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M. AbdelSalam, Professor
Assuit University A-k E m
M. Zaki ,Professor
AI-Azher University Cairo, Egypt
A b s t r a c t - - I n the recent years, research i n a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , has achieved s i g n i f i c a n t success. Among t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t o f these i s the developnent of the knowledge-based systems. The knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n i s a key a p p l i c a t i o n f o r developing the knowledge-based systems. The knouledge a c q u i s i t i o n has been recognized as an hindrance i n the developnent of knowledge-based systems. This hindrance i s r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o the r o l e in building the of the knowledge-engineer knowledge-based systems. This hindrance may be avoided by having the machine l e a r n i t s om h e u r i s t i c s e i t h e r from experience, analogy and examples or by being t o l d what t o do. I n the present work, a learning system has and been developed t h a t w i l l l e a r n design r u l e s (bad) concepts from p o s i t i v e (good) and negative exenptes i n t h e form o f e x i s t i n g substations. This system w i l l take exanples and generate r u l e s and concepts f o r s p e c i f y i n g the major components of an e l e c t r i c substation. Thus, the substation will be consistent w i t h the design of other design substations owned by the colrpany i f the examples consist o f descriptions o f t h e i r e x i s t i n g substations.
1- Introduction Capital investment i n e l e c t r i c a l power systems i s very l a r g e C11. The economical and standard design of substations i s therefore an important aspect of power system engineering. A t the present time, there i s a notable grouth i n e l e c t r i c a l demand, t h i s presents a very d i f f i c u l t challenge: providing a source of r e l i a b l e , continuous e l e c t r i c a l energy with go? voltage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o essential loads. With t h i s i n mind, the power system engineer must have experience and knowledge t o deal w i t h the problem of designing such systems. Generally, design i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l activity performed e x c l u s i v e l y by hunan beings. The a b i l i t y t o design seems i n t r i n s i c t o hunan beings and i s developed by experience. Therefore, the a b i l i t y of the designer i s thought t o be improved o n l y by years of experience t21. A substation i s a p a r t of a pouer system and not an e n t i t y by i t s e l f . A t y p i c a l power system may include substations f o r d i f f e r e n t voltage l e v e l s ( such as e x t r a high, high, mediun and low) a number of times betueen generation and u t i l i z a t i o n . Today, a large mmber o f substations must be hilt t o meet the grouth of e l e c t r i c a l energy demand i n d i f f e r e n t areas. These substations should be designed, constructed and operated t o meet customers' needs a t the lowest possible cost, cannensurate w i t h the quality of services desired C31. Generally, the designers of
substations use known components, requirements and c r i t e r i a , appropriate guidelines and expertise to provide a conplete design o f a substation. The a b i l i t y t o meld the d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r a i n t s i n t o an acceptable design i s essential. During the design process the engineer m s t not allow h i s i n t r i n s i c a b i l i t y i n solving technical problems t o d i v e r t him from the use of nationally accepted standards. This should eventually r e s u l t i n the e v o l u t i o n o f standard designs f o r a given substation. Standardization i s a desirable and achievable o b j e c t i v e t h a t should be pursued. An e l e c t r i c a l substation i s an assembly of switchgear components used t o d i r e c t the flow o f e l e c t r i c a l energy i n a power system. Basically, the major components of a t y p i c a l substation are the circuit breakers, instrunent transformers, and i s o l a t o r s . The power transformer may o r may not be considered as a p a r t o f the substation, depending on i t s type. The i n t e r n a l connection o f these components depends mainly on the krsbar system(scheme) used i n the substation. Functionally, substations may be categor ized as d i s t r ibut ion subs t at ions, t ransmi s s i on substations, switching substations o r a combination thereof t31. The l o c a t i o n o f a substation may be c l a s s i f i e d as indoor o r outdoor. The u l t i m a t e goal of t h i s work i s t o develop a learnable expert system t o design e l e c t r i c substations. To achieve t h i s goal, the present work i s d i v i d e d i n t o a mmber of stages. The present paper i s considered as the f i r s t stage and the other stages w i l l be the suggestions f o r f u t u r e work. The goal o f the present stage i s t o develop and implement a domain independent Inductive Learning System ( I L S ) . The ILS, l i k e other learning systems, can be used as a knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n module of an expert system. This provides a systematic technique f o r b u i l d i n g , modifying, updating and expanding the knowledge bases o f expert systems, replacing the i l l - d e f i n e d knowledge engineer-domein expert knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n the present work, I L S i s used t o acquire the r u l e s and concepts required f o r s p e c i f y i n g the major components of an e l e c t r i c substation. I n the authors' knowledge t h i s i s the f i r s t time t h a t the learning systems are used i n a r e a l i s t i c power application. The d i f f i c u l t process of knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n has emerged as the key technology underpinning the c r e a t i o n of knowledge-based systems 141. Although hunan experts have d i f f i c u l t y i n formulating t h e i r expertise as r u l e s and concepts, they f i n d i t i s easy t o demonstrate t h e i r knowledge e x p l i c i t l y i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s , such as t r a i n i n g exanples. Schemes f o r learning concepts from examples o f f e r the p o t e n t i a l f o r domain experts t o i n t e r a c t d i r e c t l y w i t h the corrputers t o t r a n s f e r t h e i r expertise. The framework of t h i s paper i s as follows. Section 2 presents a nunber of issues concerning the knowledge base systems and machine learning. Moreover, t h i s
0-7803-0453-5/9151 .oo$,1991IEEE
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s e c t i o n presents the c u r r e n t p o i n t o f view ofllwhy the machine should l e a r n ?I1.Section 3 presents a complete d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e developnent and implementation o f the domain independent I n d u c t i v e Learning System (ILS). Section 4 presents a case study. This case study i s taken from t h e s u b s t a t i o n design domain, p a r t i c u l a r l y , s p e c i f y i n g the major components of an electric substation. F i n a l l y , s e c t i o n 5 presents conclusions and suggestions f o r f u t u r e work.
2-KWWEDGE-BASED SYSTEMS (KBS)
All)
MACHINE LEARNING
experience, o r r e f l e c t i o n . Simon t91 ,defines learning as: any change i n a system t h a t allows i t t o perform b e t t e r the second time on r e p e t i t i o n o f the same task o r on another task drawn from t h e same population. This definition implies that learning involves generalizations from experience, t h a t the improved performance i s observed on t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f the same task o r on some d i s t i n c t but r e l a t e d task i n the dunain. Simon@s d e f i n i t i o n i s general enough to encompass various approaches f o r learning. machine The f o l l o u i n g i s a l i s t o f c o t " learning techniques suggested i n C6,8,9,101.
I n recent years, research i n the field of A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e ( A I ) , has achieved s i g n i f i c a n t success. Among t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t o f these i s the developnent o f t h e knowledge-based systems(KBSs). KBSs simulate the behavior o f a hunan expert i n a s p e c i f i e d problem domain. They can o f f e r i n t e l l i g e n t advice and j u s t i f y t h e i r inference and provide "professional quality s o l u t i o n s t o problems i n c e r t a i n domains. KBSs capable o f i n t e l l i g e n t behavior r e q u i r e access t o l a r g e amounts o f knowledge stored i n r e p o s i t o r i e s c a l l e d knowledge-bases(KBs). Constructing and extending such a KB has proven t o be an extremely time consuning and d i f f i c u l t task, since t h e designer o f such systems must formulate each symbolic representation i n d i v i d u a l l y . Moreover, the t y p i c a l image o f the knowledge acquisition development o f a KBS, the process, i s t h a t a domain expert i s interviewed by a knowledge engineer, t o e x p l a i n how he solves a problem i n a given area. I n t h e interview, the expert reveals h e u r i s t i c s which can be encoded as r u l e s i n a KBS. Knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n (KA) i s the process of obtaining, s t r u c t u r i n g , and f o r m a l i z i n g the knowledge o f one o r more hunan experts i n order t o b u i l d a system t h a t can perform a d i f f i c u l t task adequately [51. KA has been recognized as both an a r t and a bottleneck i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f KBSs. This bottleneck r e f e r s t o the d i f f i c u l t y o f b u i l d i n g KBSs through the e f f o r t s o f both knowledge engineers and domain experts. This bottleneck i s due t o a nunber o f p o t e n t i a l problems, such as a v a i l a b i l i t y o f experts, existence o f experts, experts' a b i l i t y and changes i n the underlying theory, which r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o t h e r o l e of the knowledge engineers i n developing t h e KBSs. One way t o avoid t h e above p o t e n t i a l problems i s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e knowledge engineerls task o f interviewing an expert by having the machine l e a r n its own h e u r i s t i c s e i t h e r from experience, analogy, and examples o r by being t o l d what t o do. I n the f o l l o w i n g the manner i n which machine learning might f a c i l i t a t e knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n f o r t h e knowledge requirement o f KBSs i s o u t l i n e d t6,7,81. 1- Machine l e a r n i n g systems might c o n t r i b u t e t o the i n i t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a knowledge base. 2- Machine l e a r n i n g systems might r e f i n e e x i s t i n g knowledge bases. This idea spawned the developnent o f smart r u l e e d i t o r s and learning apprentice systems 3- Machine l e a r n i n g systems might be h e l p f u l in adapting a KBS, f o r example, t o accomnodate user expertise or style. 4- I n general, machine learning might provide a systematic method f o r constructing knowledge bases o f KBSs, r e p l a c i n g the i l l - d e f i n e d engineer-expert knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n . Thus, i t may provide a formalized mechanism f o r knowledge acqui s i t i on. Learning i s a very broad term, and denotes knowledge gained by study o r the gaining of knowledge, s k i l l , a b i l i t y and understanding from i n s t r u c t i o n ,
1-Rote Leaming
This i s the simplest type o f learning, since i t involves no modifications o f input data. Solutions a r e simply stored and r e c a l l e d when t h e same problem instance arises. The teacher s t a t e s f a c t s e x p l i c i t l y and the system must store, index, and r e t r i e v e them as appropriate. For example, the user might say "Here are f a c t s about substations. There are f i v e main types: a, b, .@I.
......
2-1eaming from E x r p l e s
The induction o f general p r i n c i p l e s from a set o f examples i s one o f t h e o l d e s t and most important learning problems i n computer science. Winston's t111 program f o r learning s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s i s an exenple o f t h i s type. Learning from exanples may be e i t h e r incremental by modifying i t s concepts in response t o each t r a i n i n g instance, o r s i n g l e t r i a l by forming concepts once i n response t o a l l t h e data.
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when a p p l i e d t o a p o s i t i v e example and f a l s e when applied t o a negative example. Concept learning i s the a c q u i s i t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s from p o s i t i v e and negative examples. There are two kinds o f concept learning: i n d u c t i v e and deductive. I n t h i s p a r t o f the present work t h e main goal i s t o implement a learning system based on the i n d u c t i v e learning technique t o acquire t h e knowledge r e q u i r e d t o specify the major components o f an e l e c t r i c a l substation. problem o f Simon and Lea 1141 describe the i n d u c t i v e l e a r n i n g from examples as the problem o f using t r a i n i n g examples, selected from the space o f p o s s i b l e t r a i n i n g instances ( instance space), t o guide a search f o r a general concept o r r u l e ( concept I n other words, t h e i n d u c t i v e learning ( space). sometimes call Similarity-Based Learning (SBL)) technique involves examining m u l t i p l e examples of a concept i n order t o determine the features they have i n tomnon. I t does not r e q u i r e a complete domain theory. The system can l e a r n from examples without having much p r i o r knowledge o f t h e domain under study. The SBL a l g o r i t h m takes as input a set of example instances and produces as output a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedure ( general r u l e or concept) t h a t can c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f y novel instances. This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedure w i l l g e n e r a l l y be represented h e r e i n by a data s t r u c t u r e ( such as a d e c i s i o n tree, a set o f rules, and a set o f concepts represented by frames). The reader should remember, however, t h a t the complete c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedure consists o f data s t r u c t u r e s ( f a c t u a l knowledge ) and a method ( c o n t r o l knowledge ) f o r applying t h a t f a c t u a l knowledge o f an instance t o produce a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Formally, SBL problems can be s t a t e d as follows:
t h a t does not mis-explain any o f the examples w i l l not mis-explain any novel instance. issues This section presents the corrplete concerning the development o f ILS. ILS i s t a i l o r e d t o design e l e c t r i c system components. ILS's performance i s checked f o r the s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l substation equipment.
A- DESCRIPTICN LANGUAGES:
The d e s c r i p t i o n languages express the input t o and the output from the learning systems. The output o f the system i s known as concept space w h i l e the input t o the system i s known as instance space. I n t h i s present work, ILS i s used f o r the design o f an e l e c t r i c system, t h a t i s corrposed o f a f i x e d set o f equipment o r components. Each o f them i s described by a f i x e d set o f properties. Therefore, the suitable and simple method t o represent the instance and concept space i s known as the a t t r i b u t e vector ( p r o p o s i t i o n a l logic). The l a t t e r represents l o g i c a l statements using predicates on constant terms, w i t h connectives f o r d i s j u n c t i o n (or), conjunction (and), negation and implication. I n the instance space, each instance o f a concept i s defined by values o f a f i x e d set o f a t t r i b u t e s , not a l l o f which are necessarily relevant t o the learning three types of task. Following M i c h a l i s k i 1151 a t t r i b u t e s are considered i n the ILS. A nominal a t t r i b u t e i s one t h a t takes a f i n i t e , unordered set o f mutually exclusive values , e.g.,the attribute type of transformer restricted to Autotransformer and Multiwinding. A l i n e a r a t t r i b u t e i s one w i t h a l i n e a r l y ordered set o f mutually exclusive values, e.g. a r e a l - v a l u e d or integer- valued a t t r i b u t e . A t r e e - s t r u c t u r e d a t t r i b u t e i s one w i t h a f i n i t e set o f h i e r a r c h i c a l l y - ordered values, e.g. the a t t r i b u t e made-in o f a c e r t a i n o b j e c t shown i n Fig.1. Only the l e a f values o f the t r e e - s t r u c t u r e d a t t r i b u t e ( e t c o f Fig.1 e.g. MO, M I , WI, London, Paris, Cairo, ), are d i r e c t l y observable i n the instance space (input examples). The instance space can be thought o f as c o n s i s t i n g o f a large set o f simple objects. Each i s characterized by i t s p r o p e r t i e s as given by the values o f a t t r i b u t e s A A Such an instance space is called attribute-based.
Given :
A set
o f o b j e c t s t h a t represent p o s i t i v e and negative examples o f a concept, A background knowledge that defines the a s s q t i o n s and c o n s t r a i n t s irrposed on the instance space, concept space and preference criterion,
A generalized
Find :
...
concept(s) t h a t covers a l l the p o s i t i v e examples and none o f the negative examples, and s a t i s f i e s the background knowledge.
,......,
The present work focuses on the problem of learning s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s from a s e t o f p o s i t i v e and negative examples. S p e c i f i c a l l y , f i n d i n g the most general conjunctive( with or without internal d i s j u n c t i v e ) concepts t h a t characterize a given class of electrical components. Formally, structural d e s c r i p t i o n s p o r t r a y o b j e c t s as a composite s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f various cotpponents. For instance, a s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f a substation could represent the s u b s t a t i o n i n terms o f the type, transformers, c i r c u i t breakers, i s o l a t o r s , and so f o r t h , along w i t h the r e l a t i o n s t h a t h o l d among these various components. nunber of The ILS a l g o r i t h m i s based on a observations. F i r s t , the logic-based approaches provide more comprehensible and e f f i c i e n t learned concepts. Second, t h e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y i s data driven. Third, the learned concepts must be complete and consistent w i t h respect t o the example set. Fourth, ILS uses a greedy h e u r i s t i c t o c o n s t r a i n the search space. F i f t h , the l e a r n i n g a l g o r i t h m o f ILS depends on the d i f f e r e n c e method as a new method and as a replacement o f many on the other techniques. F i n a l l y , ILS i s b u i l t assunption o f example adequacy- t h a t i s , any concept
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ILS uses a h y b r i d knowledge representation scheme. This scheme i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f the production r u l e s and frame schemes. The companion work 1231 gives a complete d e s c r i p t i o n o f the implementation issues. The a t t r i b u t e s a r e represented by 3-argunent predicates, which are the i n t e r n a l representation frame schemes. Each o f them i s defined by the f o l l o w i n g syntax: predicate-namecargwnt #l,argunent #2,argunent #3) Predicate-name w i l l be the object name ( i.e. frame name). The f i r s t argunent w i l l be a t t r i b u t e name ( s l o t name i n frame ), t h e second argunent w i l l be l~valuell (value f a c e t i n frame) and the t h i r d argunent i s the value associated w i t h t h e a t t r i b u t e . For example, consider a transformer has t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s , nunber o f phases (nuphase), output, and type , t h i s space can be represented as follows: va transformer ( nuphase , 1ue ,three ) , t ransf ormer(output ,va lue, 500), t ransf ormer( type,value, two-wi ndi ng) Equations r e l a t i n g a t t r i b u t e s t o values w i l l be c a l l e d atoms. Each atom i s e i t h e r elementary and has a s i n g l e value o r compound and consists o f several elementary atoms being connected by d i s j u n c t i v e or conjunctive operators. The possible forms o f elementary atoms are as follows:
transformer(output,value,[500,10001) represents the set o f a l l transformers t h a t have a value f o r the a t t r i b u t e type o f auto and a value f o r the a t t r i b u t e output between 500 and 1000 KVA. I L S deals w i t h a l a r g e nunber o f p o s i t i v e and negative examples. Therefore, i t i s designed, i n the present stage, t o represent the values o f the same a t t r i b u t e s from d i f f e r e n t examples i n l i s t form. I n addition, the system d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between p o s i t i v e and negative examples by using s p e c i f i c words. The words IlexelI and I1nxel1stand f o r p o s i t i v e and negative examples, respectively. To clarify these points In consider the i l l u s t r a t i v e example shown i n Fig.2. t h i s i l l u s t r a t i v e example, the concept transformer has three a t t r i b u t e s , namely, output, type and nuphase. These a t t r i b u t e s are represented by the predicates There a r e t h r e e p o s i t i v e transformer i n Fig.(2a). examples ( E l , E2 and E3) and two negative examples(NE1 These examples are and NE21 as shown i n Fig.2a. represented i n l i s t form as shown i n Fig.2b. The o n l y s o r t o f background knowledge used by ILS i s the knowledge about the lltypell o f a t t r i b u t e . This s o r t o f knowledge i s represented by Prolog f a c t s as shown i n F i g . 2 ~ f o r the above i l l u s t r a t i v e example.
B- Search bias
I n any learning application, the e n t i r e instance space w i l l be very l a r g e and i n t r a c t a b l e unless i t i s s t r o n g l y biased. ILS i s designed t o use the f o l l o w i n g forms of i n d u c t i v e b i a s : 1- P o s i t i v e and negative examples are represented by a N f i x e d instance space which i s defined by a t t r i b u t e s . The type o f each a t t r i b u t e i s e i t h e r tree-structured, nominal o r l i n e a r . 2- The learned concepts must be represented by the same set o f a t t r i b u t e s which appear i n the instance space. 3- The learned concepts are i n t e r n a l l y d i s j u n c t i v e and C concepts, i.e. i n the f o l l o w i n g form: C and C , where C i=1,2 n are pure disjunctive. 4- The learned concepts must be complete and consistent
1- For t r e e - s t r u c t u r e d and nominal a t t r i b u t e s : a t t r i b u t e = value, e.g transformer(type,value,two-winding). 2- For l i n e a r a t t r i b u t e s : value , value < a t t r i b u t e e.g transformer(output,value,[350,5001). where [350,5001 means a range from 350 t o 500. The compound atoms can take the f o l l o w i n g forms: I - F o r t r e e - s t r u c t u r e d and nominal a t t r i b u t e s : o r value , a t t r i b u t e = value o r value o r
e.g.transformer(type,value,~auto,two~windingl).
where 11,11 f o r t r e e - s t r u c t u r e d a t t r i b u t e s means llorll. 2-For l i n e a r a t t r i b u t e : Any d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n t e r v a l s , e.g. 350 < output < 500 o r 640 < output <IO00 transformer(output,value, [[350,5001, [640,10001). There a r e several types o f concepts o r expressions t h a t a r e taken i n t o account i n the ILS d e s c r i p t i o n language. These types include pure conjunctive, ?re d i s j u n c t i v e , and i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e . The f o l l o w i n g e x p l a i n how each one of these expressions is represented i n terms o f the elementary and compound atoms. 1- Pure conjuctive. The expressions are o f the form atom and atom and and atom Where each atom i s an elementary atom, 1 < i < s. For examp1e, t r a n s f ormer(output ,va lue,640), transformer ( type, va 1ue, three) ,
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output(exe,value, 5001, type(exe,value,auto), nuphase (exe,value, three) output (exe, va 1ue, 600),type( exe, va 1ue, auto), nuphase(exe, va 1ue, three) output (exe, va 1ue, 5001, type( exe, va 1ue, auto),
El
E2 E3 NE1
nuphase(exe,value,single)
out put (exe, va 1ue, 4001, type( exe, va 1ue, auto), nuphase(exe,value,three) NE2 out put ( exe, va 1ue, 5001, type( exe, va 1ue, auto), nuphase(exe,value,three) t ransf ormer(at t r ibutes, v a l ue, [output, type, nuphasel ) P o s i t i v e examples:
.....
transformer(nuphase,value,two-winding).
2- Pure d i s j u n c t i v e : The same as pure conjunctive, but the atoms a r e connected by o r .I1 3- I n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e . The same as pure conjunctive, but compound atoms a r e allowed. For example, consider the f o l l o w i n g concept: (transformer-type i s auto o r two-winding ) and (64<= output <= 80) o r output= 100) and nunber-ofghases i s three) t h i s concept can be represented as follows:
output(exe,value,t500,600,5001) type(exe,value,[auto,auto,autol)
nuphase(exe, va lue, [three, three, s i n g le1 Negative examples: output (nxe, value, [400,5001) type(nxe,value, [auto,autol )
nuphase(nxe,value,[three,threel)
(b) Background knowledge: type(output,value,linear)
transformer(type,value,[auto,two~windingl),
transformer(output,value, [[64,801, [10011~,
type(nuphase,value,nominal) type(type,value,nominal)
(C)
transformer(nuphase,value,three).
A concept o f any o f the above types represents a
set o f instances i n the instance space way, i.e. t h e concept: transformer ( type, va 1ue, auto),
i n the
usual
( exanple set) i n the sense t h a t the concept mrst cover a l l the positive exanples without covering any negative exanples. C- Teacher i n t e r a c t i o n and nature o f examples ILS can be c l a s s i f i e d as a supervised learning system. Therefore, the teacher plays an inportant r o l e i n ILS. The examples should be selected and c l a s s i f i e d c o r r e c t l y , as w e l l as arranged i n a s p e c i f i c regular sequence by t h e teacher. ILS learns from p e r f e c t and complete o r incomplete p o s i t i v e and negative examples. P o s i t i v e examples are used t o generalize t h e c u r r e n t concepts while the negative exenples a r e used to specialize these concepts. a non-incremental The l e a r n i n g process is a l l the exanples are provided presentation i.e. If after generating a concept simultaneously. new 1y - present ed training example descr ipt ion , a c o n t r a d i c t s i t , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r generalization r u l e s a r e a p p l i e d t o generate a new consistent concept d e s c r i p t i o n . There a r e a nunber o f methods f o r such incremental Learning described i n 1161.
A- Cmjuwth ml w t i d l y 8pecific
canj-tiv,
CancrPfs:
A c o n j u n c t i v e concept i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a class o f o b j e c t s obtained by forming the conjunction (AND) o f a group w i t h a minimun nunber o f elementary atoms. Each atom i s the r e s u l t o f using one o r more generalization rules. A maximally s p e c i f i c conjunctive concept i s the most d e t a i l e d concept t h a t i s t r u e o f a l l of the known o b j e c t s i n t h e class. Since, a s p e c i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n l i s t s many f a c t s about the class, the maximally s p e c i f i c conjunctive concept i s the longest consistent and complete conjunctive concept t h a t s t i l l describes a l l the example set.
B- tnteml disjuwtive:
An i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e concept i s the same as conjunctive concept, but conpound atoms are allowed.
0-Gmdy
Heuristic :
The problem o f f i n d i n g a concept that i s both consistent and complete w i t h a given example set and has a minimun nunber o f atuns i s equivalent t o t h a t o f f i n d i n g t h e m i n i m s e t cover. The minimun set cover problem i s w e l l known as a NP-hard problem 1171 and stated: given a c o l l e c t i o n of sets w i t h union T, find a s u b c o l l e c t i o n whose union i s T t h a t has t h e minimm nunber o f sets. There i s a h e u r i s t i c f o r approximating the minimun cover o f a set T: F i r s t choose t h e Largest set i n the c o l l e c t i o n . Then remove t h e elements o f t h i s set from T and choose another s e t t h a t includes the maximun nunber o f the remaining elements, continuing i n t h i s manner u n t i l T i s exhausted. This i s c a l l e d the greedy method. I f the set T t o be covered has m elements and s i s the s i z e o f t h e minimun cover, then t h e greedy method i s guaranteed t o find a cover o f s i z e a t most 1181 : s(1n m l ) (1)
I I
U)
GENERALIZER
r a
5
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s t e p 1 For a given a t t r i b u t e , find sets D I F and COn as explained before. s t e p 2 Generalize t h e elements o f COn and D I F according t o the type o f learned concepts sought. In t h i s algorithm step 1 is self explanatory Two types o f while s t e p 2 needs some explanation. considered here. Pure learned concepts w i l l be conjunctive and I n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e concepts: For these types o f concepts t o be consistent and complete w i t h respect t o t h e example set, each atom must cover a l l t h e p o s i t i v e examples (i.e. elements o f set Dp o r t h e union o f COn and Sn sets) and e l i m i n a t e some set ( p o s s i b l y empty) o f negative examples, and a l l a l l negative t h e atoms together must eliminate examples. Given an atom a i n v o l v i n g an a t t r i b u t e A and a negative example, atom a eliminates t h a t negative exanple i f i t has a value f o r A t h a t i s not included i n t h e s e t o f values f o r A s p e c i f i e d i n a. From t h i s fact, s t e p 2 i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e method i s c a r r i e d out as follows: i-Find the MS atom, MSl, among the elements o f COn. ii- Find t h e MS atom, MS2, among t h e elements o f Sn. iii-F i n d t h e o v e r a l l MS atom among MSl and MS2, i v - F i n d t h e " b e r o f negative examples e l i m i n a t e d by t h e MS atom by counting the nunber o f elements i n Sn.
The c e n t r a l steps o f a l g o r i t h m 1 are s t e p 1, and step 2-8. S t e p 1 i s the r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e method while step 2-8 i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e greedy h e u r i s t i c . I n step 2-a, t h e greedy h e u r i s t i c i s used as follows: F i r s t , choose t h e MS atom t h a t e l i m i n a t e s the largest nunbet- of negative examples. Then remove from the example set the negative examples that are eliminated and choose another MS atom t h a t eliminates the maximm " h e r o f the negative examples o f the remaining example set, continuing i n t h i s manner until a l l the negative exanples i n t h e example set are eliminated. From equation 1, i t f o l l o w s t h a t given m examples o f an s-atom conjunctive concept, a l g o r i t h m 1 i s guaranteed t o f i n d a consistent and complete concept w i t h a t most s(1n mt) atoms. For some r e a l i s t i c applications, a learned concept w i t h N atoms i s b e t t e r than t h a t w i t h a mininun " b e r o f atoms. Therefore, step 4 i s added as o p t i o n a l i n a l g o r i t h m 1. In t h i s one step, each MS atom i s t h e r e s u l t o f w i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n r u l e according t o t h e a t t r i b u t e type.
3-4 IWLEIENTATIOII OF I L S :
The i n i t i a l implementation o f ILS i s r e s t r i c t e d t o the implementation o f a l g o r i t h m 1 and t h e observations mentioned i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s e c t i o n 3. Algorithm 1 has been implemented i n t h e Turbo Prolog language t191. The major steps o f a l g o r i t h m 1 a r e implemented as follows:
.......................................................
Algorithm 1
1- Step 1
Step 1
By using the d i f f e r e n c e method f i n d the MS atom f o r each a t t r i b u t e and t h e nunber o f negative examples e l i m i n a t e d by i t s MS atom. This step consists o f two parts. I n t h e f i r s t part, f o r a given a t t r i b u t e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e method i s used t o f i n d the sets Sp, Sn and COn and t h e nunber o f negative examples eliminated by t h i s a t t r i b u t e . The d i f f e r e n c e method can be r e a l i z e d by m a n s o f the d i f f predicate. This predicate has three argunents. The f i r s t argunent gives the name o f t h e a t t r i b u t e t o be used, t h e second argunent i s a l i s t t h a t s p e c i f i e s t h e set Dp, t h e t h i r d
strp 2
S t a r t i n g w i t h empty conjunctive concept, C, ( w i t h o r without i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e ) while t h e r e a r e negative examples i n the example set, do the f o l l o w i n g : a-Among a l l a t t r i b u t e s , f i n d the MS atom that e l i m i n a t e s the m s t negative examples and add i t t o C, breaking out o f the loop i f no MS atom e l i m i n a t e s any negative examples. negative b-Remove from t h e set NEG the examples t h a t a r e eliminated.
strp 3
I f t h e r e are no negative examples l e f t , r e t u r n C as t h e complete and consistent description concept, otherwise r e p o r t t h a t the example set or i s not consistent w i t h any conjunctive i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e concept. step 4 ( o p t i o n a l ) For (N-S) a t t r i b u t e s , f i n d f o r each one of these a t t r i b u t e s the MS atom and add these atcms t o c.
Fig.4 A l g o r i t h m 1 f o r l e a r n i n g c o n j m c t i v e concepts
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argunent i s a l i s t t h a t s p e c i f i e s the set Dn. Predicate d i f f uses a nunber o f a u x i l i a r y predicates i n order t o c a r r y out t h e i n t e r n a l process o f the d i f f e r e n c e method. The output o f the predicate d i f f i s stored i n the knowledge base as two f a c t s as follows: d i f f - out ( a r g l ,va 1ue, arg2) d i f f - w e i g h t ( argl, value, arg3) where a r g l i s the a t t r i b u t e name arg2 i s a l i s t t h a t consists o f three s u b l i s t s representing Sp, Sn, and COM, respectively. arg3 i s a l i s t t h a t has two elements. The f i r s t element s p e c i f i e s the nunber o f negative examples t h a t a r e removed by t h i s a t t r i b u t e . The second element i s a s u b l i s t representing an index f o r the negative examples t h a t are removed. The f u n c t i o n o f the second p a r t of step 1 i s t o find t h e MS atom ( i . e c a r r y out the generalization process f o r the given a t t r i b u t e ) . The generalization process i s r e a l i z e d by means o f the gen predicates. This p r e d i c a t e has one argunent. This argunent s p e c i f i e s the a t t r i b u t e name t o be used. The gen predicate f i r s t c a l l s the f a c t d i f f - o u t by using the a t t r i b u t e name from the knowledge base, and then determines the MS atom o f t h i s a t t r i b u t e , as explained before. The r e s u l t o f t h i s processes i s stored i n the knowledge base as f a c t and takes the f o l l o w i n g form, msatom( a r g l , value, arg2) where a r g l s p e c i f i e s the a t t r i b u t e name arg2 s p e c i f i e s the MS atom f o r t h i s a t t r i b u t e I n t h i s implementation, the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n r u l e s are r e s t r i c t e d t o the c l o s i n g i n t e r v a l r u l e , the climbing g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t r e e r u l e , and the adding i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i o n r u l e as explained before.
automatically generate a learned concept, w i t h s u i t a b l e type, t h a t i s consistent w i t h respect t o the example set. Also, t h i s example i l l u s t r a t e s f u r t h e r d e t a i l s of the d i f f e r e n c e method. Example: Trace the development o f concept c i n a l g o r i t h m 1, given an instance space f o r a concept transformer, with output, and nunber o f a t t r i b u t e s made i n (made), phases(nuphase1, where made i s t h e t r e e s t r u c t u r e a t t r i b u t e given i n F i g 1. output i s a l i n e a r a t t r i b u t e , and nuphase i s a nominal a t t r i b u t e . Let the example set consists of the p o s i t i v e examples nuphase=three, made= M I El output=52, nuphase=three, made= MO E2 output=34, nuphase=three, made= M I E3 output=29, nuphase=single made= London E4 output=44, and the negative examples are nuphase=three, made= P a r i s NE1 output=43, made= Cairo NE2 output=51, nuphase=three, nuphase=single, made= M1 NE3 output=44,
step 1
The Dp and Dn are as follows: Dn attribute DP nuphase [single,three,three,threel [three,three,singlel made [MI,MO,MI,Londonl [Paris, Cai ro,MI 1 output [52,34,29,441 [43,52,551 I n the first This step consists o f two p a r t s . p a r t the d i f f e r e n c e method i s used t o determine the sets Sp, Sn and COM along w i t h the number o f negative examples f o r each a t t r i b u t e . The output of the d i f f e r e n c e method i s Attribute made nuphase output [MO, Londonl [I [52,34,29,441 SP S n [Par i s , Cai r o l Cl [43,51,551 COM [MI1 [three, s i n g le1 Cl I n the second part, the MS atom f o r each a t t r i b u t e i s determined, as explained before. The r e s u l t o f t h i s p a r t i s as follows: The MS atoms are MS atom attribute made USA o r London nuphase three o r s i n g l e output 29<nuphase<52
2- S t e p 2-(1
This s t e p i s the implementation of the greedy h e u r i s t i c . The greedy h e u r i s t i c can be r e a l i z e d by means o f the greedy predicate. The greedy predicate c a r r i e s out the f o l l o w i n g functions: I-The greedy predicate c a l l s a l l the d i f f - w e i g h t f a c t s from the knowledge base and from them i t constructs a candidate l i s t which takes the f o l l o w i n g form, c a n d i d a t e - l i s t (greedy,value,argl) where a r g l i s a l i s t t h a t consists o f a nunber o f s u b l i s t s equal t o the nwnber of a t t r i b u t e s . Each s u b l i s t has three elements. The f i r s t element s p e c i f i e s the a t t r i b u t e name. The second element s p e c i f i e s the number o f negative examples t h a t are e l i m i n a t e d by t h i s a t t r i b u t e . The t h i r d element i s a s u b l i s t t h a t s p e c i f i e s an index f o r the negative examples t h a t a r e removed. A t the end o f t h i s step a l l d i f f - w e i g h t f a c t s are removed from the knowledge base. 2- Among a l l the elements o f the c a n d i d a t e - l i s t , i.e elements represented by a r g l above, the greedy predicate s e l e c t s an a t t r i b u t e t h a t eliminates the most the selected negative examples. The MS atom o f a t t r i b u t e , c a l l e d the msatom, i s added t o the knowledge base as a f a c t and takes the form, concept(arg1, value, arg2) where a r g l i s the a t t r i b u t e name arg2 s p e c i f i e s the MS atom f o r t h i s a t t r i b u t e 3- I n t h i s step, the a t t r i b u t e t h a t has been selected i n step 2 along w i t h the associated negative examples are removed from the candidate l i s t , and the whole process i s repeated from step 2.
step 2
I n i t i a l l y the concept c i s empty. The atom made=USA or London eliminates the most negative examples (two), so i t i s chosen f i r s t and conjoined t o c. The negative examples(l&2) t h a t i t eliminates a r e removed, leaving only one negative example(3). The atom 29<output<52 eliminates t h i s example, whereas the nuphase atom does not, so i t i s now conjoined t o c. A l l negative examples are now eliminated, so the shortest consistent concept, made=USA or London and 29<output<52 o r i n ILS language transformer(made,value, [USA, Londonl ), transformer(output,value, 129,521 i s returned. A f t e r step 4 the atom nuphase=three or s i n g l e i s conjoined t o t h e above concept t o g i v e t h e concept made=USA o r London and nuphase= three o r s i n g l e and 29<output<52 o r i n I L S language t ransf ormer(made, va lue, [USA, Londonl ) ,
transformer(nuphase,value,[three,singlel),
transformer(output,vaLue,~29,521). This concept i s an i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e concept. From the above example, i t i s c l e a r t h a t I L S automatically generates a learned concept w i t h s u i t a b l e type( pure conjunctive o r i n t e r n a l d i s j u n c t i v e ) t h a t i s consistent w i t h respect t o the example set.
3-5- I l l u s t r a t i v e exanple:
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The l e a r n i n g a l g o r i t h m o f ILS i s a v a r i a n t o f the s t a r methodology o f Michalski [151 and the learning algorithms presented by Haussler [la]. ILS d i f f e r s from s t a r methodology by conducting an exhaustive search t h a t f i n d s a l l p o t e n t i a l members o f the s t a r . This i s made e f f i c i e n t by using a simple greedy h e u r i s t i c t o s e l e c t the MS atoms rather than ILS uses the d i f f e r e n c e random draw. I n addition, method as a good replacement f o r the s t a r generation step. The difference method provides a more comprehensible, e f f i c i e n t , and simple implementation envirorment. This method i s s u i t a b l e f o r learning a l l the ILS's types o f concepts. As the s t a r methodology, l e a r n i n g a l g o r i t h m i s a s i n g l e step learning. ILS d i f f e r s from the work o f Haussler [203 by using the d i f f e r e n c e method t o f i n d t h e MS atoms and by using a simple greedy h e u r i s t i c t o s e l e c t the most promising MS atom from the competitive MS atoms. While i n Hausslar's work, p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n learning internal d i s j u n c t i v e concepts, he used generalized greedy h e u r i s t i c , dynamic programing and i t e r a t i v e methods t o implement h i s l e a r n i n g algorithm. This i s considered a time consuning implementation, while the d i f f e r e n c e method, as demonstrated, provides a more e f f i c i e n t and simple implementation environment.
4-
CASE STUDY:
I n t h i s paper, ILS w i l l be used t o generate the knowledge r e q u i r e d f o r s p e c i f y i n g the major equipment o f a substation.
4-1 INPUT OF ILS SYSTEM : The input o f the ILS system consists o f a number of p o s i t i v e and negative examples o f already e x i s t i n g outdoor substations. These examples are represented i n t e r n a l l y by using a number o f frames equal t o the nunber o f t h e s u b s t a t i o n major components p l u s one. I n the present stage, the number o f frames are equal t o seven, namely,substation, transformer, c i r c u i t breaker, i s o l a t o r , voltage transformer ,shunt reactor and scheme. These frames are defined as follows:
1- Sltstation franc This frame consists o f s i x s l o t s , each s l o t i s a frame. This frame i s represented by the f o l l o w i n g Prolog f a c t : sub(parts,value,[tr,cb,ds,pt,sr,scl). where tr = p o i n t e r t o transformer frame,
cb = p o i n t e r t o c i r c u i t breaker frame, ds = p o i n t e r t o i s o l a t o r frame, p t = p o i n t e r t o voltage transformer, s r = p o i n t e r t o shunt reactor, sc = p o i n t e r t o scheme. Figure 7 gives a complete taxnomy o f t h e substation and gives complete d e t a i l s o f the s l o t s o f each o f the above frames. The informarion about the type o f the a t t r i b u t e s ( s l o t s ) which are used t o represent the i n p u t examples i s stored i n a frame known as 'ItypelI frame. This frame contains a l l the s l o t s which appeared i n Fig.7. I n t h i s case study, the type o f a t t r i b u t e s are l i n e a r o r nominal. The f o l l o w i n g a t t r i b u t e s a r e d e f i n e d as l i n e a r a t t r i b u t e s while the r e s t o f a t t r i b u t e s defined i n Fig.7 are nominal a t t r i b u t e s : [rated of tertiary, multi-winding ratio, autotransformer r a t i o , number o f transformer u n i t s , the current of c i r c u i t breaker, t h e r a t i n g of c i r c u i t breaker, the current of i s o l a t o r , number o f current transformer sets and the current transformer c o r r e c t i o n factor1 The examples are c l a s s i f i e d i n t o p o s i t i v e and negative examples according t o a number o f r u l e s o r guidelines which are accepted by the power system I n t h i s work an example i s engineering comnunity. considered a negative example i f i t does not s a t i s f y one o f the f o l l o w i n g general r u l e s which are taken i n t o consideration i n t h i s stage o f the present work: 1- I f the r a t i o o f the primary voltage t o the secondary voltage i s less than o r equal t o 3 the type o f transformer i s autotransformer otherwise the type i s multiwinding transformer. 2- The BIL o f transformer winding must be less than or equal t o t h a t o f t h e transformer bushing. 3- The BIL o f the c i r c u i t breaker and i s o l a t o r s must be equal. 4 - There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between B I L of the transformer and the r a t e d voltage o f surge a r r e s t e r . For example, as BIL goes up, the r a t e d voltage o f the surge a r r e s t e r must go up. 5 - The generally accepted r a t i n g o f the t e r t i a r y winding i s o n e - t h i r d o f the rating of the transformer. 6- I f the transformer connection i s s t a r - s t a r , a t e r t i a r y winding must be used. 7- Generally the connection o f an autotransformer i s
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s t a r - s t a r , t h e r e f o r e a t e r t i a r y winding must be used w i t h autotransformers. The examples used a t the present stage are IEEE c o l l e c t e d from d i f f e r e n t sources, including r e p o r t s [25,261 and u t i l i t y engineers i n Michigan and Wisconsin. These examples cover a l l voltage l e v e l s f o r outdoor substations, but the system s t i l l needs more examples t o produce good r e s u l t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n voltage Levels less than 500 KV. The examples a r e provided t o ILS i n accordance w i t h the primary voltage value. Fig.7 shows an example of how t h e input examples are i n t e r n a l l y represented by using the frame scheme. This example is a transformer frame f o r a 500KV outdoor substations.
tr500(tertiary,value,[yes,nol).
tr500(rtertiary,value,[10.0,35.0,C11).
tr500(connection,value,~star~starl).
4-2 OUTPUT O ILS : F For t h i s case, the output o f ILS consists of seven frames, namely, substation, transformer, circuit breaker, i s o l a t o r , voltage transformer and shunt reactor frames. The output i s stored i n a f i l e and has a name which i s the concatenation of the symbol lasub1l and primary voltage. This f i l e i s compatible w i t h the knoutedge representation o f the performance system (i.e.expert system) 1233, which i s going t o use t h i s knowledge and d i r e c t l y accessible by i t . As an example, Fig. 8 shows a p a r t o f the ILS output. The concept s u b s t a t i o n consists of seven subconcepts, each represents a major component of the substation. Each subconcept represented by a c o l l e c t i o n o f predicates. To see how these subconcepts are interpreted, consider, f o r example, the subconcept transformer ( represented by the predicates tr500, the in i n t e r n a l representation o f transformer's frame, Fig.8). This subconcept describes a set of transformers t h a t a r e used w i t h 500 KV substation. This d e s c r i p t i o n i s as follows:
Transformer frame: tr500(nunu,value, [1.0,6.01). Fig.8 P a r t of ILS's output The type of transformer i s autotransformer, t h e turns r a t i o must be i n the range o f 1.5 t o 2.88, the bushing B I L must be 1300 or 1800 kv, the winding BIL must be 1300 or 1425 or 1675 kv, The nunber o f phases may be s i n g l e or three phases, the connection i s s t a r / s t a r , a t e r t i a r y winding must be used w i t h r a t i n g i n t h e range of 10 t o 35 % o f the f u l l load, the p r e f e r r e d s e l f cooling three phase r a t i n g i n MVA o f each transformer bank i n the substation must be one or more o f C360.0,300.0,216.0,450.0,120.01, two c o o l i n g steps are preserved f o r f u t u r e extension and the p r e f e r r e d nunber of transformer u n i t s must be i n the range o f 1 t o 6. Conclusions and !Suggestion f o r future works: I n t h i s a r t i c l e , some p r i n c i p l e s of machine learning and some l i n k s w i t h the knowledge base systems have been described. A domain independent i n d u c t i v e learning system, ILS has been developed and implemented. The ILS system can be attached t o any expert system. I n doing so, ILS w i l l work as a knowledge a c q u i s i t i o n module f o r t h e expert system. This gives the expert system the a b i l i t y t o update, and expand its knowledge base according to the circumstances. I L S i s a logic-based, data d r i v e n l e a r n i n g system. I t focuses on the problem o f learning s t r u c t u r a l descriptions. ILS is given a collection of and bad p r e c l a s s i f i e d good ( p o s i t i v e ) examples (negative) examples, from which i t should induce a c o l l e c t i o n of concept(s1, which are complete and consistent w i t h respect t o t h e example set, t h a t implies good advice, r e f r a i n s from implying bad advice, and gives correct advice on examples t h a t are not i n the o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n . ILS uses the greedy h e u r i s t i c t o l i m i t the search space and the d i f f e r e n c e method as learning algorithm. The a c e n t r a l step i n i t s d i f f e r e n c e method provides a more comprehensible, e f f i c i e n t , and simple implementation enviromnt. Moreover, t h i s method i s s u i t a b l e f o r learning a l l types o f concepts. I L S i s t a i l o r e d t o design electrical system components. I n t h i s paper, I L S i s used f o r specifying major components o f e l e c t r i c a l substation. The output o f ILS i s used t o build the knowledge base of the expert system, the second stage o f t h i s work, which i s used f o r s p e c i f y i n g the major components of the substation [231. For the f u t u r e works, the f o l l o w i n g are suggested: 1- The t h i r d stage o f t h i s work, i n progress now, i s the development and implementation o f an a n a l y t i c a l learning system, where ILS i s an empirical learning system, t o acquire the knowledge required t o design the layout o f the substation.
5-
nuphase(exe,value,Isingle,single,single,three,single,
three,single,singlel). 1000.0,1200.01).
% number of phases
nuphase(nxe,value,Isingle,three,single,threel). rating(exe,va1ue,l600.0,900.0,650.0,900.0,750.0,1000.0,
% three-phase r a t i n g
cooling(exe,value,[two,two,two,two,two,two,twol).
cooling(nxe,value, 444.01). [two,two,two,twol).%
% arester rating
1arated(exe,va1ue,[384.0,396.0,420.0,480.0,480.0,420.0,
Larated(nxe,value,1396.0,420.0,420.0,396.01).
connect ion(exe,value. CY-Y,Y-Y,Y-Y,Y-Y.Y-Y.Y-Y,Y-Y~ ). connection(nxe,value, ~ Y ~ Y , Y ~ Y , Y ~ Y , Y ~ Y ~ 1. wbil(exe,va1ue,[1300.0,1425.0,1425.0,1550.0,1675.0,1425 ,1425.0,1675.01). X winding B I L
wbi1(nxe,value,[1300.0,1425.0,1425.0,1300.01~.
type(exe,value,lauto,auto,auto,auto,auto,auto, multi-winding] 1. X type type(nxe,value, [auto,auto,auto,autol). bbil(exe,value,[1800.0,1550.0,1300.0]).% bushing B I L
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2- Enhance the q u a l i t y o f the learned concepts by p r o v i d i n g more exarrples from d i f f e r e n t voltage levels, supply a u t h o r i t i e s , and countries. 3- Expand t h e system domain by allowing i t t o l e a r n the r u l e s and concepts required f o r specifying other components o f t h e substation not j u s t the major components. 4- Using ILS t o generate the r u l e s and concepts required t o design the substation's grounding system and substation's p r o t e c t i o n system. REFERENCES 111 Giles, R. L. (1970). Layouts of E. H. V. Substations. Cambridge AT t h e u n i v e r s i t y press. 121 Yoshikawa, H. (1981). General Design Theory and Cad E. (Eds), System. I n Sate, T. and Uarman, in CAD/CAM, IFIP, Man-Machine Cmnication North-Holland Publishing Company. 131 Design o f Substation, (1976).Rural E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , USA government p u b l i c a t i o n s . and U i t t e n , I.H. Using Concept 141 MacDonald, B.A. J. Learning f o r Knowledge Acquisition. Int. Man-Machine (1988) 29, pp. 171-196. 151 Hays-Roth, F., Uaterman, D. A. & Lenat, B. D. (EDS) (19831, B u i l d i n g Expert Systems, Reading , MA: Addison-Wesley. 161 Luger, G.F. & Stubblefield, U.A. (1989). A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and t h e Design o f Expert systems. The Benjami n/Cumni ngs Pub1is h i ng Company. 171 Pazzani, M. J. , (1987). Explanation-Based Learning f o r Knowledge-Based Systems. Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, Vol. 26,pp.413-433. (Eds) (1982). The 181 Barr, A. and Feigenbaun, E.A. Handbook o f A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e . Vol. 1 1 1 . Standford, CA : Heuris Tech Press. 191 Simon, H.A. (1983). Why Should Machine Learn ?. I n R.S. Michalski e t a1 1201, pp. 25-37. 1101 Carbonell, J. e t a1 (1983). A n overview of Machine Learning. I n R.S. Michalski e t a1 1201, pp.3-24. P.H. (1975). Learning Structural 1111 Uinston, Descriptions from Examples. I n P.H. Uinston 1211. of C121 Langley, P. e t a1 (1983). The Search Regularity: Four aspects o f s c i e n t i f i c Discovery. I n Michalski e t a1 1201. and Brown, J.S. (1982). AM: An 1131 Leant, D.B. A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Approach t o Discovery i n Mathematics as H e u r i s t i c Search. I n Davis and Leant,(Eds), 1221. 1141 Simon,H. A. , and Lea, G. (1974). Problem solving and r u l e induction: A u n i f i e d view. I n L. Gregg (Ed), Knowledge and cognition. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaun, 105-127. 1151 Michalski, R.S.(1983). A Theory and Methodology of I n d u c t i v e Learning. I n Michalski e t a1 1201. , Michalski, R. S . (1981). 1161 D i e t t e r i c h , T. G. I n d u c t i v e learning of s t r u c t u r a l descriptions: Evaluation c r i t e r i a and comparative review of selected methods. A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Vol. 16, pp.257-294. (1979). Computers and 1171 Garey, M. & Johnson, D., I n t e r a c t a b i l i t y : A guide t o the theroy of NPCompleteness, freeman, San Fransisco, CA. 1181 Haussler, D. (1988). Q u a n t i f y i n g Inductive Bias: A I Learning Algorithms and V a l i a n t ' s Learning Framework. A r t i f i c . I n t e l l . ,Vol. 36. 1211 1191 Borland International, 1987. Turbo Prolog Manua1,Ver. 2. Michell, T.M. 1201 Michalski, R.S. , Carbonell, J.G., (Edsl(1983). Machine Learning: An artificial Intelligence Approach. Palo Alto: Tiega Publishing. 1211 Uinston, P.H.(1975). The Psychology of Computer
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