Define Learning and Motor Learning

Practice Conditions

Motor Learning Variables

Feedback Procedural Learning Motor Learning

Transfer of Learning
Declarative and Associative Learning Adams Theory Schmidts Theory

Motor Learning Occurs In Stages

Map of Essential Concepts

DM McKeough 2009

Motor Learning

Define learning and motor learning Declarative and associative learning Procedural learning Adams theory of motor learning Schmidts theory of motor learning Motor learning occurs in stages Transfer of learning Feedback Practice conditions Motor Learning variables

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Motor Learning

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The aspect of Motor Control concerned with the acquisition of novel action or movement As applied to patients, Motor Learning is the re-acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of altered morphology (sensory, motor, or cognitive impairment)

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Motor Learning Questions for PT

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How can I best structure practice (therapy) to insure learning? How can I ensure that skills learned in one context (PT) will transfer to another (home)? Will simplifying a task result in more efficient learning?

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What is Learning?

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Definition: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to practice. Motor learning: a set of processes associated with practice leading to a permanent change in the capacity for skilled action

Learning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled action Learning results from practice Learning cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from behavior (performance) Learning produces a permanent change in behavior

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Performance Learning

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Motor Performance is the temporary change in movement behavior seen during a practice session

May be due to performance conditions

Facilitation Fatigue

Motor Learning is a permanent change in movement behavior measured after a retention period

Motor Learning is only due to practice

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Types of Learning

Declarative Learning

Facts or Knowledge that can be expressed in declarative sentences

10 lock the brakes, 20 remove foot rest, 30 scoot forward, etc

Controlled by the cortex Practice can transform declarative learning to procedural learning

Associative learning: discover the cause and effect relationship between variables

During my sit-to-stand transfer, I fell backward because I began standing before I had my nose over my toes.

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Types of Learning

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Procedural Learning

Occurs without attention or conscious thought

Walking, swimming, riding a bike

Develops slowly through very high repetition Expressed through improved performance on a task Controlled by the cerebellum

Therefore performance is still possible in the absence of cortex (brain injury, dementia)

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Types of Learning

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Procedural Learning

Involves learning the rules for moving or movement schema

Some of the rules for performing a transfer include:

Anterior displacement of line of gravity into a new base Produce extensor force > gravity (hip and knee components should proceed and end simultaneously)

Learning the rules of performance enables successful performance of action in variable performance environments (transfer of the strategy)

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Theories of Motor Learning

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Adams Closed-loop Theory (1971)

Sensory FB is used for the ongoing production of skilled movement Movement errors are detected by comparing movement produced FB with a memory of the intended movement Memory trace used in the selection and initiation of a movement Perceptual trace, built-up over practice, becomes the reference of correctness
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Theories of Motor Learning

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Adams Closed-loop Theory

Clinical Implications

Accuracy of a movement is proportional to the strength of the perceptual trace Patient must practice the movement repeatedly to develop and strengthen the perceptual trace Accurate movement can occur in the absence of FB Would require a separate perceptual trace for every possible movement

Limitations

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Theories of Motor Learning

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Schmidt Schema Theory

Schema is an abstract representation stored in memory following multiple presentations of a class of objects (tasks) Emphasizes open-loop control processes and generalized motor program concept Motor programs do not contain the specifics of a movement but rather contain general rules for a specific class of movements

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Theories of Motor Learning

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Schmidt Schema Theory

Recall schema used to select a specific response (Adams memory trace ) Recognition schema used to evaluate response correctness (Adams perceptual trace) Movement is regulated by a negative FB system What is fed back to the controller is an error signal (e.g. thermostat, toilet, muscle spindle)

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Theories of Motor Learning

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Schmidt Schema Theory

Decision process involves formulating an error signal and feeding it back to the recognition schema which becomes more refined with practice With increased variability of practice, the recognition schema becomes more generalized and stronger

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Theories of Motor Learning

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Schmidt Schema Theory

Clinical Implications

Optimal learning occurs with variable practice conditions

Limitations

Too vague to test Inconsistent experimental support

Strong support with children Inconsistent findings with adults

Cannot account for one-trial learning (In the absence of a schema)

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Motor Learning Occurs in Stages

Cognitive stage Associative stage Autonomous stage

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Motor Learning Occurs in Stages

Three-Stage Model (Fitts and Poser 1967)

Cognitive: Learning what to do Associative: Refining the movement pattern Autonomous: Developing skill Early stage: Getting the idea of the movement (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 1) Late stage: Fixation/ diversification (Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 2 & 3)

Two-Stage Model (Gentile 1987)

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Motor Learning Occurs in Stages

What is the take home message here?

Motor learning probably occurs in stages Activity of the learner is different in the different stages Activities of the instructor should be different in the different stages

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Cognitive Stage

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Performers activity

Learner is getting the idea of the task, developing a cognitive map Assesses own abilities Develops strategies Learns regulatory constraints Selectively attends to regulatory constraints Formulates a motor program Changes performance to successively approximate task Visual FB (KR) most important
Learning what to do
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Performers learning focus

Cognitive Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Instruction

Highlight purpose of task in functionally relevant context Demonstrate task accurately, at ideal speed (best model is another learner at same stage) Draw attention to regulatory constraints Have performer verbalize strategy and regulatory constraints May require manual guidance or assistance Break complex tasks into component parts (progressive-part technique)

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Cognitive Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Transfer

Transfer information in from other known motor skills Highlight similarities to other learned tasks Distributed practice to avoid fatigue (safety) Limit distracters or interference Stress slow, controlled movement Randomize practice among 2 or more variables

Practice schedule/ conditions

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Cognitive Stage

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Feedback

Positively reinforce correct performance Provide FB along appropriate sensory channels Augment visual FB (mirror, video) Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variable AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT Closed

Practice environment

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Associative Stage

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Performer Activities

Performer practices movement Spatial and temporal aspects of movement are becoming better organized Extraneous movement errors decrease Dependence on visual FB decreases, on proprioceptive FB increases (KR KP) Cognitive monitoring decreases Refining the movement pattern

Performers learning focus

(The goal of this phase is to improve the organization of the motor program)
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Associative Stage

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During stage 2, closed skills become more consistent and open skills become more diversified

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Associative Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Instruction

Help performer develop own decision-making abilities Facilitation or guidance may be counterproductive Random practice of 2 or more tasks in larger blocks of trials Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors Introduce elements of real world performance scenarios including distracters and interference as appropriate

Practice schedule/ conditions

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Associative Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Feedback

Identify movement errors, intervene when errors become consistent Augment KP (reference of correctness) Increase detail or specificity, decrease total amount Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB

Practice environment

Closed environment with ITV or open environment

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Autonomous Stage

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Performer Activities

Most patients are discharged prior to this stage Practice task in different performance environments Spatial and temporal components become highly organized Movement becomes increasingly autonomous requiring little cognitive control Developing skill (Consistent goal attainment)

Performers learning focus

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Autonomous Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Practice environment

Use performance conditions with all appropriate distracters and interference (open, actual speed and accuracy) Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors Confirm/ augment the performers analysis of the performance Increase detail or specificity Decrease total amount

Feedback

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Autonomous Stage

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Intervention Strategies

Practice schedule/ conditions

Task sequence remains random with even larger blocks of trials

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Transfer of Learning

The role of transfer in rehabilitation. Transfer of learning (training): it is not known what is being transferred (task specificity). If it is the process for solving a type or class of motor problem, then experience solving similar problems should assist in transferring the learning.

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Feedback

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Types of FB

Intrinsic FB

Proprioception about the movement process (KP) Information about the result of the movement (KR)

Extrinsic FB

Role of FB in motor learning

Some argue that it is the most powerful determinant of learning

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Feedback

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Definition

Frequency

Information about the consequences of action (movement)

Continuous FB Intermittent FB Faded FB Bandwidth FB KR KP Positive FB Negative (error) FB General FB Specific FB
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Type

Specificity

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Characteristics of Good FB

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Timely

Accurate

Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB Positively reinforce correct performance Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are variable Provide FB along appropriate sensory channels Increase detail or specificity Confirm/ augment the performers analysis of the performance Augment visual FB (mirror, video)

Appropriate level of detail/ Specific

Augmented KR

Augmented KP

Total amount

Reinforce/ refine reference of correctness

Decrease across stages AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
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Practice

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Schedule

Massed vs Distributed Practice

Distributed in early stage, massed in later stage

Conditions

Constant vs Variable Practice

Constant practice improves performance Variable practice improves learning and transfer

Role of practice in motor learning

Winstein argues that practice is the most powerful determinant of learning

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Practice Conditions

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Random vs Blocked Practice

Randomizing practice conditions promote best learning and transfer

Whole vs Part Practice

Task specificity says the best practice is the test itself If utilizing a part technique, the part must be a naturally occurring component of the whole

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Practice Conditions

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Transfer

Amount of transfer is determined by the similarity between the two tasks or the two environments The more closely the demands of the practice environment resemble those in the performance environment, the better the transfer

Guided vs Discovery Practice

Experimental results are equivocal about whether guidance produces better learning

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Practice Conditions

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Mental Practice

Can produce large positive effects on performance of the task (Rawlings 1972) During mental practice the same brain areas (primary and supplementary motor areas) are active that are active during the physical performance of the task

Research results indicate combination of physical and mental practice produces best results of all

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Motor Learning Variables

Stages of motor learning: Fitts & Posner/ Gentile Types of movement goals: movement pattern/ environmental result Environment: closed/ open Task specificity: Gentiles taxonomy Feedback: frequency, type (KR/ KP, +/-), specificity Practice schedule: distributed/ massed Transfer of learning: transfer-in/ transfer-out Practice conditions: constant/ variable, blocked/ random, whole/ part, guided/ discovery Mental practice

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The End

DM McKeough 2009

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