In making of artificial silk-like fibres and rayon

Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their component materials

Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte

STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid 1. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid. SO3(g)+H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l)+H20(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Uses

To produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily absorbed by plant

Sulphuric Acid

Contact Process

2. The two reactions in stage 3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into water. SO3(g)+H20(l) H2SO4(aq) 3. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction is vary vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, a large cloud of sulphuric acid fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur 1. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2
S(s)+O2(g) (sulphur) SO2(\g)

2. Sulphur dioxide is dried and purified. STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide 1. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium (V) oxideV2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur trioxide SO3
2SO2(s)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)

2. The optimum used are: a) Temperature: 450-500C b)Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres c)Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide 3. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur dioxide and oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.

What is sulphur dioxide?

SO2 is :-1) colorless gas 2) belong to the family of gases called sulphur oxides 3) It reacts on the surface of a variety of airborne solid particles 4) soluble in water and can be oxidized within airborne water droplets. 5) a product of the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels. 6) adsorbed on metal surfaces 7) has a high solubility in water and tends to form sulphuric acid (acid rain) Natural sources of sulphur dioxide include releases from volcanoes, oceans, biological decay and forest fires. The most important man-made sources of sulphur dioxide are fossil fuel combustion, smelting, manufacture of sulphuric acid, conversion of wood pulp to paper, incineration of refuse and production of elemental sulphur. The main source of sulphur dioxide in the air is industrial activity that processes materials that contain sulphur (eg):- the generation of electricity from coal, oil or gas that contains sulphur.

How does sulphur dioxide affect human health?

sulphur (S)

-affects human health when it is breathed in -irritates the nose and throat -irritates airways to cause coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or a tight feeling around the chest.

oxygen (O2)

-the effects are felt very quickly and most people would feel the worst symptoms in 10 or 15 minutes after breathing it in.

HOW ACID RAIN IS FORMED?

SO2 (sulphur dioxide)

NOX (nitrous oxides)

acid rain

The main source is coal-fired power stations and metal working industries

The main source is vehicles and fuel combustion.

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

-Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour and sunlight to form sulphuric acid. -Likewise NOX form nitric acid in the air. - These reactions take hours, or even days, during which polluted air may move hundreds of kilometres. Thus acid rain can fall far from the source of pollution.

* Acid rain can increase the acidity of lakes, dams and streams and cause the death of aquatic life. * Acid rain can increase the acidity of soil, water and shallow groundwater. * Acid rain has been linked with the death of trees in Europe and North America. In spite of a great deal of research, no one yet knows exactly how acid rain harms forests. Most of the forests of Europe consist of huge areas of one tree species. This encourages the spread of plant pests and diseases. It seems likely that acid rain weakens the trees, perhaps helped by other pollutants such as ozone, and then leaves the trees open to attack by disease. Acid rain also disrupts the availability of soil nutrients. The final death of a tree may result from a combination of stresses such as heat, cold, drought, nutrient disruption and disease. It seems that the slow-growing, longer lived forests of the North may be more susceptible than the faster growing, shorter lived forests of South Africa. * Acid rain erodes buildings and monuments. Acid particles in the air are suspected of contributing to respiratory problems in people.

Uses of Ammonia

Most of the ammonia used in the world is used in fertilizer either in salt or liquid form. Almost all synthetically derived nitrogen is made from ammonia. Nitric acid is used in fertilizers and explosives. Household ammonia is used as a surface cleaner in a diluted form. It most commonly used to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel as it leaves no streaks. Ammonia is the main ingredient in most oven cleaners. Ammonia is used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks as it has favourable vaporization properties. It is used in geothermal power plants in an ammonia-water mixture that is boiled. Ammonia is used to scrub Sulphur dioxide from the burning fossil fuels used in power plants. It is also used to neutralize the nitrogen oxide produced by diesel engines. It is used in animal feed as an antimicrobial. It is also used to disinfect beef products before sale. Liquid ammonia is used in textiles to treat cotton materials and in the pre-washing of wool. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon

Chemical and Physical Properties of Ammonia

Chemical Properties

Property Chemical Formula Type of Base Affinity (Water) Corrosiveness Oxidation Power Reactivity Volatility

Value or Detail NH3 Weak High Corrosive to Some Metals Strong Reducing Agent Quite Reactive Increasing with increases in pH

Physical Properties

Property Molecular Mass Colour Odour Physical State Melting Point Boiling Point Flash Point Decomposition Point Density (Gas) Density (Liquid) Vapour Density Critical Temperature Critical Pressure Heat of Fusion Heat of Vaporization Heat of Combustion

Value or Detail 17.03 g/mol Colorless Sharp, Intensely Irritating Gas (at room temperature) -77.7C -33.35C 11C 500C 0.7710g/L 0.6818g/L 0.5697 (air has a vapour density of 1) 132.4C 111.3 atm 58.1 kJ/mol 23.3 kJ/mol -316 kJ/mol

A brief summary of the Haber process

The Haber process combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia is exothermic.

A flow scheme for the Haber process looks like this:

Some notes on the conditions The catalyst The catalyst is actually slightly more complicated than pure iron. It has potassium hydroxide added to it as a promoter - a substance that increases its efficiency. The pressure The pressure varies from one manufacturing plant to another, but is always high. You can't go far wrong in an exam quoting 200 atmospheres. Recycling At each pass of the gases through the reactor, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen converts to ammonia. (This figure also varies from plant to plant.) By continual recycling of the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen, the overall conversion is about 98%.

D)MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY 1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in the volume ratio 1:3. 2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4with steam. CH4(g)+H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas. i. Temperature: 450-500C ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings N2(g)+3H2(g) 2N3(g)

4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the reactor chamber.5.The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid in the cooling chamber

D-i) The example of ammonium fertilisers

Granular Triple superphosphate Potassium chloride

Anhydrous ammonia

ii) How to measure the effectiveness of ammonium fertilisers? It could be measured through determining its percentage of nitrogen content
Plants need nitrogen to grow. Usually nitrogen is absorbed by plants in soluble nitrate ions from soils. Ammonium fertilisers consist of ammonium ions. Bacteria in the soils convert ammonium ions into nitrate ions which absorbed by plants together with water. Fertiliser with higher percentage of nitrogen content is more effective. As an example, urea, CO(NH2)2 Molar mass of urea = 12+ 16 + 2[14+ 2(1)] = 60 Percentage of nitrogen in 1 mol of urea = 2(14)/60 x 100% = 46.67%

iii) How to prepare ammonium nitrate by using ammonia and nitric acid.

Prepare Ammonium Nitrate

1. 2. 3. 4. Dissolve the sodium bisulphate in the minimum amount of water (about 300 ml). Dissolve your nitrate salt in the minimum amount of water (amount depends on the salt). Mix the two solutions. Next you want to neutralize the solution, which is quite acidic. Stir in ammonia until the pH of the mixture is 7 or higher. Use a pH meter (or pH paper). Reacting ammonia, sodium bisulphate, and nitrates will give you sodium sulphate and ammonium nitrate. Sodium sulphate and ammonium nitrate have different solubilities in water, so boil the solution to get the sodium sulphate to crystallize. Remove the liquid from heat when crystals of sodium sulphate form in the bottom of the pan. Chill the solution in the freezer to get as much of the sodium sulphate as possible to drop out of the solution. Run the solution through a filter (coffee filter or paper towels) to separate the solid sodium sulphate from the ammonium nitrate solution. Allow the ammonium nitrate solution to evaporate, which will give you ammonium nitrate, with some sodium sulphate impurity. This is 'good enough' for most chemistry projects. If you want to further purify the ammonium nitrate, dissolve it in about 500 ml of methanol. The ammonium nitrate is soluble in methanol, while the sodium sulphate is not. Run the solution through a filter, which will give you sodium sulphate on the filter and a solution of ammonium nitrate. Allow the methanol to evaporate from the solution to obtain crystalline ammonium nitrate.

5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Are alloys harder than pure metal ?

Hypothesis:Bronze is harder than cooper. Variables:Manipulated: Different types of materials (cooper &bronze) Responding: diameter of the dent Controlled: diameter of steel ball bearing, height of the weight, mass of the weight. Operational definition:If the diameter of the dent is smaller, then the material is harder Materials:Cooper block, bronze block, cellophane tape Apparatus:Retort stand and clamp, 1-kg weight, metre ruler, steel ball bearing, thread. Procedure:1) A steel ball bearing is taped onto a cooper block using cellophane tape. 2) A 1-kg weight is hung at a height of 50 cm above the cooper block as shown in the figure 8. 3) The weight is allowed to drop onto the ball bearing. 4) The diameter of the dent made by the ball bearing on the cooper block is measured. 5) Steps 1-4 are repeated twice on the other parts of the cooper block in order to obtain an average value for the diameter of dents formed. 6) Steps 1-5 are repeated using a bronze block to replace the cooper block. 7) The reading are recorded in the table. Results:METAL COOPER BRONZE 1 2.9 2.1 DIAMETRE OFTHE DENT (mm) 2 3 2.8 2.9 2.2 2.2

AVERAGE 2.9 2.2

Discussion:1) The smaller the diameter of the dent, the harder and stronger is the material 2) The average diameter of the dent made on the surface on the cooper block is bigger than the bronze block. 3) Based on the result, bronze is harder than cooper. Conclusion:- The hypothesis is accepted.

What is the meaning for alloy?

An alloy is a combination/compound of metals mixed together, usually a less costly metal is mixed with a more valuable one to make an alloy. Such as, 24K gold is entirely pure, but 18K gold or 22K gold is not because it is an alloy, it has been mixed by having 6 or 2 other components added

Enhance the hardness of a metal: An alloy is harder than its components. Pure metals are generally soft. The hardness of a metal can be enhanced by alloying it with another metal or nonmetal.

Lower the melting point: Pure metals have a high melting point. The melting point lowers when pure metals are alloyed with other metals or nonmetals. This makes the metals easily fusible. This property is utilized to make useful alloys called solders

Purpose of Making Alloys

Enhance tensile strength: Alloy formation increases the tensile strength of the parent metal

Modify color: The color of pure metal can be modified by alloying it with other metals or nonmetals containing suitable color pigments.