MIN 313 Handout 1

HANDOUT 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORE HANDLING This handout was developed primarily from Chaps 1 and 2 of Wills book (Wills, BA, 1979, Mineral Processing Technology, Pergamon Press,1st Ed.) INTRODUCTION Mineral preparation is that step in mining (a series of steps, actually) that converts the run of mine (r.o.m) ore (i.e. ore as mined in its raw form) into an enriched product, one that is significantly closer to the desired final mineral/metal, than the r.o.m ore. It is called mineral preparation because it prepares the rom ore so that it is ready for the mineral extraction methods (metallurgy). Of course, not all rom minerals require mineral preparation or metallurgy. Very rich iron ore, sand and gravel and (some) coal are example of minerals that do not necessarily undergo any beneficiation prior to their use. Finish product (mineral)

Mining ore (rom)

Mineral processing

Metallurgy

An important achievement during the mineral preparation stage is reduction in the amount of rock that needs to undergo metallurgy. A significant percent of waste rock is eliminated; with the exact amount dependent on ore geology. Reduction in amount not only makes metallurgy more effective, it also reduces a variety of costs including transportation, supplies and facilities. The various consequences of mineral preparation are: i. ii. iii. reduction in volume of ore separation of the different types of minerals for poly-metal ore, so that each may follow a separate preparation process, if necessary losses in the various sub-processes such as concentration

Mineral preparation consists of liberation and separation/concentration. Liberation involves exposing the mineral values from within the rock so that they can be extracted. This is achieved by crushing and/or grinding. This reduces the waste rock to somewhat distinct particles of waste and valuable mineral. In the next stage, these particles are separated by physical (using properties such as specific gravity) or chemical means into valuables (concentrate) and waste (tailings). Thus while liberation is primarily a physical process, separation/concentration can be either a physical process or a chemical process. There is actually another part to mineral preparation, a part that deals with finishing up and involves processes such as dewatering, transportation and disposing of the tailings.

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

An example flowsheet is given below:

Ore (+)

Crushers Screens ()

(+)

Grinding

Classification ()

Separation Concentrate Tailings (discarded)

The (+) indicates oversize, while the ( ) indicates undersize. As seen above, the oversize is rehandled, while the undersize moves to the next step. Efficiency in Liberation Liberation through communition (i.e. crushing and/or grinding) is never perfect. No matter how fine the grind is, some particles will always have gangue attached to them. The figure below shows that even if the particle below was crushed to a small size, some resultant particles would still contain gangue. Particles that contain both gangue and mineral are called middlings.

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

Mineral locked inside of gangue

MIN 313 Handout 1

The degree of liberation is defined as the percentage of the mineral occurring as free particles in the ore in relation to the total content. It depends on ore-waste boundary strength, with weak boundaries resulting in higher degrees of liberation. Typically, lab and pilot scale studies are conducted to determine the optimum liberation for a given ore. Optimum does not mean that the degree of liberation is one hundred percentage and that there are no middlings; it simply means that the percentage of middlings and degree of liberation are both acceptable for the next step in the process. For low grade ore, it is sometimes more economical to grind coarser than optimal, resulting in a larger middlings fraction (and coarse grained tailings). The middlings are then re-ground in the next step (see below). By eliminating tailings early on, grinding costs are reduced in the second step. This type of flowsheet is used on minerals that are easily separated from gangue.

Feed

Primary Grind Pre-concentration Middlings Re-grind Separation Concentrate Middlings Tailings Tailings

Efficiency in Concentration The extent of concentration possible for an ore type depends on geology. For example, while ore containing native copper could be hypothetically concentrated to 100% copper, copper ore containing chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) can only be concentrated to 34.5% copper (do you know why 1 ?). Therefore, for native copper, the hypothetical maximum recovery is 100% in the concentrate, while for chalcopyrite, it is 34.5%.

Copper, with an atomic weight of 63.54, is 34.6% of the molecular weight of CuFeS2 (183.52).

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

Quick exercise 1.1: In a preparation plant, a chalcopyrite concentrate (76% chalcopyrite) is being transported at 100 tons per hour on the belt. What is the copper content on the belt? At $3.50/lb, what is the value of copper on the belt? Answer: 76% chalcopyrite concentrate @ 100 tph 76 tph of chalcopyrite 76 X 34.6% of Cu (in chalcopyrite) = 26.3 tph

Value: 26.3 X 2000 X 3.5 per hour = $184,192 per hour

Recovery is the percentage of the total metal contained in the ore that is present in the concentrate. Note that recovery is rarely 100% since some metal is always lost to tailings. Typically, recovery is computed not only for the concentrate, but also for the middlings and tailings, to understand the processing plant better. Ratio of concentration (RoC) is the feed to concentrate ratio (by weight); i.e. a ratio of the input to the output (by weight). As the metal content (or grade or assay) of the concentrate increases, so does the ratio of concentration. See example. Quick exercise 1.2: In a gold plant, ore enters a process at 110 tph at a grade of 0.4 oz/ton. It produces a concentrate at 70 oz/ton. The tailings are measured to contain 0.04 oz/ton of gold. Compute the ratio of concentration. Answer: Let feed rate be F tph (=110 tph), concentrate rate be C tph and tailings rate be T tph. Let the feed grade be f oz/ton, concentrate grade be c oz/ton and tailings grade be t oz/ton Therefore, F=C+T Eq 1 i.e. input tons = output tons In terms of gold quantities: Ff = Cc + Tt Eq 2 i.e. input gold = output gold From Eqs. 1 and 2: C = = = F (f-t)/(c-t) 110(0.4-0.04)/(70-0.04) 0.566 tph

Ratio of concentration: F/C = 110/0.566 = 194.33 What happens to F/C when the concentrate grade is increased to 75 oz/ton, tailings grade remaining the same? What is the concentrate gold recovery?

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

Enrichment ratio is the ratio of the grade of the concentrate to the grade of the feed. In the example above, the enrichment ratio is 70/0.4 = 175 The terminology introduced in this section is all inter-related and can be confusing. Does high RoC mean high recovery? No. High RoC simply means that the grade of the product is high. It does not take into account the total quantity of mineral present in the feed. Therefore, if you select just a few gold nuggets (almost 100% gold) from your feed to be your product, the product is very rich, with a high RoC. But, by this process, you have thrown away a large amount of other gold present in the feed. Therefore, your recovery is low. Generally, recovery and concentrate grade are inversely related. Though 100% recovery is always desired, due to its inverse relationship with concentrate grade, it is not possible to achieve it without hurting concentrate grade. Hence, there is an optimal/economical grade or recovery for every process. ORE HANDLING A big portion of the overall mining costs comes from ore handling. In todays high tonnage environment, ore handling requires major thought and consideration. For example, a mine will routinely adjust blasting pattern in order to control fragment size. Fragment sizes not only affect mineral processing later on, but also affect transportation issues. For example, large size chunks can choke up ore bins, in addition to worsening wear and tear; while fines cause dust problems. Some common features of an ore handling system are: Removal of Harmful Material The rom ore typically contains some material that is harmful for processing plant equipment. For example, roof bolts, bits and timber frequently show up on conveyor belts. These clog up feeders, tear up belts and obstruct screens and ports. Fine ground wood can also absorb reagents, alter chemicals and affect chemical reactions that are vital for metal extraction. Various tools are used to protect ore flow from these materials. Tramp iron magnets over conveyor belts are common place in mines. However, their use is restricted to non-magnetic ore and magnetic trash. Ore detectors are used for metallic non-magnetic tramp material. Whenever a metal is detected, the belt is stopped and the offending material off-loaded. One should probably install tramp iron magnets upstream of metal detectors so that belt stoppage is minimized. Wood, flattened by its travel through crushers, can be removed by a vibrating scalping screen. Finely ground wood can be removed by a fine screen. Fines are removed by washing the ore. Typically, secondary crushing is preceded by washing since fines hurt crushing. Ore Transportation 2 Many factors affect the design of ore transportation systems. Gravity is very important. Ore movement should be designed to minimize flow horizontal or upward flow. Ore passes are successfully in many mines for in-mine ore transportation. Additionally, processing units should be close to each other. Ore transportation typically involves use of chutes. Wall slope is critical to chute design. For example, dry ore and moist/wet ore have different requirements for chute wall slope since their material flow properties are very different. While very steep angles help material flow, they make the ore difficult to control.

A good online reference for this section is www.bulk-online.com, especially the Forums.

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

Belts: In any modern mine, the most important component of ore transportation is the conveyor belt. These can carry thousands of tons of material per hour, and for long distances. They can even negotiate steep angles. Some important features of conveyor belts are: Idlers: Idlers are used to increase belt carrying capacities, both by providing support and by forming a trough and increasing the volume. Drive Pulley: These are used to provide motion to the belt. However, since typically more than 180 degree of contact is required between the belt and the pulley for the belt to move and not slip, other pulleys are used in conjunction with the drive pulley (in thick red lines in the figure below).

Tensioning: Belt lengths change from usage or improper maintenance. Therefore, tensioning devices are used so that pulley-belt contact is strong enough for the load capacity and for preventing sag in the belt. Hydraulic or gravity systems are common.

Head Pulley Counter weight Tail pulley Take up pulley

Automation: Belts rarely work alone; typically they are part of a belt system. Therefore, their operation is often linked in a way to facilitate material flow and accommodate belt stoppages. Before a belt is stopped, all belts upstream of it are stopped first, so that material does not overflow. Belts also have various safety components such as emergency stopping based on health (of the belt motors) and safety (of humans). Transfer points: In a network of belts, transfer points are typically the only manned belt locations. Design features focus on spillage, dust control, loading impact and material buildup. Belt loading: Material is loaded into a belt through various mechanisms such as feeder-crusher arrangements, chutes and transfer points. Belt loading design is critical for spillage and belt life point of views. When loading abrasive material, screens may sometimes be used so that fines, that go through the screens, fall onto the belt before the large material, thereby forming a cushion and protecting the belt from loading impact. A general rule is that no material should be loaded into a belt vertically; rather, it should approach the belt at a gentle gradient and with a speed as close to the belts as possible.
Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

Belt discharge: A variety of configurations are possible. In many cases, the discharge is at the head pulley into a chute or a bin/bunker (moving on rails or static). Discharge issues are very similar to transfer point issues; dust, material backup, spillage are factors to take into account.
Tripper schematic adapted from: http://www.apicsllc.com/apics/ Aise_97/Aise_97s.htm

Tripper Head Pulley Tail Pulley Discharge chute

Tripper conveyor systems (shown above) are used for discharge as well. The discharge occurs at the tripper into the discharge chute. The tripper-chute set can move back and forth along the length of the conveyor. Therefore, for example, three piles of different ore quality could be formed in three locations using the same product belt. Tripper Positions

3 different piles

(Sketch in plan view)

Bucket Elevators: Bucket elevators are used when space constraints preclude use of belt conveyors. These are essentially a series of buckets driven by a chain-sprocket arrangement in a vertical circular loop. However, they have trouble with sticky material. Hydraulic transport: This is typical following grinding. Fine material travels in suspension in (typically) open channels. As particle size increases, slope of the channel is increased to facilitate proper transport. For fine suspensions, the channels can be deeper, whereas, where particle transport is by rolling, shallower channels are preferred. Sometimes, ore is piped (for up to hundreds of miles) in the form of slurry. No matter the distance of such transport, bends are minimized to reduce abrasive wear. Factors requiring consideration in pipeline transport are solid-liquid ratio, slurry flow rate, slurry density, particle size distribution, among others. Ore Storage Processing plants work best when they operate continuously. However, their feed comes from primary crushers and mines, both of which are susceptible to sudden shut-downs. Therefore, it is commonplace to store ore (typically a 24-48 hr supply) to ensure a steady supply to the plant. Ore storage comes in several forms such as open yard stock piles, silos and bins. Issues such as ore decomposition (chemical and physical) and material flow need to be taken into account when designing storage. Stopped flow is a common problem in silos and bins and, therefore, material draw is often designed to keep flow going. When bins are flat bottomed, they can never be emptied fully. However, since the stagnant material serves to cushion the bin from loading impacts, it can also be a benefit. In ore that easily decomposes, stagnant material is not desirable. Storing slurries and pulp is completely different from storing solids. Constant agitation is required as they are prone to settling.
Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering

MIN 313 Handout 1

Feeding Feeders are used in various tasks such as loading dumped material onto a belt, loading skips from an underground bunker and feeding crushers. A common feeder is the apron type feeder, which consists of steel pans on chain links. The material is dumped on the pans, which are moved forward by the chains. When control of material flow is desired, a Ross chain-feeder is popular. Typically, these are used when feeding secondary crushers or from bins into belts.

(From Dorr-Oliver Eimco, glv.com. Pivot chute lip provides additional flow control) A Hardinge constant-weight feeder is used when it is important that the feed be steady. As the name implies, the feeder is designed to maintain a constant feed. Elliptical bar feeders are used when it is essential to remove fines from progressing into the next stage. The rotating elliptical bars serve as screens.

Author: Dr. Rajive Ganguli, Associate Professor of Mining Engineering