Measurements

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Text Book : Measurement Systems Application and Design ,E.O.Loebelin,1975 References : Experimental Methods for Engineers, by J.P Holman,1990

Contents :1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction and the Basic Concepts The Generalized Mathematical Models of Measuring System Vibration and Motion Measurements Electrical Signal and Signal Processing Resistive Strain Gage Temperature ,Flow and Pressure Measurements

I-Introduction and the Basic Concepts

Measurements Science: Deals with the analysis of instrumentations and their Basic Concepts and Definitions
Measuring instruments or devices may be regarded as a controlling systems in which the input represents the desired measuring physical quantity, the out put is the actual reading of the instrument, and the controlling processes are the elements of the device that covert the input variable to another more suitable variable, to provide the necessary information or display the out put. For example in the thermometer see the figure below- we wish to measure the temperature of a fluid (i.e: the input is fluid temperature Ti), the device function is to convert the thermal energy to a variable displacement due to the expansion of the mercury (i.e: thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy) this variable displacement can be simply read by eye (i.e: the output is the variable displacement Xo) dynamical behaviors in order to reach the maximum performances and minimize the error, for the most useful engineering applications, and, also for analyzing and controlling the physical variables.

Measuring instruments can be classified in several ways such as the following :Classification of Measuring Instruments According to their Functions :1. Monitoring of processes and operations: some applications of measuring instruments may be characterized as having monitoring function for example thermometers, barometers, are used to monitor the temperature and pressure of fluid and gas . 2. Control of processes and operations :in this case the measuring devices are used as a feedback controlling device (usually called a Transducers or Sensors) for the physical variables in controlling systems .for 1

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example in home heating systems the thermostat is widely used to maintain a specified temperature in this case the room temperature is measured by the bimetallic sensor which provide the information necessary for proper function of the thermostat 3. Experimental engineering analysis:-in solving engineering problems, theoretical and experimental methods are used, in some cases since theoretical analysis is not available or it is complicated to be solved the experiments methods can be served. Active and Passive Instruments Classification:When measuring device or transducer is attached a media it require some energy for its operation:If the operation of the device tend to absorbing a power from the media the device is called Passive transducer, for example the thermometer absorbed some thermal energy from the fluid media when it used to measure the fluid temperature In the other hand, if the device operates by an auxiliary source of power it is called Active transducer. for example the oscilloscope use the A supply for its operation and not need a power from the measuring media . Analog and Digital modes of operation Classification: Signals that vary in a continuous form and can take an infinity of values in any given rang are called analog signals .the devices that produce such signals are called analog device .for example Dial gage ,spring- type ammeter,thermomerter,..

Analog Signal Representation

Digital Signal Representation

On the other hand, signals that vary in discrete steps and can take only a finite number of different values in any given range are called a digital signal ,the devices produce such signal are called digital devices for example ,Digital voltmeter, wire wended potentiometer , Deflection and Null Types Classification:In Deflection- type device the measured quantity produce some physical effect that cause a similar but opposite effect in some part of the instrument this effect is usually a mechanical displacement and can easily observed by some human sense the opposing effect increase until a balance is reached at which the output is observed .for example the pressure gage ,dial gage ,thermometer, manometer In Null-type device attempts to maintain deflection at zero by suitable application of an effect opposing that generated by measured quantity for example the dead weight pressure gage ,normal balancer ,Winston bridge

Basic Definitions
The following are some of basic definitions and factors currently used in measuring devices;1. Readability :the ability of reading the measuring value ,depend on many factor like scale length, spacing of graduations 2. Sensitivity: is the smallest change in measuring variable can be detected by the output deflection or recorder . If the relation between the input X(t) and output Y(t) for a measuring device or transducer(or Transfer function) are known the sensitivity (k) calculated as:-. K= y /x 3. Hysterics: The different between reading when the measuring value taken at increasing and decreasing path. 2

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4. Accuracy: deviations of reading value from a known input. The deviation is called the error. The error can be caused by some factors: a) Due to instrument in- accuracy and uncertainty. b) Due to environmental variables. c) Due to human limitations d) Due to the wrong applications.

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5. Error and Uncertainty: when the measuring value is not known in this case the instrument reading can not be checked and yet we may feel confident that the instrument is within a certain plus or minus range of the true value .In such case we say that the plus or minus range express the uncertainty or error of the instrument reading. Let an instrument contain a number of independent variables x1,x2,x3 xn..and are related as follow:f = f (x1, x2, x3. xn) Let wR be the total uncertainty for the instrument and w1, w2, w3, wn .be uncertainties in the independent variables. Then the total uncertainty for the instrument can be calculated as follow :-

wR = [(w1 . f /x1)2 + (w2 . f /x2)2 +(w3 . f /x3)2 +.(wn . f /xn)2]1/2

Ex:1 An instrument function is depend on the change of resistance .If it use resistance of a certain size of copper wire and its properties given in the following relation:R=Ro[1+ (T-20)] Where Ro=60.3% at 20c, = 0.004c-11%, T= 30 1c.Calculate the nominal resistance and the uncertainty for the instrument Solution: The nominal value for the resistance is:R= 6 [ 1+(0.004)(30-20)]=6.24 The uncertainty of the components are :R/Ro =1+ (T-20) = 1+(0.004)(30-20) =1.04 R/ =Ro(T-20)=6 (30-20)=60 R/T=Ro = 6 (0.004)=0.024 w Ro =6 (0.003)=0.018 w =0.004(0.01)= 4x 10-5 wT =1 Thus the total uncertainty in resistance :wR = [(1.04)2 (0.018) 2+(60) 2 (4x 10-5) +(0.024) 2 (1)2] = 0.0305 or 0.49% Calibrations : to reduce errors in accuracy to the minimum ,calibration for instrument is necessary .It is achieved by checking the instrument reading against a known standard values .This process can be done either by using known input standard values (standard weights, standard velocities. Etc) or by comparing the instrument with another known accuracy or calibrated instrument.

The Static Measurements

When the measuring quantity is not various with time it called static .For example measuring the deflection under a load or measuring the DC voltage . etc.

The Dynamic Measurements

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Most measuring devices are deal with quantities various with time in this case we refer to a dynamic measurements like motion ,vibration ,flow ,heat flow In this case the measuring instrument is highly affected by some important factors

Dynamical properties for instrumentations:1. Amplitude and Frequency response: the ability of the system to react in a linear way to various input amplitude and frequencies so that the ratio of out put to input amplitude remains the same over the frequency range desired.

2. Time Delay, Rise time and Time constant: these factors are used in case of transient response to a step input and we shall discuses them in details in the Control subject. 3. Distortion: In many cases the output is differ from input in amplitude ,frequency and phase shift , this is due to the distortion in the instrument The distortion increases at poor frequency response or poor phase shift .There are many types of distortions:a) Amplitude distortion b) Frequency distortion c) Phase distortion

4. Usable range :is the range at which the response of instrument is as flat as possible .so that linear response can be get and out of this range the instrument error and the distortion become high and the device will lost its accuracy.

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Instrument impedance: (also called instrument loading error) .When the instrument is attached to
the measuring media or system it makes an external load on the measuring media for example when a dial- gage is used to measure the deflection of a beam the dial gage it self represent additional axial load or it add impedance to the system .this impedance can be calculated to minimize the error Ex2 :- if we wish to measure the voltage across the points A and B using the voltmeter as in figure below :-

We have: Where:

E AB =E (R/ R+Ri )

E AB: the measuring voltage E : the true voltage Ri : the internal resistance of the system. R : The resistance (impedance) of voltmeter In order for accurate reading of the voltmeter we must have:E AB = E This cannot be done exactly but we can approach this when R>>Ri

Types of measurements:In mechanical engineering applications the measuring devices can be calcified to the following basic types:1. Electric measurements (like AVO meter, Oscilloscope (CRO), Watt meter ) 2. Motion and vibration measurements (Seismic, accelerometer, Pizometer .) 3. Force, torque, and shaft power measurements( Strain gage ,Dynamometer 4. Pressure measurements (Pressure gage, Barometer .) 5. Flow measurements (Flow meter, Orifice and Venturi meter .) 6. Temperature and heat flux measurements( Thermometer ,Thermocouple )

The Generalized Measurement System.

Most measuring system may be divided to the following main three stages:1. Detection or transducer (or pick up ) stage :detect and change the physical variable to other effect (electrical ,mechanical) for suitable treatments in the next stage . 2. Intermediate stage: In this stage the detected signal has some processing like filtration, amplification to make it easy to record or controlled. 3. Terminating stage: In this stage the final output for the measuring quantity either recorded or used for controlling process.

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Problems:
1. Consider an ordinary mercury thermometer as measuring system .Analyze it as a three-stage generalized system. Solution The first stage is the detection stage in which the mercury in the bulb represents the detector which senses the temperature and expands due the heat transfer from the media The second stage is the intermediate stage in which the amplification of mercury expansion due to the change in crosses sections between bulb and the capillary tube . The third stage is the terminate stage which represent the scale indicator due to mercury movements . 2. A thermometer is initially at 70F immersed in a liquid of 300F .If it indicate 200 F after 3 sec and 270F after 5 sec .Estimate the time constant for this device . Solution Initial temperature = 70F Steady state temperature = 300F To find the time constant we must calculate 63.2 % of (300-70) = 143.3F 143.3 + 70 = 213.3F From the known time and using the interpolation :We have at 200F the time is 3 sec time constant = (213.3/200) * 3 =3.2 sec 3. A certain obstruction type flow- meter used for measuring flow rate of air .The relation describing the flow rate is :m =C A [2g P1 (P1-P2) / R T] Where;C: Discharge coefficient = 0.92 0.005 P1; upstream pressure = 25 psia 0.5 psia T1= upstream temperature = 70 F 2 F P = 1.4 psia 0.005 psia A = 1 in2 0.001 in2 Calculate the uncertainty for this device . Solution :m = f (C,A,P1, P,T1) m/C= A (2 g P1 P/R T1) m/A= C(2 g P1 P/R T1) m/P1= 0.5A C (2 g P1 P/R T1) P1-1/2 6

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m/ P = 0.5 A C (2 g P1 P/R T1) P -1/2 m/T1= - C A (2 g P1 P/R T1) T1-3/2 The total uncertainty (Wm) relative to the nominal value of m is:Wm/ m = [(wc/C)2 +(wA/A) 2 + 1/4( wP1/P1) 2 + (w P/ P) 2 + ( wT1/T1) 2}1/2 =[(0.005/0.92)2 +(0.001/1) 2 + 1/4( 0.5/25) 2 + (0.005/ 1.4) 2 + ( 2/530) 2}1/2 = 1.172% 4. A resister has nominal stated value of 10 1 % .a voltage is impressed on the resister , and the power dissipation is to be calculated in two different ways ; (1) from P=E2/R and (2) from P= E I .In (1) only a voltage measurement will be made ,While in (2) both current and voltage will be measured . Which of the two methods is more accurate ? .When the measured values of E and I are :E = 100 V 1% , I = 10 A 1% Solution We must calculate the uncertainty for the two cases and select the case of minimum uncertainty For case (1) P= E2 / R P/E = 2E/R , P/R = -E2/R2 wp/P = [ 4( wE /E)2+ (wR/ R)2] 1/2 Substitute values given the result of uncertainty = 2.236 % For case (2) P= E I P/E = I , P/R = E wp/P = [ ( wE /E)2+ (wI / I)2] 1/2 Substitute values given the result of uncertainty = 1.414 % Then case (2) is more accurate 5. A meter has 20,000 used to measure voltage for electric circuit which has an internal resistance of 5000 .Find the percentage error in measuring the internal voltage . Solution We have E AB = E [R/ (R + R i)] E AB / E = [R/ (R + R i)] = 5000/(5000+20000) = 0.2 = 0.2 *100 =20%

Tutorial Sheet (1)

Q1: In a certain calibration test for a U- tube manometer the following data are obtained : Pressure (pas) 10 20 30 40 H (mm) 2 5 8 11 Find the sensitivity of the instrument . Q2: A power measuring instrument has the following relation between the force (F) and the angular movement ()of the scale : =0.26 W -20 Find the sensitivity for this instrument. Q3: prove that the accuracy (A) for an instrument is :A = qo/(qi K ); Where :7

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qo: out put ,qi : input ,K; sensitivity A diaphragm pressure transducer has sensitivity of 0.06 psi/ in.it has been shown that at 15 psi the diaphragm move 0. 5 in find the accuracy of the device . Q4:The characteristics curve for an ampere meter is as shown below ,find :a- the usable range b- the values of reading that give 40% error

Q5: Periodic force signal is recorded by using an oscilloscope ,the true and the recorded signals are shown below :-

Find the percentage values of ,phase distortion ,frequency distortion and Amplitude distortion Q6: It is required to measure the deflection of simply supported beam has 5000 (Nm2) rigidity and 0.5m length under loading range (0 to 1000N) by using a dial gage instrument. If the available gage has scale range of (0 to 3 mm ) suggest the best place to locate this device on the beam. Accept the deflection formula :( EI y = WL2/16- Wx3/12 ) Q7:A spring- type force measuring instrument has stiffness Ks ,if it to be used to measure the force at an external spring has stiffness K prove that the required condition for accurate measuring is:- Ks>>K

II-The Generalized Mathematical Models of Measuring System : see Pages 101 to 133 , Loebelin
Let an instrument contains (n) physical parameters denoted by ( a1,a2,an ) and (b1,b2,..bn) is used for measuring an input physical variable denoted by (qi) .Let the out put measuring value denoted 8

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by (qo) .The general dynamical mathematical model indicates the relations between the input and out put can be written in the following general D.E of the form :(an Dn + an-1 D n-1++ a1 D +ao)qo = (bn Dn + bn-1 D n-1++ b1 D +bo)qi ------- (1) Where : D represents the first differentiation with respect to time = ( d /dt ) D2 represents the second differentiation with respect to time = ( d2 /dt2 ) ., and so on . Such instrument is called the n-order instrument ,and the transfer function relating the input/output can be written as :(bn Dn + bn-1 D n-1++ b1 D +bo )

( qo/ qi)(D) = --------------------------------------(an Dn + an-1 D n-1++ a1 D +ao)

Spatial cases
1. The zero-order instrument:It is the simplest case and occurs when all derivatives (D) are zero, then (Eq.1) is reduced to the following algebraic equation:ao qo= bo qi Or, qo= k qi Where:k= bo/ ao is a static sensitivity Example: The Potentiometer (see figure below) it is a variable resistance available in linear or rotational types, It is used to detect axial or angular displacements ..

Linear Potentiometer

Angular Potentiometer

For axial potentiometer we have:e /E = x/L Static sensitivity = k = E/L E: supply voltage L: total length of potentiometer. x : axial displacement e : output voltage . For Angular potentiometer we have:e /E = / Static sensitivity = k = E/ 9

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E : supply voltage :total angle of potentiometer. : Angular displacement

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The zero-order instruments are an ideal device ,in practice this case is not true for example the potentiometer is not has a pure resistive it also contains some capacitance and inductance which are variable with the time (i.e .contain terms of D ),also when this device is used for motion measurement the moving parts which attach it will make some inertia force (also terms of D ) ,but their effects are so small and can be neglected . 2-The first-order instrument:In this case Eq.1 reduced to:(a1 D +ao)qo= boqi ----------------------------------------------------(2) In this case we define:Static sensitivity k= bo/ ao and , Time constant = a1/ ao (qo/ qi )(D) = K/ ( D +1) -------------------------------------- (3) Example .: The thermometer when immersed in fluid it detects the input physical variable Ti(t) which is the temperature .the out put is Xo which is the displacement of the thermometer fluid .The relations between these variables are:-

Xo= (Kex Vb/Ac) Tf -------------------------------------------------- (a) Where: Kex :the difference expansion coefficient between bulb and fluid Vb: volume of bulb Ac: area of capillary Tf: :temperature of fluid in bulb When the temperature various with time we have the following relation :Heat in Heat out = Stored energy U Ab(Ti-Tf ) dt (0) = Vb C dTf ----------------------------------------( b ) Where : U : Over all heat transfer coefficient. :mass density of thermometer fluid Ab: heat transfer area C: specific heat for thermometer fluid. 10

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Arrange Eq.(b) to get :Vb C dTf /dt + U Ab Ti = U Ab Ti Make use of Eq.(a) to get:( C Ac/ Kex) d Xo/dt +(U Ab Ac / Kex Vb ) Xo = U Ab Ti or :[( C Ac/ Kex) D +(U Ab Ac / Kex Vb )] Xo = [ U Ab ]Ti

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When this equation compared with standard first order instrument equation ( Eq.2) ,we can calculate the two important quantities (sensitivity and time constant ) as follow :Static sensitivity k= bo/ ao = Kex Vb / Ac Time constant = a1/ ao = C Vb / U Ab Dynamical response 1. Step response ; If a step input is subjected to the First order instrument denoted by qis ( see the figure )

By applying this input on ( Eq.3), the solution is :qo = K qis (1 e (-t / ) ) The error (em) can be calculated as ; em = True value measured value = qi - qo / K = qis - qis (1 e (-t / ) ) em / qis = e (-t / ) ------------------------------( c) 2. Frequency response : When a sinusoidal input is subjected to the First order instrument then the solution from ( Eq.3) can be written as :For amplitude ratio qo / qi = K / ( )2+ 1 And phase shift = tan-1(- ) 3--The Second-order instrument:In this case Eq.1 is reduced to:(a2 D2+a1 D +ao)qo= boqi -------------------------------------------- (3) In this case we define:Static sensitivity k= bo/ ao Natural frequency n= ao/ a2 Damping ratio = a1 /2 aoa2 Equation (3 ) can be re-written in the following general form :(D2 / n2 +2 D/ n +1)qo = K qi

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Example : The force measurement by spring shown in the figure :-

We have :F=ma mx +C x + ksx =Fi or , (m D2+c D +ks)x= Fi From this equation we can calculate the following properties :Static sensitivity k = bo/ ao = 1/ ks Natural frequency n = ao/ a2 = ks /m Damping ratio = c /2 ks m Dynamical response 1- Step response :For this case see the solutions given in eqs .( 3.231 to 3.233 ) page 128 for the three types of damping ( over ,critical and over damping ) 2- Terminated- ramp response :-

For this case see the solutions given in eqs .( 3.237 to 3.239 ) page 131 for under damping . The important relations for this case is the calculating of the following errors :Steady state error = 2 / n T Transient error = 1/( n T 1- 2 ) 3- Ramp response :12

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For this case see the solutions given in eqs .( 3.241 to 3.243 ) page 133 for the three types of damping ( over ,critical and over damping ) 4- Frequency response:See eqs .( 3.244 to 3.246 ) page 134

Problems
1- Prove that when the First order instrument has a very small time constant, it can be approximated to the Zero- order instrument and its sensitivity do not alter due to this approximation. Solution: The mathematical model for the First order instrument is: (qo/ qi )(D) = K/ ( D +1) ------------------ ( p1) When time constant is so small = 0 then (Eq.P1) will reduce to: (qo/ qi )(D) = K or qo= k qi .this represent a zero order instrument ----------------------------------------( P2 ) in both Eqs P1,P2 the sensitivity k= bo/ ao and it will be equal . 2- A thermometer is using Alcohol as a fluid .Choose the best parameter to increase its sensitivity. Solution : We have the following parameters for the thermometer: - Kex,Vb ,Ac,, C, Vb , U ,Ab a) , C, Kex are constant since the fluid (Alcohol) is fixed . b) U the overall heat transfer coefficient depend on the media and can not be modified . c) Hence, to increase sensitivity ( k = Kex Vb / Ac ) we must either increase Vb or decrease Ac , but increasing Vb also cause increasing in the time constant ( = C Vb / U Ab ) and it is not desired . So the best way to increase sensitivity is to reduce the cross section of the capillary tube Ac. 3- A piezoelectric transducer is used to measure the stress by converting it to a voltage signal, it considered as a First order instrument .If the measuring stress is suddenly changed from zero to 20 N/m2 and the measuring scale indicate 100 mV value .Calculate the sensitivity for this device when its accuracy is 95%. Solution : The input physical quantity is the stress and it clear that it is a step input ( sudden change from 0 to 20 ) in this case we have the error is :em = qi - qo / K Divide by qi :em/ qi = 1 (qo / qi K ) -------------------------------( P3) Error = 100% -95% =5%=0.05 Substitute into (Eq. P3) to get :0.05 = 1 (100/20 K) K= 5.26 V/N/m2 4- A first order instrument must measure signals with frequency contents up to 100 cps with an amplitude inaccuracy of 5% .What is the maximum allowable time constant ? , What will be the phase shift at 50 and 100 cps? Solution:em = qi - qo / K Divide by qi :em/ qi = 1 (qo / qi K ) = 0.05 (qo / qi K ) =0.95 ------- (a) For sinusoidal input we have the amplitude :qo / qi = K / ( )2+ 1 (qo / qi K ) = 1 / ( 2 x 100 ) 2+ 1-------------(b) 13

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Solve (a) and (b) to find : = 5.3 x 10-4 sec Phase shift = tan-1(- ) For 50 cps = tan-1(-2 x50x 5.3 x 10-4) = For 100 cps = tan-1(-2 x100x 5.3 x 10-4) =

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5- The arrangement shown in the figure is used for measuring the displacement .find the sensitivity .

From the arm we have : X1/a = X2 / b X1 = (a/ b) X2 --------- (a) For potentiometer we have :e / X2 = E / L X2 = (E/L) e ------------(b) From (a) and (b) we get :X1=(E a / b L ) e Considering it as zero order instrument we get:Sensitivity K = E a / b L 6- A thermometer need 10 sec to reach 13 c is to be use to measure a fluid temperature . If the fluid temperature is suddenly increased from 0 to 20 c find the rise time for the thermometer knowing that the sensitivity for this device is 1.42 mm/ c. Solution:This is a First order instrument with step input . 62.3 (20-0 ) = 13c time constant = 10 sec qo = K qi (1 e (-t / ) ) 20 = 1.42 x 20 (1-e(-t / 10) ) 0.704= 1- e(-t / 10) -1.2 = - ( t/ 10) t = 12 sec is the rise time . 7- In the figure shown an instrument is used to measure the force .Find the sensitivity and phase shift between out put and input .

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Solution: Mo= J (+cw) -k(L/ 2) (L/2) C (L/2) (L/2) - m L L FL = J Arrange ( J + m L2 )/L + C L /4 + k L /4 = F As it is compared with the second order instrument model (m D2+c D +ks)x= Fi we have :Sensitivity k = 1/ Ks = 1/ (k L /4) = 4/ k L Damping ratio = a1 /2 aoa2 =(Cl/4) / 2 (KL/4) ( J + m L2 )/L = C L /8 (K/4) ( J + m L2 ) = sin -1[ 1- 2 ] = sin -1[ 1- C 2 L 4 / 64 (K/4) ( J + m L2 ) ] 8- A thermometer is initially at 30 c it is suddenly immersed in a fluid at constant temperature of 110 c .It is noted that the device after 10 sec indicate 85.62c and after 20 sec indicates 106.12 c .find :a- Sensitivity b- Time constant c- The time required for reading at accuracy of 99% Solution: As it is clear from the figure below the input is step function for this First order instrument .It is important to note that this step is from 30c to 110c since the reference is 30c and not 0 c ,so that we must subtract the initial value from all calculated variables .

a- qo = K qis (1 e (-t / ) ) ------------ (a) we have t =10 sec at 85.62 c , Eq.(a) ( 85.62-30) = K (110-30) (1 e (-10 / ) ) ----(b) and at t=20 sec at 106.12 c , Eq.(a) ( 106.12-30) = K (110-30) (1 e (-20 / ) ) ----(c) Solving Eqs .(b,c) simultaneously give :K=1.1 (sensitivity ) = 10 sec c- At accuracy 99% ,the error = 1% =0.01 em / qis = e (-t / ) 0.01= e (-t / 10) t = 46.05 sec 9- An elastic member is used for force measurement as shown in figure .Find the steady state error and transient error in measuring the applied force shown in the figure ,assume the damping ratio is =0.3. 15

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Solution: This is equivalent to mass spring system ,so the problem reduced to find the natural frequency n = ks /m ks = Load / deflection Deflection at the end = =pL3/3EI ks =P/ =3EI/ L3 n= 3EI/m L3 Steady state Error ess = 2 / n T = 2 / T 3EI/m L3 = 2 x 0.3 / 0.2 3x 5000/ 0.1 x 0.23 = 6.93 x 10-4 Transient Error etr = 1 / n T 1- 2 = 1/ T 3EI/m L3 (1- 2 ) = 1/ 0.2 3x5000/0.1 x 0.23 ( 1- 0.32 ) = 1.2 x 10-3 Phase angle = = 2 tan -1[ 1- 2 ] / ] = 2 tan -1[ 1- 0.32 ] / 0.3] = 2.1 rad.

III-Vibration and Motion Measurements

(Ref Theory of Vibration with applications, Pages 76-80) The basic element of vibration measuring instruments is the seismic unit see figure (1).

Fig.(1) It depending on the frequency range, displacement, velocity, or acceleration is indicated by the relative motion of the mass with respect to the case. To find the behavior of this device we consider the equation of motion:16

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Denote the displacement of measuring vibration body by: y and for the mass is: x F= mx -k(x-y) c(x-y) = m x Let z = x-y , y =Ysin t (since harmonic motion) , we get :m z +c z +k z = -my = m2 Ysin t (m D2+c D +k s) z = m2 Ysin t -------------------------------------- (1) As we see it is a second- order instrument. The steady state solution:Since z is harmonic motion let the solution be in the form :z = Z sin ( t- ) When it is substituted into Eq (1) we get the steady state amplitude:Z/Y= ( / n) 2 [ (1 ( / n) 2] 2 +(2 / n) 2] And the phase angle: = tan-1 {(c )/(k - m2)}= = tan-1 ( 2 / n)/ (1 ( / n) 2) ---------- (2)

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Important note: Y, is the input measuring amplitude which transmitted from vibrating body to the case of the instrument , X is the absolute amplitude of the mass ,and Z is the relative amplitude between the mass and case and it is the out put value to be recorded by the instrument . A plot of the dimensionless / n and amplitude Z/Y for different values of is shown in figure (2) ;-

Fig .(2) As is indicated from the figure the type of instrument (seismometer or accelerometer) is determined by the useful range of frequencies with respect to natural frequency of the instrument . Seismometer ( low natural frequency instrument ):In this device we have: > n this mean that / n approaches a large number ,in this case Z approaches to Y for any values of or (nearly: Z = Y) ,(see the shaded area in the above figure) .This means that the mass ( m ) remain stationary while the supporting case (which is detect the vibration ) vibrates . One of the disadvantage of the seismometer is its large size which increase the loading error . The relative motion z is usually converted to an electric voltage by making the seismic mass a magnet moving relative to coil fixed in the case as shown in the figure(3) :-

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Fig(3) Since the voltage generated is proportional to the rate of cutting of the magnetic field, the output of the instrument will be proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. A typical instrument of this kind may have natural frequency between (1 to 5 Hz), and a useful range of (10 to 2000Hz). The sensitivity (defined as the ratio between out put voltage to input speed) between (20 to 350 mV/cm/s), and maximum displacement limited to (0.5 cm) peak to peak. Both the displacement and acceleration are available from velocity type transducer by means of integrator and differentiator provided in most signal conditioner units. Accelerometer ( High natural frequency instrument ):When the natural frequency for this device is high compared to the frequency of vibration to be measured > n , the instrument indicates acceleration. Examination of Eq.(1) show that the factor [ (1 ( / n) 2] 2 +(2 / n) 2] ( called the magnified factor : MF ) MF approaches to 1 for / n = 0 So that Eq.(1) simplify to :Z = Y ( / n) 2 = a / n 2 Where: a is the acceleration = Y 2 Thus Z become proportional to the acceleration of motion .The useful range can be seen from plotting the MF with / n ratio for various damping ratios:-

Fig.(4) The practical value for is taken as (0.7) ,with useful range of 0 to 2 n with maximum error of less than 0.01%. Electromagnetic- type accelerometer (see Fig. (5) ) generally used ,also, strain gage- type accelerometer for low frequency vibration ,for higher frequency a piezoelectric accelerometer is used.

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Fig. (5)

Problems
1- State the main difference between the seismometer and accelerometer according to the following :- measuring quantity - Frequency ratio - Effect of damping - loading error 2-Vibration pickup has a natural frequency of 4.75 Hz and damping ratio factor of 0.65.What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with (a) 1% error (b) 2%. Solution . Z/Y= ( / n) 2 [(1 ( / n) 2] 2 + (2 / n) 2] Y: is the actual amplitude Z: is the measured amplitude Error = (actual amplitude measured amplitude) / actual amplitude (a) for error 1% =0.01 0.01 = (Y - Y ( / n) 2 [(1 ( / n) 2] 2 + (2 {0.65} / n) 2] ) / Y Eliminate Y, and solve for / n to get: / n = 3.347 = 3.347 x 4.75 = 15.9 Hz. (b) Same procedure for error 2% = 7.45 Hz 3-An un-damped vibration pick up having natural frequency of 1 cps is used to measure harmonic vibration of 4 cps .if the amplitude indicated by this device is 0.052cm .find the actual amplitude . Solution . We have: / n = f / fn = 4/1 = 4 Z/Y= ( / n) 2 [ (1 ( / n) 2] 2] = 16 / (1- 16) = - 1.066 cm Z= 0.052 cm Y = 0.052 /1.066 = 0.048 cm 4-An accelerometer pickup has a sensitivity of 40 mV/cm/s between 10 and 1000 Hz. if 1g acceleration is maintained over this range .what will be the output voltage at this range ? Solution: Sensitivity = output voltage / speed Maximum amplitude = Y Maximum velocity V m = Y Maximum acceleration am = 2 Y Vm=am/ At f1 = 10 Hz = 2 f =20 V m = 9.8 /20 = 0.155 m/s = 15.5 cm/s At f2 = 1000 Hz = 2000 f =20 V m = 9.8 /2000 = 0.000155 m/s =0.0155 cm/s Out put voltage range: at f1 = 15.5 x 40 = 624 mV, at f2 = .0155 x 40 = 0.62 mV

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IV-Electrical Signal and Signal Processing

(Ref. Experimental Methods for Engineers Pages: 100 -181) Nearly the most measuring devices depend upon some basic electrical principles for their operation ,and nearly all data processing ,transmission and analysis systems depend on electrical ( or electronic ) devices .since it is easy to deal with and processed .also many measuring system need a multi- stages to achieve this process for example in measuring vibration of beam we need to connect the strain gage (which picks up the motion) to some external electric circuits like bridge ,amplifier ,filter ,and oscilloscope . In analyzing the signal we have two types of signals which are analog and digital signals as we mentioned before . In analog signal we mean that the current and voltage is treated as a continuous variable that we can measure and plot the magnitude of them with a higher degree of precision ,while in a digital signal we can only treat the signal in discrete values . As shown in the figure below:-

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Analog Signal Representation

Digital Signal Representation

The block diagram for multi stages electric measurement In this diagram the general method for sensing, processing, conditioning, and display in electrical measurements is shown.

A- Basic Electrical Transducer Devices

The first stage of electrical measurements is the transducer, it is a device that picks up the physical variable (velocity, temperature, flow,) as input and coverts it to an electric current or voltage as output .This output is called the signal. The transducer efficiency is highly affected by its sensitivity and this will be high affected the total accuracy of the instrument. Here are some of these transducers. 1. Resistive transducers. They are based on the change in the resistance, blow some of them: Potentiometer: it coverts the displacement to electric voltage signal and by means of some resistance circuits this voltage is converted to a current signal .As we mention before this relation is :e /E = x/L e /E = / Resistive Strain gage ; It is based on the fact that the electrical resistance of conductor is change when it is subjected to a mechanical deformation .for example when this conductor is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses its resistance will change because of dimensional change (length and area) and, also due to the change in the material specific resistance. according to the following formula :-

d R = GF R --------------------------------- ( 1 ) = strain GF: gage factor and is a constant R : resistance of the strain gage 21

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dR: variation of resistance due to strain When the gage connected to electric circuit (normally a Wheatstone bridge ) with a supply voltage a current or voltage signal can be generated . Electrical resistance thermometer: It is based on the fact that the resistance of some materials change with the change in the temperature .it is used to measure temperature, heat flow and other heat properties. Formula:R=Ro[1+ (T To)] Ro : Initial resistance. R; resistance at temperature T : temperature coefficient To: initial temperature. Thermocouple: When two dissimilar metals are joint together, an emf will exist which is a function of the junction temperature .It is widely used in temperature measurement and control. Formula:E = A T + 1/2 B T + C T2 E: emf generated T: measured temperature A, B, C are constants 2. Magnetic effect transducers. Taco- generator: It is a DC generator where the generated emf is proportional to the angular velocity .It is used to measure angular velocity and for speed control.

E= Kn E : generated voltage Kn: Taco coefficient Magnetic searching coil: When a coil cuts a magnetic field it generates voltage .it is used for measuring angular velocity. Formula:-

Erms = (1/2) N A B 22

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N; number of turns of coil A :cross-sectional area B: flux density : angular velocity Ex A rotating searching coil has 10 turns with cross-sectional area of 5 cm2 .It rotates at constant speed of 100 rpm .the output voltage is 40 mv .find the flux density for the coil . Solution : From the above equation we have ;B =2 E / N A = 2 (0.04)/ (10) ( 5x10-4) [(100) (2 )/60] = 108 Wb/m2 Differential transformer: When the core of this transformer subject to axial motion it generate a voltage proportional to this motion.

Hall Effect: When a semiconductor piece is supplied with a current and subjected to a magnetic flux it generate voltage proportional to the magnetic flux magnitude .It is used as velocity and position detector and for measuring the magnetic field .

EH = KH (I B / t) EH :Out put hall voltage KH: Hall coefficient I : supply current B: flux density t : thickness Ex Hall effect transducer is used for the measurement of a magnetic field of 5000 G .A 2 mm slab of Bismuth is used with 3A current .Find the output voltage for the device . Solution : Hall coefficient for Bismuth = -1x10-8 EH = KH (I B / t) = (-1x10-8)(3)(5000)/(2 x 10-1) = -7.5x10-4 V 3. Capacitive transducers: When two equal metal plates of area A (cm2) spacing distance d (cm) the value of the capacitance between them ( in Farad ) can be find as : 23

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C= 0.0885 A/ d (in SI units) C= 0.225 A/ d (in British units) Where is dielectric constant. It is used for measuring a change in the distance or the relative motion between the two plates. The output impedance for the capacitor is:Z = 1/2 f C Z; impedance in f: frequency in Hz C: capacitance in F 4. Piezoelectric transducer Some materials like Quartz and many semiconductors have the ability of producing electric charge when it stressed by external force this called the Piezoelectric effect .this voltage can be calculated from the formula:-

E=gtP t: crystal thickness (m) P: pressure excreted (N/ m2) g: voltage sensitivity (V/m/N/m2) Ex : Quartz Piezoelectric of 2 mm thickness and 0.055V.m/N is subjected to a pressure of 200 psi .Calculate the voltage output. Solution E=gtp E= 0.055 (2x10-3)( 200)(6.895x103) = 151.8 V B- The input circuits :The output for the transducer is very small electrical signal and must be connected to an electrical circuit to get a readable voltage or current which is proportional to the measuring quantities. There are many circuits for these purposes:1-Simple current and voltage sensitive circuit:As shown in the figure below it is a simple series circuit to give either current or voltage:-

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I = E/( R+ Ri) and e = E R /( R+ Ri) Ri: internal resistance Rm : total transducer resistance . R : variable transducer resistance Examination of these equations indicate that the out put current (I) or voltage (E) are not change in linear way with the change of the transducer resistance R 2-Bridge circuit: It is widely used as a transducer electric circuit; it may be used either as a null (balance) circuits or unbalance circuits

If the bridge is balanced we can calculate the unknown resistance Rx as the follow:Rx= R1 R3 /R2 At unbalance bridge we can find the out put voltage across the gage (G) we have :Ig = Eg /(R + Rg) Where R= [ R1 R4/ (R1+R4) R2 R3/(R2+R3)] is the equivalent resistance for the bridge . Rg: resistance of the gage Ig : gage current Then the output voltage across the gage is :Eg = E [ (R1 /(R1 +R4) - R2/(R2+R3) ] C- Signal Conditioning Experimental measurements occurs in many forms ;the voltage output of bridge circuit, the frequency signal, voltage signal from capacitance transducer ,etc. In many cases the signal is weak to drive an output device or there is an impedance mismatch between them ,so amplifiers must be used .since amplifier can not distinguish between the desired and the noise that may interfere with the signal it may amplify both signals and the desired signal may be lost ,so it is necessary to reject this nose by using the filters . Amplifiers Suppose a weak voltage signal Ei is supplied to the amplifier the output amplified signal Eo

Open Loop Gain Amplifier

Feed Back Gain Amplifier

The value of amplification is called the voltage gain which is defined as the ratio of output to input voltage :A=E o/E i When a fraction of the out put voltage of value ( k Eo) is feed back into the input we have :Af = E o/E i =A /( 1+ k A) 25

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A: amplifier gain (open loop gain) A f : feed back gain For a very high gain we have kA >> 1 A f =1 /k Amplifiers are of many types such as the following ;Operational amplifiers: The block diagram and pin configuration for OP amp. is shown in the figure below :-

The Operational amplifiers can be used for many purposes like the following:1. Impedance matching 2. A comparator 3. Adder or subtract of many input signals 4. Inverting of signal 5. Integrator or differential of the signal Differential amplifiers: A device which provides for two inputs and an output proportional to the difference in the two input voltage. Filters Noise is always present in physical situations with the desired input signal or measuring signal .It is important to reduce or reject this nose for this purpose the filters is used .Filters are of many types (see figure below ):1. low pass filters: it allow to pass signals at low frequencies and reject the signals at higher frequencies

at a value called cut- off frequency (fc). in this case we have :E o/E i = 1/1+ (T)2 T =R C is the time constant = Frequency Ex:A simple R C circuit is to be used as a low pass filter .it is desired that the out put voltage to attenuated (reduced) 3 dB at 100Hz .Find the required value of time constant. Solution E o/E I = - 3 dB -3 = 20 log E o/E I E o/E I = 0.708 =2 f = 2x100 E o/E i = 1/1+(wT)2 T= 1.59x10-3 s

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2. High pass filters: it allow to pass signals at high frequencies and reject those at lower frequencies lower

than fc. 3. Band pass filters: it allows passing signals at a certain range of frequencies (between selected frequencies

f1 and f2) . E- The Recording stage The final stage for reading and analyzing the measuring quantity is the recording stage .There are some of such instruments which are used for recording stage. 1- The analog meter When a current (I) flow on the coil of length (L) and number of turns (N) between a magnetic field (B) a force (F) perpendicular to the plane defined by the coil and the magnetic field will be exerted .this force will move the coil in a proportional relation with the current magnitude according to the following formula ;-

F= N B I L The disadvantage for such meter is the inaccuracy of reading since it depend on the observer error .and its low impedance resulting some loading error . 2-The Digital meter It is an electronic device in which a measuring value is shown directly as a series of digits on a digital display (similar to the display of the calculator). It gives excellent accuracy also it have very high impedance than the analog meter .The basic operation for this device is that the measuring signal is converted from analog to digital and by using an oscillator with a fixed frequency (called clock ) a series of pulses is counted from this clock to get the output reading value . 3-The oscilloscope. In analog and digital meters only the average value (called RMS ) can be read while the instantaneous value can not known which is important for analyzing the results especially when the input measuring quantity is various with time .The oscilloscope can give the instantaneous out put as function of time moreover it can give a comparison between the input and out put quantities like phase shift ,delay ,modulation and attenuation. The impedance for oscilloscope is very high. This device is a complicated electronic instrument contains a multistage of electronic circuits like, power supply ,Dc amplifier ,saw tooth generator ,horizontal and vertical amplifiers ,and CRT drivers which control the cathode ray tube to scan the output on the screen . 27

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Problems
1. A capacitance transducer is constructed of two plates of 1 0.005 in2 area separated by 0.01 0.0001 in distance in air calculate a- The sensitivity b- The tolerance of uncertainty , For this device .take dielectric constant for air as 1.0006 Solution a- C = 0.225 A/ d Sensitivity = C/d = - 0.225 A/ d2 = - (0.225)(1.0006)(1)/ (0.01) 2 = -2.25x 103 pF/in c- d=0.225 A/ C wd/d = [ (wc/C)2 + (wA/A)2 ] 0.0001/0.01 =[ (wc/C)2 + (0.005/1)2 ] wc/C = 0.00866 = 0.866% The nominal value of C = (0.225)(1.0006)(1)/ (0.01) = 22.513 pF Hence the tolerance uncertainty in C is wc = (22.513) ( 0.00866)= 0.195 pF 2- Prove that the maximum sensitivity for the simple voltage sensitive circuits occurs when the transducer resistance equals the internal resistance of the circuit . Solution

e = E R /( R+ Ri) Sensitivity k = de/dR = E Ri /(Ri+R)2 For maximum sensitivity we must have :dk/dRi = 0 E(R-Ri)/(Ri + R)3 = 0 R=Ri Hence for max. Sensitivity we must have R=Ri 3-The primitive ammeter constructed as the shown in the figure below. If it have the following values: B=0.1 wb/m2 ,l =0.1 m and k= 1 N/m ,what deflection results when Dc current of 4A flows through the meter.

F= N B I L ( in this case N=1) F = 1x 0.1x 4x0.1= 0.04 N At spring F=KX X= 0.04/ 1 = 0.04 m = 4 mm (the deflection of meter ) 28

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4- Five 1-in2 plates are arranged as shown .The plate spacing is 0.01 in .The arrangement is to be used for a displacement transducer .calculate the sensitivity for the device assume that the plates separated by air .

Solution This arrangement represents two capacitors in parallel C t = C+C =2 C 2C = 0.225 A/ d Sensitivity = C/d = - 0.225 A/ 2d2 = - (0.225)(1.0006)(1)/2 (0.01) 2 =1.125x 103 pF/in 5- An elastic bar of length L is used for measuring the static force by using the strain gage as shown. Find the

sensitivity for these arrangements. Stress = F/A = E = F/ A E For strain gage we have : d R = GF R dR = GF R( F/ A E) Sensitivity = dR / F = GF R / A E 6- For measuring pressure A Quartz piezoelectric transducer(of 2 mm thickness and 0.055V.m/N is ), amplifier and digital voltmeter are used .If the maximum pressure to be measured is 10 psi and the voltmeter has full scale reading of 750 volt .Select a feed - back gain for the amplifier to meet this requirements ,neglect the effect of impedance matching. Solution For transducer we have:E=gtp E= 0.055 (2x10-3)( 10)(6.895x103) = 7.59 V This voltage must amplified to 750 V for voltmeter reading and must be the out of amplifier Feed back Amplifier Gain A f =E o/E i = 750/ 7.59 = 100 If a high open- loop gain amplifier is used:A f =1 /k k=1/100 =0.01 7- In vibration of beam test the following stages are used :-

Where the specifications for the devices are given in the following table:29

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Device Accelerometer Amplifier Filter

Descriptions Sensitivity 50 mV/cm/s, Acceleration =1 g Open loop gain= 10000, Feed back= 0.001 Time constant =1.59x10-5 s,Cut off frequency= 6000hz

Select the desired Oscilloscope to measure the natural frequencies for the beam if the theoretical analysis for the beam shows that they are between 100 and 5000 Hz. Neglect wire impedance and the impedance mismatching . Solution 1-For accelerometer :Vm=am/ At f1 = 100 Hz 1 = 2 f =200 V m = 9.8 /200 = 0.0155 m/s = 1.56cm/s At f2 = 5000 Hz 2= 2 f =10000 V m = 9.8 /10000 = 0.0311 cm/s Out put voltage range: at f1 = 1.56 x 50 = 78 mV, at f2 = 0.0311 x 50 = 1.555 mV 2-For amplifier :E o/E i =A /( 1+ k A) The range of out put voltages are:E o = 78x10000/(1+0.001x10000) = 70909 mV= 70.9 volt E o = 1.555x10000/(1+0.001x10000) = 1413 mV= 1.413 volt 3-For filter:E o/E i = 1/1+ (T)2 E o = 70.7 / 1+ (2 x 6000 x 1.59x10-5)2 = 70.7/1.66=60.6 V E o = 1.413 / 1+ (2 x 6000 x 1.59x10-5)2 = 1.413/1.66=0.85 V Hence , the oscilloscope must be selected according to the following specifications : Voltage range : 0 61 volts , Frequency range :100 5000 Hz

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V-Resistive Strain Gage ;

It is based on the fact that the electrical resistance of a conductor is changed when it is subjected to a mechanical deformation .for example when this conductor is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses its resistance will change because of dimensional change (length and area ) and, also due to the change in the material specific resistance . Since we have :R= L / A To find this change we differentiating this equation and divide it by the total resistance R to get :d R/ R = d / + d L/L d A/ A ------------------ (a) But : d A = - d L/L The cross section for the wire of strain gage is circular, then the diameter will change from d o to df due to the strain which can described as :d f = d o ( 1- d L/ L ) d A / A = -2 d L/L + 2 ( d L / L ) 2 which can be approximated to the form :d A / A = -2 d L/L --------------------------------( c) Substitute Eq.(c) into Eq.(a) we can get:d R / R = d L / L (1 +2 ) + d / Since the strain = d L / L. we get :d R / R = (1 +2 ) + d / Divide by to get:( d R / R)/ = [(1 +2 ) + (d / ) / ] ----------------(d) The term Between [ ] is called the Gage Factor (GF) , then Eq.d become (GF) = (d R / R)/ Normally GF can be known from the manufacture so we can write the basic equation for strain gage: = (1/GF) (d R/ R) and the change in resistance for strain gage is :d R = GF x R x --------------------------------- ( 1 ) Where: = strain GF: gage factor and is a constant R : resistance of the strain gage dR: variation of resistance due to strain Eq. 1 indicate that the resistance change for the strain gage (d R) is proportional to measuring physical variable ; hence if (d R) is measured the strain can be measured . Types of strain gages 1- Un bounded it Consist of 4-wires stretched between two rigid frames one of them is fixed and the other frame is movable as shown in the figure below.

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In either directions of motions two of wires are become in tension and two in compression .the four wires are connected to a bridge circuits from which the strain is calculated as proportional to the voltage generated form this circuit . This arrangement can be used for acceleration, pressure , and force measurement with high stability . 2- bonded wire strain gage . Wire gage or foil gage (called grid) is usually sandwiched between two sheets of papers or other backing material to form bonded and insulated piece .This gage is bonded directly to the surface of the specimen being analyzed with a thin layer of adhesive which serves to transmit strain form specimen to the gage wire .

Bonded strain gage manufactures either from metallic or semiconductors, in the second type the gage factor is very high and about 130.while in metallic type give up to 3.5. Effect of temperature on strain gage In general the resistance is effected by temperature in some cases it reduce it and in other it increase it this depend on the alloys and materials .this cause an error on the measuring quantities since the major function of strain gage is depend on the change in the resistance .it is very important to compensate the effect of temperature in the laboratory .To do this two gage are used the first is called the Active gage which read the strain and the second is called the Dummy gage is used for temperature compensation .

Strain gage circuits 32

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The Wheatstone bridge: It is used for static and dynamic measurements .it may be used as direct readout device where the out put voltage E is measured and related to strain ,also it may be used as a null balance system where the output voltage is adjusted to a zero value by mean of adjustable resistance at the bridge arm . 1. Analysis of direct readout bridge :

VAB = V(R1/R1+R2) and VAD= V( R4/R4 + R3) E= VAB VAD Solve the three equations to get :E = V (R1R3 R2 R4) / [ ( R1 +R2) ( R2 + R4) ] -------------- (2) At balance E =0 then we have :R1 R3 =R2 R4 Consider an initially balanced bridge ( E= 0) ,when the values of R1,R2,R3 and R4 increased by small amount of R1, R2, R3 and R4.to the new values ( R1+ R1,. ,R4+ R4 ), substitute into Eq.(2) we get :E = V [ r / (1+r)2 ] { R1/ R1- R2/ R2 + R3/ R3 - R4/ R4) ----------(3) Where: r = R2 / R1 Wheatstone bridge sensitivity The sensitivity for strain gage defined as the change in out put voltage relative to the input stress that is: S = E / By making use of Eq .3 we get:S = (V/ )[ r/ (1+r)2 ] { R1/ R1- R2/ R2 + R3/ R3 - R4/ R4)-----(4) When a number of gage (n =1 to 4) are placed instead of the resister .the terms ( R/ R) can be replaced using the following modification:Sg = ( R/ R)/ R/ R= GF ----------------------- (5) Substitute Eq .5 into 4 to get finally :S= V ( r / r + 1) n GF -----------------------------------(6) Eq.(6) describes that there are four cases to connect the strain gage and there are four possible sensitivity will be got :Case 1:When only one gage connected to the bridge. In this case if the resistance for strain gage is Rg and its current is Ig and the bridge is balanced we have :-

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V= Ig ( R1+R2) = Ig Rg (1+ r) The sensitivity can be found as ;S= (r / r+1) Ig Rg GF Where: r = R2 / R1 Case 2 :In this bridge employs one active gage in arm R1 and one dummy gage in arm R2 which is used for

temperature compensation ,so we have:R1=R2=Rg r =1 Then we have :V= 2 Ig Rg S= Ig Rg GF Case 3 : If the dummy gage is connected in the arm of R4 instead of R2 we have:-

V = Ig (R1 +R2) = Ig Rg ( 1+r ) S= (r / r+1) Ig Rg GF Where: r = R2 / R1 Case 4: When four gages are used as shown in the cantilever shown below, we have:-

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V= 2 Ig Rg R1=R2=R3=R4=Rg S= 2 Ig Rg GF 2. Analysis null balance bridge The same arrangement mentions above can be used for a bridge but the different is the addition of potentiometer and a sensitive galvanometer .the potentiometer is adjusted until the galvanometer read zero current in this case the balance will be reached .

Null balance with a potentiometer Assume active gage is connected instead of R1 .the results of analyzing is : =(2/ GF )( R5/ R2)[1/(1+R5/R5)] Where ; R5/ R2 : called the increment of potentiometer Hence the value of strain can be found from the adjustment of the potentiometer. Some of Strain Gage Applications 1. force measurement (load cell) P 339 2. Torque measurements P 354 3. pressure P388

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VI Temperature ,Flow and Pressure Measurements

These topic are found in PART TWO E.O.Loebelin Text Book and are given briefly in form of homeworks such as the following homeworks :1-Analyze the diaphragm type presser measurements 2-Analyzing of flow measurement and pressure measurement . 2-Illistrate the order of the measuring devices and list their main measuring characteristics such as sensitivity ,time delay ,usable rang ,damping ,etc .

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