Chapter Two: Structuralists = Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener Consciousness basic elements combine in different ways different perspectives

es Introspection = technique used; people report their own thoughts/feelings Downside: subjective way to study consciousness, not for kids/animals Functionalists = William James How mental experiences are adaptive (functional) for people Consciousness and behavior help you adjust to environment Psychologists today study both the structure and function of behavior Approaches to human behavior 1. Biological approach = how physiological, biochemical processes psychological phenomena 2. Psychodynamic approach = innate drives, societal restrictions on their expression Sex, aggression, attachment, interpersonal connection 3. Behaviorist approach = learned responses to predictable pattern of stimuli Cognitive approach = reaction to behaviorism; focus on unobservable, inside mind, not stimuli 5. Humanistic approach = people not machines; motivated by desire for growth, development Each person has unique desires, skills, needs, etc. Must express them to be happy Research Methods Terms to know: Experiment, independent/dependent variable, experimental/control group, random, placebo (effect), blind study (subject doesnt know), double-blind (subject and experimenters dont know), and survey Correlational Study = assess relationship between 2 variables without manipulation Positive relationship or negative relationship Correlation coefficient = -1 to +1; higher magnitude stronger relationship Case Study = in depth analysis of one individual Naturalistic Observation = behavior studied in real-life setting Be unobtrusive, high agreement among observers inter-observer reliability Chapter Three: Neurons = nerve cells - Sensory/afferent: transmit info from body spinal cord and brain Motor/efferent: opposite direction

Interneuron/association neurons: communicate with other neurons Action potential = electrical impulse passed down axon to wherever Resting Potential Fluid in resting axon = negative ions Fluid outside = positive sodium ions Signal depolarizes axon let in positive ions; domino effect to end of axon Refractory Period = pump out sodium ions again Neurotransmitters = chemical molecules in vesicles in axon terminal; diff effects Released into synaptic gap when action potential arrives Bind to receptor sites on next neuron dendrites Excess breaks down (enzymatic degradation) or go back (reuptake) Serotonin = control arousal and sleep Agonists = mimic neurotransmitter or stop reuptake more available Antagonists = block receptor sites or inhibit release Neural networks = groups of neurons that serve similar functions brain parts Brainstem = where spinal cord enters skull; oldest region; breathing, heartbeat Thalamus = info about touch, taste, sight, hearing; on top of stem, sends up Reticular formation = control arousal and sleep; filters stimuli, sends info around Cerebellum = rear base of brainstem; coordinate voluntary movement Limbic System = between above parts and more recent cerebral cortex Hippocampus = processes memory Amygdala = influences fear, anger Hypothalamus = hunger, thirst, sexual behavior; pituitary (master) gland Hormones are messengers through blood; endocrine system Cerebral Cortex = outer covering; motor, cognitive, sensory processes Divided into L/R hemisphere, four regions in each Parietal lobes = sense of touch; keep track of hands, feet (top of head) Temporal lobes = hearing (above ears) Occipital lobes = vision (base of skull) Frontal lobes = movement, high level thinking, speech - Damage to Brocas area understand speech, cant speak well

4.

Damage to Wernickes area can physically speak, but meaningless

Chapter Four: Sensation = transformation of energy from outside stimulus to neural energy perception Area of psych concerning sensation = Psychophysics Signal detection theory = ability to notice stimuli varies with psych factors (past, expectation, motivation, etc.) Absolute Threshold = intensity necessary for a stimulus to be detected of the time minimum stimulation Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference) = smallest difference person can detect between 2 stimuli; increases in proportion to intensity of stimuli (Webers Law) Sensory Adaptation means that nerve cells fire less often in response to unchanging stimuli diminished sensitivity ignore the stimuli that are not important to us Feature detectors = neurons that only respond to highly specific aspects/stimuli Perception = using our selective attention to construct meaning out of sensation Gestalt = whole how brain constructs meaning from fragments of sensation; fills in gaps Perception in Vision Depth perception: uses binocular and monocular cues Retinal disparity difference in what each eye sees; low = far away Convergence how much eyes must turn inward; low = far away Linear perspective parallel lines converge as they get farther Motion parallax/Relative motion how fast stationary objects appear to move Interposition one object partially blocks another = closer Texture gradient closer objects have coarse texture; farther blend into finer Sensory Restriction = Experiences also shape our perceptions Critical Period = Time (during development) when exposure to certain stimuli is required for various perceptual skills to develop Perceptual sets = predispositions to perceive one thing, not another (also experience-based) Processing info can be bottom-up (senses to neural networks) or top-down (thoughts/motive/expectations to sensory data) Chapter Five: Consciousness = state of being aware; cyclical nature (sleep); altered states (dreams, hypnosis) Patterns of waking and sleeping have circadian rhythms synchronized with times of day Sleep has biological rhythm 1. Slower breathing; slower more erratic brain waves; hypnogogic (drowsy) feeling; theta waves (slower than normal alpha brain waves); 5 minutes 2. Bursts of rhythmic brain waves (sleep spindles, K-complexes); 20 minutes 3. Large slow delta waves; transition to 4. Stronger more consistent delta waves Stages 3-4 = slow-wave sleep, 30 minutes, most difficult to wake from REM = Go here instead of back to stage 1; 10 minutes; dreaming; brainstem blocks message from motor cortex body paralyzed Also called paradoxical sleep because sleeper looks calm, but lots of cortical activity Rhythm = 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM-2-3-4-3-2-REM etc. With each cycle, REM gets longer and stage 4 gets shorter

Insomnia = recurring difficulty in falling/staying asleep Narcolepsy = sudden uncontrollable attacks of sleep during waking hours Sleep Apnea = stop breathing intermittently during sleep Theories of dreaming Manifest content of dreams disguise the latent content (forbidden sexual or aggressive wish that dreamer would repress if awake) Freud says this disguise allows dreamer to avoid anxiety and remain sleeping Dreams stimulate brain build/maintain neural connections Activation-synthesis theory = neurons fire randomly during sleep; string them together to make sense of nonsense. Information processing theory = dreams are way to consolidate memory REM rebound = long period of REM sleep to make up for lack of it Hypnosis = induced state of consciousness; deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility Increased state of motivation; people want to do what hypnotist says to do Fulfill social roles by following hypnotist Dissociation, or split consciousness Psychoactive drugs = mimic, inhibit, or stimulate activity of neurotransmitters Depressants slow down neural/body functions (alcohol, barbiturates, opiates) Stimulants increase neural/body activities Hallucinogens distort perceptions; produce sensations sin physical basis Chapter Six: Learning = enduring change in behavior that is a product of experience Involves effects of Stimuli trigger responses changes in behavior Cognitive Factors expectations, ability to represent events mentally Non-associative Learning = repeated stimulus causes enduring change in behavior Habituation = repeated exposure reduces response Sensitization = repeated exposure to intense stimulus increases response to weaker stimulus Associative Learning = learning of a connection between 2 stimuli/a stimulus and response Three procedures to learn by Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning = pairs 2 stimuli together Unconditioned stimulus already produces the unconditioned response Neutral + unconditioned stimuli unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus (expect US) conditioned response (preparatory response) Extinction = response stops occurring after the conditioned stimulus alone Operant (instrumental) Conditioning = learning association between stimulus and predictable response that follows Reinforcement always increases behavior/response Punishment always decreases behavior/response (Negative punishment = response-cost training) Positive = stimulus was applied, negative = stimulus was removed Result: Behavior happens more or less often Extinction = stimulus stops appearing and behavior returns to baseline level
[See page 44 for reinforcement schedules I was too lazyhow unlucky page number! ]

Observational Learning = can learns operant behaviors indirectly Learn from watching others (do not need to be reinforced or punished personally) Learn vicariously through models Chapter Seven: Cognition = mental activities involved in solving problems; thinking, language, memory, intelligence Thinking people use heuristics, mental rules-of-thumb Representativeness heuristics: compare how similar 1 event is to a class of events Availability heuristics: likeliness of an event based on your experience of them Confirmation bias = tend to look for info that will support your beliefs Functional fixedness = inability to see new uses for familiar objects Language systems of linguistic rules are Semantics = match morphemes, words that convey meaning, with ideas they represent Syntax = rules to combine morphemes in meaningful ways Learn these with age: babbling stage one-word stage (12-18 months) telegraphic stage (gestures) two-word stage BF Skinner said explained language development in terms of conditioning principles Noam Chomsky said children have language acquisition device Memory three types Sensory = fleeting awareness of what senses detect Short term = kept long enough to solve problems; working memory Long term = unlimited possibly permanent storehouse of memories Mnemonic strategies help put info in long-term rehearsal and chunking Alfred Binet was first to develop intelligence test (typical school topics) find mental age Intelligence Quotient = (mental chronological age) x 100; average is 100 Also based on average scores of that age group Standardization, norm-based referencing Charles Spearman idea of multiple intelligences; IQ is only for general intelligence Differences in how much of what type of intelligence due to nature vs. nature Nature and nurture interact influence development intelligence Chapter Eight: Motivation = psychological process that energizes and directs behavior Behavior can be directed towards biological or social-psychological goals Hunger = feeling when glucose (blood sugar) levels are low, possibly high insulin (changes glucose to storage; fat) Food digestion sugar to glucose in blood insulin released high insulin, low glucose hunger FOOD Hypothalamus = area of brain for hunger related signals Ventromedial Hypothalamus = stopping hunger Lateral Hypothalamus = increasing hunger Set Point = weight our body works to maintain; inverse effects on hunger, activity level if too high/low Social-psychological factors can cause anorexia nervosa and bulimia (binge and purge)

Externals become hungry due to external cues; internals due to bodily cues, less likely to be overweight Emotions = how events impact motives, goals, values, etc Source of motivation we look for what makes us happy, run away from bad feelings Have basic-level and blended emotions All involve physiological arousal, behavioral expression, and conscious experience Theories of how these components interact 1. Cannon-Bard = info on stimulus sent to sympathetic nervous system and cortex same time Feel arousal and emotional experience simultaneously; neither causes the other 2. James Lange = stimulus arousal emotion Facial Feedback Hypothesis: face muscles tell us what we feel 3. Two-factor (theory of Schacter) = feel arousal, then label it emotion Excitation Transfer: more arousal (from any cause) = stronger emotion Chapter Nine: Developmental Psychology = systematic, predictable changes in thinking/behavior over a lifespan Research Methods (correlational studies take too long) Cross-sectional studies = compare people of different ages at same point in time Downside: Thinking in age groups changes overtime too (with cohort/generation) Longitudinal studies = track behavior of single cohort over long period of time Downside: Changes due to age or changing times? Subjects may die as grow older Cross-sequential studies = combine the two Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development Stage Age Cognitive Skills Sensorimotor 0-2 Lacks concept of object permanence Think in terms of what they can sense Knows what it can do with what it senses Pre-Operational 2-6,7 Understands object permanence Operation = logical Thinks symbolically thought but reason Highly egocentric (only their perspective) intuitively, not logically Intuitive logic dominated by perception Cannot conserve Concrete Operations 6,7-11,12 Acquires conservation Generates and applies logical rules for concrete problems, not abstract Formal Operations 11,12+ Thinks scientifically Thinks hypothetically about abstractions Assimilation = understanding events in terms of current scheme (understanding of the world) Disequilibrium = something does not fit into scheme! Accommodate the disequilibrium by changing scheme to include new logical rule Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development Crisis Age Source of Tension

Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Doubt and Shame Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Chapter Ten:

0-1 1-3 3-5 6-11 12-18 18-35 36-55 55+

Dependence on others; are they reliable? Capable of self control; allowed to exercise it? Can set goals; is it encouraged? (Parents try to instill conscience) Can reason, likes success; praised and taught? Can reflect on identity, consider multiple roles; willing to make an effort to integrate those roles? Ready to break away from family and form new intimate relationships; willing to share yourself? Share wisdom and experience with others or take care of own deteriorating physical and mental abilities? Reflection on your life; accept it all?

Carl Rogers self theory a.k.a. person-centered theory True self = what we really are Self-concept = what we think we are Ideal self = what we would like to be These can be incongruent (in conflict) anxiety Self-actualization = reconcile by accepting who you are into self concept, adjust ideals; Being all that you can be Conditions of worth = imposed by parents; deny true self to please parents; against selfactualization Unconditional positive regard = opposite; empathy, acceptance, appreciate faults and all self esteem Social-Cognitive Approach Focus on cognition how people think about themselves, their relationship to outside world Reciprocal determinism = how people think, behave, and environment they are in interact and influence consistency of a behavior Individual-Difference (Trait) Approach Measure specific characteristics to predict actual behavior; break down personality Traits = consistent patterns of behavior; measured using self-report questionnaires Big Five = most relevant traits to personality; identified using factor analysis Openness inquiring, independent, curious Conscientiousness dependable, self-controlled Extraversion outgoing, socially adaptive Agreeableness conforming, likeable Neuroticism excitability, anxiousness Chapter Eleven: Abnormal psychology = psychological disorders DSM-IV = APA book describing/categorizing ~300 disorders Anxiety disorders = inexplicable/unusual feeling of dread or terror Generalized anxiety disorder = unknown source of persistent anxiety Panic disorder = more intense; unpredictable panic attacks Obsessive-compulsive disorder = repetitive thoughts anxiety, compulsive behaviors Mood disorders = characterized by depression, mania, both Major depressive disorder = 2+ weeks being sad, hopeless, discouraged, no fun Bipolar disorders = swing between depression and heightened excitement and mania (risk-taking optimism) Dissociative disorders = fragmentation of personality Dissociative amnesia = stressful event unable to remember personally relevant info Dissociative fugue: leave unexpectedly, cant remember who you are, maybe create new ID Dissociative identity disorder = multiple distinct identities; one at a time Schizophrenia = symptoms of psychosis (hallucinations, delusions) Paranoid schizophrenia = delusions of grandeur or persecution; auditory delusions common Disorganized schizophrenia = disorganized speech, behavior; odd emotional responses

Psychoanalytic Approach say unconscious needs motivate behavior Conflict between meeting needs & social pressure on how to behave unhealthy behavior Freud 2 fundamental need/motives = sex and aggression Three components of personality 1. Id = biological part; needs and impulses drive behavior Pleasure Principle; do what feels good now; not always possible 2. Ego = rational, realistic part Reality Principle: do what gets needs met effectively, efficiently, safely 3. Superego = social conscience; allows us to get along Morality Principle: do what is right, not wrong The three pieces come into conflict (tension) anxiety Phobias develop to avoid anxiety = defense mechanism Freuds Psychosexual Stages (periods defined by parts of body that do most to make you feel good) Stage Age Summary Oral Stage 0-2 Pain of new teeth Tension in oral zone; feeding schedules Too little/much tension can cause oral fixation later (things that symbolically meet oral needs; chew gum, smoke, bite nails) Anal Stage 2-4 Conflict with parents over toilet training Anally fixated people are anal retentive (all in place), anal expulsive (messy, rebellious) Phallic 4+ Boys: Oedipus complex; have castration anxiety because are Stage attracted to mother; resolved by giving up and identifying with father; source of boys superego Girls: Get penis envy and desire father; mother is not so threatening though, so girls superego is less developed Humanistic Approach People are basically good (unlike above) better world if all allowed to express selves without restraint

Catatonic schizophrenia = odd motor activity - too active, immobile Wavy flexibility (catalepsy): keep limbs in one position for long time Echolalia/echopraxia: repeating words/movements of others Undifferentiated schizophrenia = show any symptoms from above, not specifically one type Somatoform disorders = have physical symptoms not attributes to any medical condition Conversion disorders = impaired motor or sensory function Hypochondriasis = pre-occupied with idea of disease; afraid, cannot be reassured Personality disorders = behavior/thinking inconsistent with cultural expectations Paranoid personality = suspicious, distrustful (not delusional) Antisocial personality = impulsive, inconsiderate, lack conscience Borderline personality disorder = trouble maintaining relationships, wide fluctuations in selfimage and emotional behaviors Narcissistic personality = want praise, special treatment; fantasies of success; no empathy Approaches to explaining abnormality 1. Medical = focus on physiological, biological reasons

directly Goal: un-condition abnormal behaviors (which are conditioned responses) Counter-conditioning = conditioning a new response thats incompatible with old one Systematic desensitization = gradually replace anxiety with relaxation Flooding = same, but not gradually! o_o Aversive conditioning = associate something pleasant with something unpleasant Example: for alcoholic, associate drinking with nauseating drug Other therapy uses operant conditioning )usually reward desired behavior) Token economy = give token when desired behavior is performed Tokens can be collected, exchanged for tangible rewards Medical/biological approach Use drugs like Anti-depressants = prevent reuptake of serotonin Anti-anxiety drugs = depress activity in central nervous system reduce arousal Anti-psychotics = treat schizophrenia by blocking operation of dopamine (overabundant in people with psychotic symptoms) Chapter Thirteen: Social Psychology = how behavior of individuals is influenced by other people; 3 areas Social Cognition = how we process information about people Attribution theory = how people explain behavior of others Dispositional attributions: explain in terms of internal factors (personality, intelligence, maturity, etc.) Situational attributions: in terms of external factors (luck, other people) These attributions then influence our behavior Actor-observer difference = tendency to attribute others actions to disposition (fundamental attribution error), but our own to situations Cognitive dissonance theory = when behave in fashion inconsistent with attitudes tension dissonance find way to explain behavior, to relieve tension Social Influence = Indirect or direct pressures exerted by others to change someones attitude/behavior Deliberate strategies include - Foot-in-door technique: small request larger one (more likely to say yes again) Lowballing: get commitment increase favor Simply because other people are around - Conformity: change behavior to be consistent with group norms Solomon Asch experiment; shows normal social influence (afraid of rejection) Informational social influence (others provide info how you should behave) - Obedience: do what authority figure tells you to Stanley Milgram experiment: less obedient when authority figure isnt near, victim is visible, others disobey Social Relations Aggression = behaviors intended to harm others Frustration-aggression hypothesis = frustration aggression (not always true)

2. 3. 4.

Psychoanalytic = unconscious conflict anxiety maladaptive way of handling it disorder Cognitive = abnormal thinking patterns abnormal behavior Learning/behavioral = disorders are learned behaviors that were reinforced

Chapter Twelve: Psychological therapies Can go by medical (drug, surgery) or psychological (relationship, therapy) approach Psychoanalytic approach Childhood anxiety avoided by repression expressed through abnormal behavior Solution: consciously recognize conflict expressive in socially OK, productive way Free association = relax, say anything gain insight to past conflict Catharsis = liberation of energy when no longer need it to repress Resistance to becoming aware after repressing for so long try to hide Transference = feelings that leak out through behavior Humanistic approach Focus on life now and future, not past Client, not patient (Carl Rogers) Client-centered therapy = non-directive; dont offer interpretations; person can achieve own insight in proper environment provide unconditional positive regard Active listening = be empathetic, accepting, genuine; reflect clients feelings Cognitive approach Change the persons abnormal thinking See world accurately and rationally react in productive ways Learning/behavioral approach Behavior modification use principles of classical ad operant conditioning to change behavior

Door-in-face technique: large small (seems more reasonable)

Testosterone = hormone; more more easily provoked to aggression Aggressive cues = guns, knives, etc. higher aggression; weapons effect Altruism = behavior aimed at unselfishly helping others Kitty Genovese raped and murdered in presence of 38 witnesses Due to diffusion of responsibility bystander effect Reasons to help Social-exchange theory = goal is to max rewards, min costs minimax principle Social responsibility norm and reciprocity norm = help because of obligation Kin selection hypothesis = evolution; those who help relatives keep their genes alive Gets passed down biased toward helping those like us