M27BEBridgeEngineering

CoventryUniversity DepartmentofCivilEngineering,ArchitectureandBuilding MScBRIDGEENGINEERINGMODULE

TRAFFIC LOADS ON BRIDGES

InEurocodes,loadingsonbridgesaregovernedbyBSEN1990BasisofstructuraldesignandBSEN 1991Actionsonstructures.BSEN199117GeneralactionsAccidentalactionsandBSEN19912 Trafficloadsonbridgesareparticularrelevanttotheevaluationoftrafficloadsonbridges. Inthisnotes,onlythemostbasictrafficloadsarecovered,pleaserefertotheoriginalENdocument forfurtherdetailofvarioustypesoftrafficloadsandcombinations.

INTRODUCTION
Bridges can be subjected to many different loadings due to traffic (rail, road, pedestrian, etc) and environmental(wind,temperatureandearthquake)aswellasawidevarietyofaccidentalloads. BS EN 1991 Actions on structures covers all aspects of design loading for highway, railway and pedestrianbridges.BSEN1990Basisofstructuraldesigncoverspartialsafetyfactorsonloadsand loadcombinations.Variouscombinationsofloadstogetherwiththeloadfactorstobeusedinthe ultimatelimitstateaswellasintheserviceabilitylimitstateareprescribed.ForbridgesintheUK, the Eurocode effectively supersedes BS5400. DoT Standards Design Manual for Roads and Bridges willbeupdatedtobeconsistentwithEurocodes. ThetrafficloadinginBSEN19912issignificantlydifferenttoBS5400:Part2forcertainloads. ThefollowingnotesarebasedontherecommendationsoftheEurocodes. Highwaybridgesareusuallydesignedtocarryacombinationofuniformlydistributedloadings(UDL system) and axle loads (Tandem system). These loads together with other variable actions are specifiedinBSEN19912and199113to6andappliedinprescribedcombinations. The UDL and tandem systems are not direct representation of actual vehicles but idealisations to modeltheworstcombinationsofactualvehiclesandincludedynamicmagnification,i.e.theeffectof axlesbouncingonroughroads.

1. PERMANENT ACTIONS
Action that is likely to act throughout a given reference period and for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the variation is always in the same direction (monotonic)untiltheactionattainsacertainlimitvalue. 1.1 Self-weight of structure Thiscomprisestheweightofstructuralelementsofthebridgebutexcludessuperimposedmaterials. Theunitweightofvariousmaterialscanbefoundin199111. 1.2 Self-weight of non-structural elements This includes the weight of road surfacing, parapets, waterproofing, kerbs, lighting columns, rail trackballast,services,etc.
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Figure1Typicaldetails

1.3 Settlement Settlements are mainly caused by permanent loads and backfill. Variable actions may have to be taken into account for some individual projects. Settlements vary monotonically (in the same direction)withtimeandneedtobetakenintoaccountfromthetimetheygiverisetoeffectsinthe structure(i.e.afterthestructure,orapartofit,becomesstaticallyindeterminate).Inaddition,inthe case of a concrete structure or a structure with concrete elements, there may be an interaction between the development of settlements and creep of concrete members. Where differential settlementislikelytoaffectthestructureinwholeorinpart,theeffectsofthisshallbetakeninto account. 1.4 Prestressing Prestressing should be classified as a permanent action caused by either controlled forces and/or controlled deformations imposed on a structure. These types of prestress should be distinguished from each other as relevant (e.g. prestress by tendons, prestress by imposed deformation at supports).

2. VARIABLE ACTIONS
Actionforwhichthevariationinmagnitudewithtimeisneithernegligiblenormonotonic. 2.1 Traffic actions EN 19912 defines models of traffic loads for the design of road bridges, footbridges and railway bridges. For the design of new bridges, EN 19912 is intended to be used, for direct application, together with Eurocodes EN 1990 to 1999. The basis for combinations of traffic loads with non trafficloadsaregiveninEN1990AnnexA2Applicationforbridges. Forcesduetovehicleorpedestriantrafficcanbesubdividedinto: Verticalforces duetoverticalliveloadsastheweightofthetraffic(i.e.LM1,LM2,LM3,LM4, Pedestrian,LM71,SW/0,SW/2,unloadedtrain,HSLM). Horizontalforces essentiallyhorizontalloadsduetochangesindirectionorspeedofthevehicle traffic(e.g.brakingandacceleration,centrifugalandtransverseforces,nosing force, actions due to traction and braking, collision forces, etc) with their centrifugalloads.

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Carriageway Width Thecarriagewaywidth,w,shouldbemeasuredbetweenkerbsofheightmorethan100mm(TheUK NA75mm)orbetweentheinnerlimitsofvehiclerestraintsystem.Itshouldnotincludethedistance between fixed vehicle restraint systems or kerbs of a central reservation nor the widths of these vehiclerestraintsystems.

Figure2Carriagewaywidth

Notional and Traffic Lanes

Thelanesthataremarkedontherunningsurfaceofthebridgeandarenormallyusedbythetraffic aretermedastrafficlanes.Notionallanes,ontheotherhand,aredefinedasthenotionalpartofa carriageway used solely for the purpose of applying specific live loads. These aremeasured in the directionatrightanglestothelineofraisedcurbs,lanemarkersoredgemarking. Thewidthw1ofnotionallanesonacarriagewayandthegreatestpossiblewholeintegernumbern1 ofsuchlanesonthiscarriagewayaredefinedinTable4.1ofthecodeandshownontable1below. Table1Numberandwidthofnotionallanes

For a carriageway width of 11 m, n1 = integer(w/3) = 3, and the width of remaining area is 113x3=2m.
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Thenumberofnotionalwillbe:1wherew<5.4m 2where5.4mw<9m 3where9mw<12m The whole carriageway including central reservation should be divided into notional lanes if the carriagewaysareseparatedbytemporaryroadrestraintsystem.

Figure3Lanenumbering

The lane giving the most unfavourable effect is numbered Lane Number 1, the lane giving the secondmostunfavourableeffectisnumberedLaneNumber2,etc. Wherethecarriagewayconsistsoftwoseparatepartsontwoindependentdecks,eachpartshould be considered as a carriageway. Separate numbering should then be used for the design of each deck. If the two decks are supported by the same piers and/or abutments, there should be one consecutive numbering system for the 2 decks together for the design of the piers and/or the abutments. 2.1.1 Road bridges Load models defined in this section of the code should be used for design of road bridges with loadedlengthslessthan200m.TheUKNationalAnnexallowsforloadedlengthsofupto1500mfor LoadModel1. 2.1.1.1 Load Models Forroadbridgesdesign,4loadmodelsareused: a) Load Model 1 (LM1): Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, which cover most of the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars. This model should be used for generalandlocalverifications. b)LoadModel2(LM2): A single axle load applied on specific tyre contact areas which cover the dynamiceffectsofthenormaltrafficonshortstructuralmembers. c) Load Model 3 (LM3): A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special vehicles (e.g. for industrial transport) which can travel on routes permitted for abnormal loads.Itisintendedforgeneralandlocalverifications. d) Load Model 4 (LM4): A crowd loading of 5kN/m2 intended only for general verification for footways.Itshouldbeusedonlyforsometransientdesignsituations.
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a) Load Model LM1 (main model) LM1isintendedtocoverflowing,congestedortrafficjamsituationswithahighpercentageofheavy lorries.Ingeneral,whenusedwiththebasicvalues,itcoverstheeffectsofaspecialvehicleof600 kN as defined in annex A. Load Model 1 should be applied on each notional lane and on the remainingareas.LoadModel1consistsoftwopartialsystems: i)Doubleaxleconcentratedloads(tandemsystem:TS) Eachaxlehavingthefollowingweight: QQk,whereQareadjustmentfactors Nomorethanonetandemsystem(onlycompletetandemsystem)shouldbetakenintoaccountper notional lane. Each axle of the tandem system should be taken into account with two identical wheels,theloadperwheelbeingthereforeequalto0,5QQk.Theadjustmentfactorsaregiveninthe NationalAnnex. Thecontactsurfaceofeachwheelshouldbetakenas0,4x0,4m2. ii)Uniformlydistributedloads(UDLsystem) Thefollowingweightpersquaremetreofnotionallanetobeused: qqk,whereqareadjustmentfactors. The uniformly distributed loads should be applied only in the unfavourable parts of the influence surface,longitudinallyandtransversely.ThecharacteristicvaluesofQikandqikwhichincludes dynamicamplificationaregiveninTable2below,togetherwiththeUKadjustmentfactors. Table2LoadmodelLM1:characteristicvalues

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Figure4ApplicationofloadModelLM1

Forlocalverifications,atandemsystemshouldbeappliedatthemostunfavourablelocation.Where twotandemsystemsonadjacentnotionallanesaretakenintoaccount,theymaybebroughtcloser, withadistancebetweenwheelaxlesnottobelessthan0.5m.

Figure5Applicationoftandemsystemsforlocalverifications b) Load Model LM2 LoadModel2consistsofasingleaxleloadQQakwithQak=400kN(includingdynamicamplification), which should be applied at any location on the carriageway. However, when relevant, only one wheelof200Q(kN)maybetakenintoaccount. ItisrecommendedthatQ=Q1.TheUKNationalAnnexrecommendsQ=Q1=1.0 The contact area of each wheel should be taken as 0.35 m x 0.60 m. The UK National Annex recommendsasquarecontactsurfaceof0.40x0.40m.
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Figure6LoadmodelLM2

d) Load Model LM4 Crowd loading, if relevant, should be represented by a Load Model consisting of a uniformly distributedload(whichincludesdynamicamplification)equalto5kN/m2.LM4shouldbeappliedon the relevant part of the length and width of the road bridge deck, including central reservation whererelevant. 2.1.1.2 Dispersal of concentrated loads Thedispersalofconcentratedloadsthroughthepavementandconcreteslabsshouldbetakenata spreadtodepthratioof1horizontallyto1verticallydowntothelevelofthecentroidoftheslabas shownonFigure7below. Thedispersalthroughthepavementandorthotropicdecksshouldbetakenataspreadtodepthratioof 1horizontallyto1verticallydowntothelevelofthemiddleplaneofthestructuraltopplate.

Figure7dispersalofconcentratedloads

2.1.1.3 Horizontal forces a)Brakingandaccelerationforces Acharacteristicforce,Qlk,isalongitudinalforceactingatthesurfacelevelofthecarriageway.Qlkis limitedto900kNforthetotalwidthofthebridge.Itshouldbecalculatedasafractionofthetotal maximumverticalloadscorrespondingtoLoadModel1,appliedonLaneNumber1. RefertotheENdocumentforformula(notwithinthescopeofthismodule) b)Centrifugalforce

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ThecentrifugalforceQfkshouldbetakenasatransferforceactingatthefinishedcarriagewaylevel andradiallytotheaxisofthecarriageway.Table4belowgivesthethecharateristicvalue(including dynamiceffects)ofQfk,apointloadatanydeckcrosssection. Table3Centrifugalforces

r=horizontalradiusofcurvatureofthecarriagewaycentreline(m) Qv=totalmaximumweightofverticalconcentratedloadsofthetandemsystemsofLM1iQi(2Qik). Where relevant, lateral forces, Qtrk from skew braking or skidding should be taken into account. FromtheUKNationalAnnexQtrk=0.5Qlkforloadedlengthsupto120mandQtrk=280kNforloaded lengths120m. 2.1.1.4 Groups of traffic loads on road bridges Eachofthegroupsofloadsinsection2.1.1.1to2.1.1.3above,whicharemutuallyexclusive,should beconsideredasdefiningacharacteristicactionforcombinationwithnontrafficloads. Table4(UKNATableNA.3)Assessmentofgroupsoftrafficloads

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The frequent action should consist only of either the frequent value of, LM1 or LM2 or loads on footwayorcycletracksingroupgr1a,gr1bandgr3respectively. Forverificationintransientdesignsituations,thecharacteristicvaluesassociatedwiththetandem system should be taken equal to 0,8QiQik, and the other values and forces without any modification. 2.1.1.5 Fatigue load model Outofthescopeofthemodule 2.1.1.6 Accidental actions Accidentalaction,usuallyofshortdurationbutofsignificantmagnitude,thatisunlikelytooccurona given structure during the design working life. EN199117 section 4 gives principles and general rulesfortheaccidentalactionscausedbyroadvehiclesandtrains. a)Collisionforcesfromvehicleonpiersandothersupportingmembers Forces due to vehicular impact on bridge supports over or adjacent to roads are given in NA EN 199117TableNA.1 Table7(TableNA.1UKNA)Vehicleimpactforcesonmemberssupportingbridgeoveroradjacent toroads

ForimpactfromcarsandlorriesthemaincomponentofthecollisionforceF1maybeappliedatany heighth1between0,75mto1,5mabovethelevelofthecarriageway;theresidualcomponentF2 maybeappliedatanyheighth2between1mand1.5mabovethecarriagewaylevel.

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The main and residual load components should be applied simultaneously. Fdx does not act simultaneouslywithFdy. ThedesignforcesgiveninTableNA.1shouldbemultipliedbyanadjustmentfactorFa(greaterthan1) inaccordancewithNA.2.1.2.4,whichisbasedontheriskassessmentproceduregiveninNA.2.11.2.3.

Figure11Collisionforcesonsupportingstructuresofoverbridgesandotherstructures b) Collision forces from vehicle on decks (superstructures) Theequivalentstaticdesignforcesforroadbridgesduetovehicularimpactonthesuperstructure aregiveninTablesNA.9andNA.10oftheUKNationalAnnex.Table11belowisthecombinedtable. Table8EquivalentStaticforcesduetoimpactonsuperstructure

FdxdoesnotactsimultaneouslywithFdy.Thevalueoftheclearancebetweentheroadsurfaceand theundersideofthebridgedeck,h1shouldbetakenas5.7mandtheimpactforceabovethisheight neednotbeconsidered. 2.1.2 Footways, cycle tracks and footbridges Pedestrianandcycletrafficverticalactionsaredefinedbymeansofloadmodels.Threemodelsof footbridge loading are given. They are mutually exclusive. The characteristic values of these load modelsshouldbeusedforbothpersistentandtransientdesignsituations. a)Uniformlydistributedload,qfk Therecommendedvalueforqfkis5kN/m2wherethereisariskofcontinuousdensecrowd.Inother casestheUKNationalAnnexrecommends qfk=2.0+120/(L+10)kN/m2where2.5kN/m2qfk5.0kN/m2
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L=loadedlengthinm b)ConcentratedloadQfwk Qfwkshouldbetakenas10kNactingonasurfaceareaof0.1x0.1m2. c)ServicevehicleQserv Whenservicevehiclesaretobecarriedonafootbridge,oneservicevehicleQservshallbetakeninto account.RecommendedloadsgivenintheUKNationalAnnexarethosefortheaccidentalloading shownbelow. Horizontal forces Forfootbridgesonly,ahorizontalforceQ flkshouldbetakenintoaccount,actingalongthebridge deckaxisatthepavementlevel.Thehorizontalforceisconsideredasactingsimultaneouslywiththe correspondingverticalload,andinnocasewiththeconcentratedloadQfwk. Thecharacteristicvalueofthehorizontalforceshouldbetakenequaltothegreaterofthefollowing twovalues: i)10%ofthetotalloadcorrespondingtotheuniformlydistributedload ii)60%ofthetotalweightoftheservicevehicle{i.e.0.6(115+65)=108kN} Group of traffic loads on footbridges Whenrelevant,theverticalloadsandhorizontalforcesduetotrafficshouldbetakenintoaccountby considering groups of loads shown below. Each of these groups of loads, which are mutually exclusive,shouldbeconsideredasdefiningacharacteristicactionforcombinationwithnontraffic loads.

i)Groupofloadsgr1

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Accidental presence of vehicle on footbridge Ifnopermanentobstaclepreventsavehiclefrombeingdrivenontothebridgedeck,theaccidental presence of a vehicle on the bridge deck shall be taken into account. The following load model providedbytheUKNationalAnnex,consistingoftwoaxleloadgroup,shouldbeused.Thebraking forceassociatedwiththeloadmodelshouldbe60%oftheverticalload.

figure13Accidentalloading

APPLICATION OF HIGHWAY LOADS

i) Single Span Bridges Asmallnumberofeffectsneedtobeconsideredwithsinglespans.Theseinclude: Maximummomentinmidspan Maximumshearatsupports Maximumandminimumreactionsatbearings Transversemomentsinthespan Combinationofshearandbendingforprestressedbeams,e.g.1/4span.

Groupgr1Maximumlongitudinalbendingmoment

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Groupgr1Maximumshearatsupport

ii) Continuous Bridges The method of Influence line has been used for many years at the analysis stage to enable the determinationofthedistributionoftheprimarytrafficloadsonthedecksofcontinuousstructures toprovidetheworstpossibleeffect.Theinfluencelinesaregenerallyusedinaqualitativemannerto determine the critical regions, although they can be used to calculate actual values of stress resultants. However, in recent years, due to the availability of high power and fast computer, the socalled MovingLoadAnalysisfacilityinmostcomputersoftwarehasreplacedthemanualInfluenceLine method. ItisoutsidethescopeofthismoduletodiscusstheInfluenceLinemethod.

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