1. Nonprobability Sampling ->Cannot give accurate and representative info.

Using in qualitative research 1) Reliance on Available Subjects -No control over the representativeness of a sample -> Risky : Be cautious when generalize (ex. stopping ppl. at a street corner) -Use this method Studying the characteristics of ppl. passing the sampling point at specified times If other methods are not available -For pretesting a questionnaire 2) Purposive or Judgmental Sampling -Select the samples based on the researcher's knowledge of population -ex. comparing two parties, selecting wide variety of respondents/small subsets, improving the understanding of the more regular pattern 3) Snowball Sampling -Accidental sampling in field research -For the members of a special(difficult to locate) population (ex. migrant workers, homeless individuals) -Interview a person who can be located -> the interviewee suggests additional ppl. -For explanatory purpose 4) Quota Sampling -Using matrix describing the traits of the target population ->each cell has the same distribution of characteristics -Problems Difficult to get up-to-date data ->Difficult to calculate the accurate proportion for the quota frame (the proportion for one cell) Biased selection of sample elements (a given cell) -For statistical description, field research project 5) Selecting Informants -Informant : a member of the group who can talk directly about the group cf) Respondent : a person who give info. about his/herself -Problem Informant could be marginal or atypical ->May not give the exact info. of group

2. The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling -The Probability Sampling Being used to provide useful description of the total population A sample may have the same variation with the population 1) Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias -Bias : Samples are not typical or representative -ex. , every tenth . 50 50 repondents . 2) Representativeness and Probability of Selection -Probability sampling A basic principle : If all members have same probability to be selected from the population ->A sample will be representative of the population EPSEM(equal probability of selection method) sample ( sample ) Advantages samples are more representative than other types of samples can estimate the accuracy or representativeness of the sample (=provide accurate estimate of success or failure) The use of random-selection procedure Element : the unit that provides the basis of analysis (in sample selection) (ex. types of ppl., social clubs, families) units of analysis(in data analysis) Population : the theoretically specified aggregation of the elements Study population : the aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected -Representativeness A sample having the same distribution of characteristics like the population Enhanced by probability sampling Providing generalizability 3) Random Selection -Selecting the elements that have an equal chance of selection regardless of external events (ex. flipping coins) -A sampling unit : the element or set of element considered for selection -> give the estimates of the parameter -Why we use the random selection check on conscious or unconscious bias on the part of the researcher

offer the access to estimating population's characteristics and samples' accuracy 4) Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sampling Error -Probability Theory Sampling techniques -> produce representative samples -> analyze the results of the sampling -> explain the distribution of estimates -> FINALLY estimate the parameters of a population Parameter : the characteristics of the population The larger the sample size -> the more accurate estimation of the population (ex. 0-9 10 population sample sample population population sample .) -Sampling Distribution Statistic : the characteristics of the samples Probability theory ->important rules regarding sampling distribution the sample statistics -> placed around the population parameter give a formula for estimating sampling error *Formula : s(standard error) = {P(the parameter)Q(1-P)/n(the sample size)} Standard error 95% of the samples -> within TWO standard errors 99% of the samples -> within THREE standard errors the function of the sample size (related to the Central Tendency Theorem) -> the sample size , the standard error standard error 1/2 sample size 2 4 . -Confidence levels and confidence intervals Confidence level : the estimated probability that a population parameter lies within a given confidence interval Confidence interval : the range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie provides the appropriate sample size of a study -Sampling error a large sample -> a smaller sampling error a homogeneous population -> a smaller sampling error 3. Populations and Sampling Frames 1) Sampling frames : the list of elements from which a sample is selected. ( sampling frames ex. The data for this research were obtained from a random

sample of parents of children in the third grade in public and parochial schools in Y. County, Washington. ( sampling frame)) 4. Types of Sampling Designs 1) Simple Random Sampling -assign random # to the units ->a set of random # are generated(Random Number Table)->using the table select the units that correspond the # from the table 2) Systematic Sampling -list all the elements -> with a random start -> select every 'k(=the sampling interval = population size/sample size)' th sample -sampling ratio = sample size/population size -DANGER!! be careful Periodicity (ex. arrangement of all samples with cyclical pattern) -superior to simple random sampling 3) Stratified Sampling -Stratification the grouping of the units into homogeneous group(subset) before sampling improves the representativeness of a sample primary goal -> HOMOGENEITY -Two methods population sample size . sample systematic sampling . 5. Multistage Cluster Sampling 1) Cluster sampling -When it is impossible to get exhaustive list of the elements -List -> Sampling (List) -> Sampling(List) -> Sampling(List)... -'Sampling Iran' -> sampling method that consider cultural differences 2) Multistage Designs and Sampling Error -Maximize the # of clusters and Decrease the # of elements within each cluster -Each cluster should have a complete list of elements -Sampling error -> on the basis of the variance among the sample 3) PPS(probability proportionate to size) Sampling -large-scale survey-sampling projects -Use when the sampled clusters -> greatly differing size ->not with equal probabilities but with probabilities proportionate to their sizes ->select in different sample size according to the clusters' own probabilities 4) Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting

-Weighting : assigning different weights -> samples with different probabilities of selection -Self-weighting sample : all samples having same chance of selection -> being given the same weight