more precise and targeted

Autonomous stage
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention

• Motor programs develop to such an extent that the athlete

can control their actions for longer
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention

• Motor programs develop to such an extent that the athlete

can control their actions for longer

• Increased automaticity in their sensory analysis of the

environment
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention

• Motor programs develop to such an extent that the athlete

can control their actions for longer

• Increased automaticity in their sensory analysis of the

environment

• This increased capability frees high performers to engage in

higher-order cognitive activities
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention

• Motor programs develop to such an extent that the athlete

can control their actions for longer

• Increased automaticity in their sensory analysis of the

environment

• This increased capability frees high performers to engage in

higher-order cognitive activities

• Self confidence increases and the capability to detect mistakes

in highly developed
 Autonomous stage
• Not all learners will enter this stage

• Athletes produce their actions automatically with little or no

attention

• Motor programs develop to such an extent that the athlete

can control their actions for longer

• Increased automaticity in their sensory analysis of the

environment

• This increased capability frees high performers to engage in

higher-order cognitive activities

• Self confidence increases and the capability to detect mistakes

in highly developed

• Further improvement are hard to detect

Any Questions?
Summary
 Summary

• Behaviourist
 Summary

• Behaviourist
• Constructivist
 Summary

• Behaviourist
• Constructivist
• What are the learning styles?
 Summary

• Behaviourist
• Constructivist
• What are the learning styles?
• How can we as coaches measure learning?
 Summary

• Behaviourist
• Constructivist
• What are the learning styles?
• How can we as coaches measure learning?
• What are the stages of learning?