UNIT 3-SOLUTIONS & SOLUBILITY

CHAPTER 6-THE NATURE & PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 6.1 Defining A Solution

SOLUTIONS homogenous mixtures of substances composed of one solute and one solvent. SOLUTE a substance that gets dissolved in a solvent. SOLVENT the medium in which the solute gets dissolved in. - often is a liquid e.g. water, paint thinner, etc. HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE a uniform mixture consisting of only one phase - usually clear HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE a mixture where one can see distinct phases - usually opaque or translucent (cloudy) - e.g. oil in water, salad dressing, etc. SOLUTE IN SOLVENT Gas in Gas Gas in Liquid Gas in Solid Liquid in Gas Liquid in Liquid Liquid in Solid Solid in Liquid Solid in Solid EXAMPLE OF SOLUTION Oxygen in Nitrogen(air) Oxygen in Water Oxygen in Ice Water in Air Methanol in Water(anti-freeze) Mercury in Silver(tooth fillings) Sugar in Water(syrup) Tin in Copper(bronze)

a chemical formula representing a solution specifies the solute by using its chemical formula and shows the solvent by using a subscript. e.g. (1) NH3(aq) ammonia gas (Solute) dissolved in water(solvent) (2) I2(al) solid iodine(solute) dissolved in alcohol(solvent)

all aqueous solutions have water as the solvent and are clear (transparent) compounds can be classified as either electrolytes or nonelectrolytes compounds are electrolytes if their aqueous solutions conduct electricity and compounds are non-electrolytes if their aqueous solutions do not conduct electricity.

electrolytes are mostly highly soluble ionic compounds most molecular compounds are non-electrolytes except for acids PROPERTIES OF SOLUTES & THEIR SOLUTIONS TYPE OF SOLUTE CONDUCTIVITY TEST light on conductivity apparatus glows, needle on ohmmeter moves light does not glow, needle does not move LITMUS TEST blue litmus paper turns red red litmus paper turns blue no change in colour of litmus paper

ELECTROLYTE

NON-ELECTROLYTE
TYPE OF SOLUTION

ACIDIC BASIC NEUTRAL

HOMEWORK: P. 269 & 270 #s 1-8. 6.2 Explaining Solutions when we look at polar & non-polar solutes we generally find that like dissolves like e.g. ethylene glycol is a polar molecule which has a high solubility(which also is polar) the theoretical explanation is that polar molecules are surrounded and suspended in solution by polar solvent molecules remember in Chapter 2.H can be covalently bonded N -O -F any of these compounds can hydrogen bond to their own molecules to increase the intermolecular forces more than either London Dispersion forces or dipole-dipole forces. e.g.

 many more ionic compounds dissolve in water than any other solvent in Sweden, Arrhenius studying electrolytes proposed a hypothesis that when a substance dissolved, its particles separated from each other and dispersed into the solution he further explained that electrically charged particles must be present in their solutions e.g. NaCl(s) --- Na(aq) + + Cl(aq) and (NH4 )2 SO4(s) -- 2NH4(aq) + + SO4(aq) when an ionic compound dissolves we say that the compound

dissociates into individual aqueous ions DO #s 6 & 7 on p. 278 & 279. Why do polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents?
they do not show evidence of polar molecules (dipoles) or

hydrogen bonding we would then have to look at London Dispersion Forces which are weak intermolecular forces WATER = UNIVERSAL SOLVENT due to its; 1. small size 2. highly polar nature 3. considerable capacity for hydrogen bonding Do #s 9-12 on pages 279 & 280.

6.3 Solution Concentration

because many solutions are colourless, we need to know the amount of solute that is present we use a ratio called the concentration Concentration = Quantity of Solute Quantity of Solvent if the concentration is high, we say that we have a concentrated solution if the concentration is low, we say that we have a dilute solution

Percentage Concentration 1. c= Vsolute x 100% Vsolution

Concentration is expressed as % V/V or percentage by volume

c= concentration Vsolute = volume of solute Vsolution = volume of the solution

Sample Problem 1
Q: A photographic Stop Bath contains 140mL of pure acetic acid in a 500mL bottle of solution. What is the percentage by volume concentration of acetic acid? A: cacetic acid = 140mL x 100% 500mL = 28.0% V/V 2. consumer products commonly use percent weight by volume or % W/V

e.g. Hydrogen Peroxide, H2 O2 , may be 3% W/V which means 3g of H2 O2 is in every 100mL of solution cH2O2 = 3g/100mL=3% W/V i.e. c=msolute x 100% vsolution 3. percent weight by weight or % W/W c=msolute x 100% msolution

Sample Problem 2
Q: A sterling silver ring has a mass of 12.0g and contains 11.1g of pure silver. What is the percentage weight by weight concentration of silver in the metal? A: mAg =11.1g malloy =12.0g c=11.1g 12.0g x 100%

c= 92.5% W/W Therefore the ring is 92.5% silver.

Very Low Concentrations very low concentrations(dilute concentrations) are expressed using reasonable numbers for very small quantities of solute in the environment of swimming pools, etc. you often express concentration as parts per million (ppm) or 1:106 we can express this depending on the units we are working with i.e. 1ppm=1g/106 mL =1g/1000L = 1mg/L = 1mg/1kg = 1g/g

Sample Problem 3
Q: In a chemical analysis of 250mL of water at SATP, 2.2mg of oxygen was measured. What is the concentration of oxygen in parts per million? A: mO2 =2.2mg VO2 = 250mL or 0.250L c= 2.2mg 0.250L = 8.8mg/L = 8.8ppm Therefore the oxygen concentration is 8ppm.

MOLAR CONCENTRATION
when we talk about chemical reactions the coefficients in a balanced equation refer to the number of moles concentration is communicated using Molar Concentration or C
the molar concentration, C , is the amount of solute(in moles)

dissolved in one litre of solution

or

Molar Concentration = Amount of Solute (moles) Volume of Solution (litres) C=n/v C is expressed as moles/L

Molar Concentration is sometimes indicated by the use of

square brackets e.g. [NaOH(aq) ]

Sample Problem 4
Q: In a quantitative analysis, a stoichiometric calculation produced a 0.186mol of NaOH in 0.250L of solution. Calculate the molar concentration of NaOH? A: nNaOH = 1.186mol vNaOH = 0.250L

CNaOH = n/v = 0.186mol/0.250L = 0.744mol/L Therefore the molar concentration of NaOH is 0.744mol/L Concentration Calculations in some cases, you might have to work with the equations and manipulate them to find the answer
in other cases, you might have to use the concentration ratio

(quantity of solute/quantity of solution) as a conversion factor.

Sample Problem 5
Q: A box of apple juice has a fructose concentration of 12g/100mL (12%W/V). What mass of fructose (C6 H12 O6 ) is present in a 175mL glass of juice? A: cC6H12O6 =12g/100mL V=175mL msolute =c x vsolution =12g/100mL x 175mL =21g Therefore there are 21g of fructose in a 175mL glass of apple juice. c=msolute vsolution

Sample Problem 6
Q: People with diabetes have to monitor and restrict their sugar intake. What volume of apple juice could a diabetic person drink, if their sugar allowance for that beverage was 9.0g? Assume that the apple juice has a sugar concentration of 12g/100mL (12% W/V) and that the sugar in apple juice is fructose. A: cC6H12O6 =12g/100mL mC6H12O6 =9.0g c=msolute /vsolution ----vsolution =msolute

c =9.0g 12g/100mL =9.0g x 100ml/12g =75mL Therefore the person could drink 75mL of apple juice.

Mass, Volume & Conc3entration Calculations

when given the mass of a substance, volume of a substance and the molar concentration, we sometimes have to use 2 conversion factors; 1. molar mass 2. molar concentration to solve the problem

Sample Problem 10
Q: To study part of the water treatment process in a lab, a student requires 1.50L of a 0.12 mol/L aluminum sulphate solution. What mass of aluminum sulphate must be measured for this solution? A: vAl2(SO4)3(aq) =1.50L CAl2(SO4)3 =0.12mol/L MAL2(SO4)3 =342.14g/mol Step 1: C=n/v, nAL2(SO4)3 =C x v =0.12mol/L x 1.50L =0.180mol Step 2: n=m/M, mAl2(SO4)3 =n x M =0.180mol x 342.14g/mol =61.6g Therefore the student will need 61.6g of aluminum sulphate.

Sample Problem 11
Q: Sodium carbonate is a water softener that is a significant part of the detergent used in a washing machine. A student dissolves 5.00g of solid sodium carbonate to make 250mL of a solution to study the properties of this component of detergent. What is the molar concentration of the solution? A: mNa2CO3 =5.00g VNa2CO3 =250mL MNa2CO3 =105.99g/mol Step 1: n=m/M, nNa2CO3 =5.00g/105.99g/mol =0.0472mol Step 2: C=n/v, CNa2CO3 =0.0472mol/0.250L =0.189mol/L Therefore the molar concentration of the solution is 0.189mol/L. Answer questions 19-22 on page 290.

6.4 Drinking Water

70% of the Earth is covered with a dilute aqueous solution averaging about 4km deep very little of this is useful for drinking. Only about 2% of Earths water is freshwater from lakes and rivers about 0.06% more is ground water which has soaked into the soil and porous rock of the Earths crust in Canada we have a very abundant supply of freshwater, which can be divided into 2 types; 1. Surface water-Great Lakes, rivers, streams, etc 2. Ground water-made up of thousands of aquifers*

*an aquifer is an underground formation of loose material or permeable rock that can produce useful quantities of water when tapped by a well.

Water or Hydrologic Cycle

Water Contamination
sometimes water will naturally contain substances like living

organisms, suspended particles and naturally occurring dissolved chemicals from surrounding rocks and minerals e.g. Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Na1+ common cations HCO3 -1 , SO4 2- , Cl-1 .common anions true contaminants are classified into 3 categories; 1. Biological-viruses, bacteria & algae 2. Physical-suspended particles (make water look dirty)

3. Chemical-all dissolved substances including metals, manufactured chemicals, etc sometimes damage from chemicals can be reversed but many like PCBs, dioxins, heavy metals and some pesticides cause damage that CAN NOT be reversed!

TABLE 1 on P. 293 lists common sources of water contamination. All levels of Government have some degree of responsibility in ensuring the safety of our drinking water !

Federal-Provincial Governments have set-up MAC (Maximum Acceptable Concentrations) lists of chemicals in our water.

Read Section 6.4 Drinking Water P. 291-298 & answer questions 1-4, & 6 on pages 294/295. Also questions 11 & 12 on page 299.

6.5 Solution Preparation 1. From A Solid

Solutions with precisely known concentrations are called

Standard Solutions
these are in many cases made by dissolving a solid solute into

a liquid or aqueous solution

2. Preparation of Standard Solutions By Dilution

done by diluting an existing solution commonly done by taking a standard solution or stock solution & adding solvent to decrease the concentration to the level we need

 Solutions with a molar concentration of < 0.1mol/L are

often described as dilute, while those with a molar concentration >0.1mol/L are referred to as concentrated.
As the mass (or amount) of solute is not changed by adding

more solventwe can say that mi =mf of ni =nf mi =initial mass of solute mi =final mass of solute ni =initial amount of solute (in moles) nf =final amount of solute (in moles) we know that C=n/v --- n=v x C & that c=m/v --- m=c x v therefore we can compare 2 solutions and express the constant quantity of solute in terms of v and C, using the formula: vi Ci =vf Cf

Sample Problem 1
Q: Water is added to 0.200L of 2.40mol/L of NH3(aq) cleaning solution, until the final volume is 1.000L. Find the molar concentration of the final diluted solution. A: vi =0.200L Vf =1.000L Ci =2.40mol/L Find Cf VI Ci =vf Cf Cf =vi Ci -- 0.200L x 2.40mol/L vf 1.000L

=0.480mol/L Therefore the final concentration is 0.480mol/L.

Sample Problem 2
Q: A student is instructed to dilute some concentrated HCL(aq) (36%) to make 4.00L of a 10% solution. What volume of HCl should the student measure to do this? A: ci =36% Vf =4.00L Cf =10% Find vi vi c i = vf cf ---- vi = vf cf ci = 4.00L x 10% 36% = 1.1L Therefore the initial volume was 1.1L. Answer Questions 1-5 on Pages 306-307.