SS Basic Science Basic Science

Physics of Sound Physics of Sound

Dr. Omed Ghareb Abdullah
University of Sulaimani
Faculty of Science and Science Education
School of Science / Physics Department
omed.abdullah@univsul.net 1
The Nature of Waves The Nature of Waves
A wave is a traveling disturbance
two broad classifications of waves given how the two broad classifications of waves, given how the
medium (water, ground, air,) is disturbed
Longitudinal: the disturbance is parallel to the direction
of motion of the wave (e g sound waves) of motion of the wave (e.g. sound waves).
Transverse: the disturbance is perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the wave (e.g. Electromagnetic
waves). waves).
Transverse
Longitudinal
2
Sound Waves Sound Waves
Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects.
Sound waves are longitudinal. They can be
represented by either variations in pressure (gauge
) b di l t f i l t pressure) or by displacements of an air element.
Infrasonic 20 Hz 20000 Hz - Ultrasonic
Audible Range
3
Propagation of Sound
The sound produced by a vibrating object travels through a
medium to a listener. The medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
When an object vibrates the particles around the medium When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium
vibrates. The particle in contact with the vibrating object is first
displaced from its equilibrium position. It then exerts a force on
the adjacent particle and the adjacent particle is displaced from its the adjacent particle and the adjacent particle is displaced from its
position of rest. After displacing the adjacent particle the first
particle comes back to its original position. This process repeats
in the medium till the sound reaches the ear. in the medium till the sound reaches the ear.
The disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through
the medium but the particles do not move forward themselves.
A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the
vibration of the particles of the medium. So sound is considered
as a wave. Since sound waves are produced due to the vibration
of particles of the medium sound waves are called mechanical of particles of the medium sound waves are called mechanical
waves.
4
The middle of a
compression compression
(rarefaction)
corresponds to a
pressure maximum pressure maximum
(minimum).
5
The Speed of Sound Waves The Speed of Sound Waves
The speed of sound in different materials can be determined
as follows: as follows:
In fluids

B
v =
B is the bulk modulus of
the fluid and its density.

Y
Y is the Youngs modulus of
In thin solid rods

Y
v =
Y is the Young s modulus of
the solid and its density.
( ) m/s 606 0 331 T v +
For air, a useful approximation to the above expression is
6
( ) m/s 606 . 0 331
C
T v + =
where T
c
is the air temperature in C.
Materials that have a high restoring force (stiffer) will have a
higher sound speed. g p
Materials that are denser (more inertia) will have a lower
sound speed.
7
Example
A copper alloy has a Youngs Modulus of 1.110
11
Pa
and a density of 8 9210
3
kg/m
3
What is the speed
p
and a density of 8.9210
3
kg/m
3
. What is the speed
of sound in a thin rod made of this alloy?
m/s 3500
k / 10 9 8
Pa 10 1 . 1
3 3
11
=

= =
Y
v
kg/m 10 9 . 8
3 3

8
Example
Bats emit ultrasonic sound waves with a frequency
as high as 1 010
5
Hz What is the wavelength of
p
as high as 1.010 Hz. What is the wavelength of
such a wave in air of temperature 15.0 C?
( ) m/s 606 . 0 331
C
T v + =
The speed of sound in
air of this temperature
is 340 m/s.
m/s 340 v
m 10 4 . 3
Hz 10 1.0
m/s 340
3
5

= =
f
v

9
Example
A lightning flash is seen in the sky and 8.2 seconds
later the boom of thunder is heard. The temperature
p
of the air is 12.0 C.
(a) What is the speed of sound in air at that temperature?
(b) How far away is the lightning strike?
The speed of sound in
( ) m/s 606 . 0 331
C
T v + =
The speed of sound in
air of this temperature
is 338 m/s.
(a)
( )( ) k 2 8 2800 2 8 / 338 t d
10
( )( ) km 2.8 m 2800 s 2 . 8 m/s 338 = = = = vt d (b)
Amplitude & Intensity of
Sound Waves
Intensity: the amount of energy transported through a Intensity: the amount of energy transported through a
given area per unit of time.
Amplitude and intensity are directly proportional.
The louder the sound, the larger the amplitude.
SI unit: decibels (dB)
2
2
0
p I p
0
is the pressure amplitude and
2
0
s I
s
0
is the displacement amplitude.
The intensity of sound waves also
11
The intensity of sound waves also
follow an inverse square law.
Sound Loudness
Loudness of a sound is measured by the logarithm
of the intensity of the intensity.
The threshold of hearing is at an intensity of: The threshold of hearing is at an intensity of:
10
12
W/m
2
.
S d i t it l l i d fi d b Sound intensity level is defined by
I
( )
0
log dB 10
I
I
= | dB are decibels
12
Example
The sound level 25 m from a loudspeaker is 71 dB.
What is the rate at which sound energy is being
p
What is the rate at which sound energy is being
produced by the loudspeaker, assuming it to be an
isotropic source, and I
o
=10
-12
W/m
2
? p
o
( ) dB 71 log dB 10
0
= =
I
I
|
Given:
1 . 7 log =
I
I
Solve for I, the intensity of a sound wave:
1 . 7
0
10
g
=
I
I
I
13
( )( )
2 5 1 . 7 2 12 1 . 7
0
0
W/m 10 3 . 1 10 W/m 10 10

= = = I I
I
The intensity of an isotropic source is defined by: The intensity of an isotropic source is defined by:
2
=
P
I
4
4
2
2
= t
t
r I P
r
( )
Watts 10 0
m 25 4 ) W/m 10 3 . 1 (
2
2 5
=
=

t
Watts 10 . 0 =
P: rate of sound energy (energy per unit of time)
14
Example
Two sounds have levels of 80 dB and 90 dB.
What is the difference in the sound intensities?
p
( ) dB 90 log dB 10
0
2
= =
I
I
| ( ) dB 80 log dB 10
0
1
= =
I
I
|
0
1
0
2
1 2
log log dB 10 dB 10
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
I
I
I
I
| |
Subtracting:
1
2
log dB 10 dB 10
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
I
1
2
1 log =
|
|
.
|

\
|
I
I
15
1
1
2
10 =
I
I
and I
2
= 10I
1
16
Standing Waves Standing Waves
Standing Wave When two identical waves move
through each other in opposite directions, creating a
repeating pattern of waves that seem not to travel.
Which standing wave is the most basic (fundamental)?
How much of a full wavelength is it? 17
Standing Sound Waves Standing Sound Waves
Consider a pipe open at both ends:
The ends of the pipe are open to the atmosphere. The
18
open ends must be pressure nodes (and displacement
antinodes).
The distance between two adjacent antinodes is .
Each pair of antinodes must have a node in between.
The fundamental mode (it has the fewest number of
antinodes) will have a wavelength of 2L.
The next standing wave pattern to satisfy the conditions at
th d f th i ill h d d the ends of the pipe will have one more node and one more
antinode than the previous standing wave. Its wavelength
will be L.
The general result for standing waves in a tube open at
both ends is:
n
L
n
2
= where n = 1, 2, 3,
nv v
19
1
2
nf
L
nv v
f
n
n
= = =

f
1
is the fundamental frequency.
Now consider a pipe open at one end and closed at the other
As before, the end of the pipe open to the atmosphere
must be a pressure node (and a displacement antinode). p ( p )
20
The closed end of the pipe must be a displacement node
(and a pressure antinode).
One end of the pipe is a pressure node, the other a pressure
antinode. The distance between a consecutive node and
antinode is one-quarter of a wavelength.
Here, the fundamental mode will have a wavelength of 4L.
The next standing wave to satisfy the conditions at the ends
of the pipe will have one more node and one more antinode
than the previous standing wave Its wavelength will be than the previous standing wave. Its wavelength will be
(4/3)L.
The general result for standing waves in a tube open at g g p
one end and closed at the other is
L 4
=
where n = 1 3 5 (odd values only!!)
n
n
=
where n = 1, 3, 5, (odd values only!!)
nf
nv v
f = = = f
1
is the fundamental frequency
21
1
4
nf
L
f
n
n
= = =

f
1
is the fundamental frequency.
Example
An organ pipe that is open at both ends has a
fundamental frequency of 382 Hz at 0 0 C
p
fundamental frequency of 382 Hz at 0.0 C.
What is the fundamental frequency for this pipe at
20.0 C?
At T
c
= 0.0 C, the speed of sound is 331 m/s.
c
p
At T
c
= 20.0 C, the speed of sound is 343 m/s.
The fundamental frequency is
L
v v
f
2
1
1
= =

22
The ratio of the fundamental frequencies at the two
t t i temperatures is:
2
20
v
L
v
f
04 . 1
2
2
0
20
0
0 , 1
20 , 1
= = =
v
v
L
v
L
f
f
Hz 396 04 . 1
0 , 1 20 , 1
= = f f
How long is this organ pipe?
v
43 0
2
1
=
v
L
L
v
f Using either
set of v and f
1
.
23
m 43 . 0
2
1
= =
f
L
How we hear?
24
How we hear? How we hear?
Ear consists of 3 main parts Ear consists of 3 main parts
Outer Ear gathers and focuses sound
Middle Ear receives and amplifies
vibrations
Inner Ear uses nerve endings to sense
vibrations and send signals to the brain g
25
26
a) Threshold of hearing (0 db)
b) Th h ld f i (120 db) b) Threshold of pain (120 db)
27
Beats Beats
When two waves with nearly the same frequency are y y
superimposed, the result is a pulsation called beats.
28
Two waves of
different
frequency
Superposition
of the above
waves waves
The beat frequency is
2 1
f f f = A
If th b t f d b t 15 H th ill
29
If the beat frequency exceeds about 15 Hz, the ear will
perceive two different tones instead of beats.
The Doppler Effect The Doppler Effect
When a moving object emits a sound, the wave crests
appear bunched up in front of the object and appear to be appear bunched up in front of the object and appear to be
more spread out behind the object. This change in wave
crest spacing is heard as a change in frequency.
The results will be similar when the observer is in motion
and the sound source is stationary and also when both the
sound source and observer are in motion sound source and observer are in motion.
30
The Doppler Effect formula
v
|
|

|
f
o
is the observed frequency.
s
o
o
f
v
v
v
f
|
|
|
|
|

|

=
1 f
s
is the frequency emitted by the source.
v
o
is the observers velocity.
s
v
v
|
|
.

\
1
v
s
is the sources velocity.
v is the speed of sound.
Note: take v
s
and v
o
to be positive when they
move in the direction of wave propagation and move in the direction of wave propagation and
negative when they are opposite to the direction
of wave propagation.
31
p p g
Example
A source of sound waves of frequency 1.0 kHz is
stationary An observer is traveling at 0 5 times the
p
stationary. An observer is traveling at 0.5 times the
speed of sound.
(a) What is the observed frequency if the observer (a) What is the observed frequency if the observer
moves toward the source?
f
o
is unknown; f
s
= 1.0 kHz; v
o
= 0.5v; v
s
= 0;
and v is the speed of sound.
kHz 5 . 1 5 . 1
0
5 . 0
1 1
= =
|
|
|
|

=
|
|
|
|

|

= f f
v
v
f
v
v
f
s s
o
o
32
0
1 1
|
|
.

\

|
|
.

\

f f
v
f
v
v
f
s s
s
o
(b) Repeat, but with the observer moving in the
other direction.
f i k f 1 0 kH 0 5 0 f
o
is unknown; f
s
= 1.0 kHz; v
o
= +0.5v; v
s
= 0;
and v is the speed of sound.
5 . 0
1 1
|
|

|
+

|
|

|

v v
o
kHz 5 . 0 5 . 0
0
1 1
= =
|
|
|
|
.

\

=
|
|
|
|
.

\

= f f
v
v
f
v
v
v
f
s s
s
o
. \ . \ v v
33
Echo location Echo location
Sound waves can be sent out from a transmitter of
t th ill fl t ff bj t th some sort; they will reflect off any objects they
encounter and can be received back at their source.
The time interval between emission and reception can The time interval between emission and reception can
be used to build up a picture of the scene.
34
Example
A boat is using sonar to detect the bottom of a
freshwater lake. If the echo from a sonar signal is
p
g
heard 0.540 s after it is emitted, how deep is the
lake? Assume the lakes temperature is uniform
and at 25 C ,(the speed of sound in freshwater is
1493 m/s).
The signal travels two times the depth of the lake so the
one-way travel time is 0.270 s.
( )( ) m 403 s 270 0 m/s 1493
depth
= =
A = t v
35
( )( ) m 403 s 270 . 0 m/s 1493
Example
A bat emits chirping sounds of frequency 82.0 kHz while
h ti f th t t If th b t i fl i t d
p
hunting for moths to eat. If the bat is flying toward a
moth at a speed of 4.40 m/s and the moth is flying away
from the bat at 1.20 m/s, what is the frequency of the from the bat at 1.20 m/s, what is the frequency of the
wave reflected from the moth as observed by the bat?
Assume T = 10.0 C.
The speed of sound in air of this temperature is 337 m/s.
( ) m/s 606 . 0 331
C
T v + =
36
The flying bat emits sound of f = 82.0 kHz that is received
by a moving moth. The frequency observed by the moth is: by a moving moth. The frequency observed by the moth is:
/ 337
m/s 2 . 1
1 1
|
|
|

|
+

|
|
|

|

o
v
( ) kHz 8 . 82 kHz 0 . 82
m/s 337
m/s 4 . 4
1
m/s 337
1
=
|
|
|
.

\
+

=
|
|
|
.

\

=
s
s
o
f
v
v
v
f
m/s 337 . \ . \ v
Some of the sound received by the moth will be reflected
back toward the bat The moth becomes the sound source back toward the bat. The moth becomes the sound source
(f = 82.8 kHz) and the bat is now the observer.
m/s 4 4
| | | |
( ) kHz 6 . 83 kHz 8 . 82
m/s 2 . 1
m/s 337
m/s 4 . 4
1 1
=
|
|
|
|
|

=
|
|
|
|
|

|

=
s
o
o
f
v
v
v
f
37
m/s 337
m/s 2 . 1
1 1
|
|
.

\

|
|
.

\

s
v
v
Ultrasound Ultrasound
Most people hear sounds between 20 and Most people hear sounds between 20 and
20,000 Hz.
Infrasound sound at frequencies lower than Infrasound sound at frequencies lower than
people usually hear (less than 20 Hz).
Ultrasound sound at frequencies higher Ultrasound sound at frequencies higher
than people usually hear.
Used in technologies such as sonar and Used in technologies such as sonar and
ultrasound imaging
38
Ultrasound Ultrasound
Sonar: a technique used to determine the
distance to an object under water distance to an object under water.
Ultrasound: medical technique used to take
pictures of different organs (or a fetus!)
SOund NAvigation and Ranging
39
Fourier Transform Fourier Transform
It is possible to take any periodic function of time x(t) p y p ( )
and resolve it into an equivalent infinite summation of
sine waves and cosine waves with frequencies that start
at 0 and increase in integer multiples of a base g p
frequency = 1/T, where T is the period of x(t).
Mathematically, we can say the same thing with this
equation: equation:
)) 2 sin( ) 2 cos( ) (
0 0
1
0
t kf b t kf a a t x
k
k
k
t t + =

+
This equation does NOT tell how to compute the Fourier
transform, that is, how we get the coefficients a
1
a

and
1 k =
g
1
b
1
b

.
40
Fourier Analysis Fourier Analysis
Most Complex Sounds Are Composites of MostComplexSoundsAreCompositesof
MultipleSimpleFrequencies
FundamentalsandHarmonics
SoundComplexity:Perceivedpsychologicallyas
TIMBRE(sound quality).Timbreisafunctionof
thenumber,intensity,anddurationofharmonic
frequenciesassociatedwithacomplexsound
complex sound wave simple sound wave
41
aa
a
v
e
a
v
e
Fundamental (pitch)
s
i
s

o
f

s
i
s

o
f

d

W
a
d

W
a
A
n
a
l
y
s
A
n
a
l
y
s
S
o
u
n
S
o
u
n
r
i
e
r

A
r
i
e
r

A
p
l
e
x

S
p
l
e
x

S
Harmonics (timbre)
F
o
u
r
F
o
u
r
C
o
m
p
C
o
m
p
Is there an
easier way
CC
to see this?
+ + + +
=
42
Sharp bends imply high frequencies Sharp bends imply high frequencies
Leaving out the
high frequency
components components
smoothes the
curves
Low pass filter
removes high
frequencies frequencies
Makes the sound
less shrill or bright
43
Examples Examples
44