Principles of Level - Vass

Sensors - October 2000 -The Principles of Level Measurement Page 1 of 14
ARTICLES Site Search:
Friday, July 5, 2002
The Principles of
Level Measurement
RF capacitance, conductance, hydrostatic tank gauging, radar,
and ultrasonics are the leading sensor technologies in liquid
level tank measurement and control operations. Making the
wisest selection for your own application requires a basic
understanding of how these devices work.
Gabor Vass, Princo Instruments, Inc.
With the wide variety of approaches to level measurement and as

many as 163 suppliers offering one or more types of level-measuring
instrument, identifying the right one for your application can be very
difficult. In recent years, technologies that capitalized on
microprocessor developments have stood out from the pack. For
example, the tried-and-true technique of measuring the head of a liquid
has gained new life thanks to “smart” differential pressure (DP)
transmitters. Today’s local level-measuring instruments can include
diagnostics as well as configuration and process data that can be
communicated over a network to remote monitoring and control
instrumentation. One model even provides local PID control. Some of
the most commonly used liquid-level measurement methods are:
• RF capacitance
• Conductance (conductivity)
• Hydrostatic head/tank
gauging
• Radar
file://C:\My%20Dell%20Documents\automation%20sensors%20catalog\Technical%20Reference 7/5/02
• Ultrasonic
Before you can decide which

one is right for your
application, however, you
need to understand how each
works and the theory behind
it. (Each method has its own
abbreviations, so you may
find the sidebar,
“Abbreviations for Common
Flow Sensing Terminology,”,
a useful reference during the
discussions that follow.)
RF Capacitance
RF (radio frequency)
technology uses the electrical
characteristics of a capacitor,
in several different
configurations, for level
measurement. Commonly
referred to as RF capacitance
or simply RF, the method is
suited for detecting the level
of liquids, slurries, granulars,
or interfaces contained in a
vessel. Designs are available
for measuring process level at
a specific point, at multiple Photo 1. This view of a typical RF
points, or continuously over capacitance probe shows the electronic
the entire vessel height. Radio chassis enlarged to twice the size of its
frequencies for all types range housing.
from 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
Capacitance Measurement Theory. All RF level systems make use of

enhancements of the same capacitance-measuring technique, and the
same basic theory underlies them all. An electrical capacitance (the
ability to store an electrical charge) exists between two conductors
separated by a distance, d, as shown in Figure 1. The first conductor
can be the vessel wall (plate 1), and the second can be a measurement
probe or electrode (plate 2). The two conductors have an effective area,
A, normal to each other. Between the conductors is an insulating
medium—the nonconducting material involved in the level
measurement.
The amount of capacitance here is determined not only by the spacing

and area of the conductors, but also by the electrical characteristic
(relative dielectric constant, K) of the insulating material. The value of
file://C:\My%20Dell%20Documents\automation%20sensors%20catalog\Technical%20Reference
... 7/5/02
K affects the charge storage capacity of the system: The higher the K,
the more charge it can build up. Dry air has a K of 1.0. Liquids and
solids have considerably higher values, as shown in Table 1.
Abbreviations for Common Flow Sensing

Terminology
Abbreviations Term Related Technology
RF capacitance
Radar or microwave
RF capacitance
Admittance
Radar or microwave
A Amplitude modulated
AM Capacitance
Radar or microwave
C Frequency-modulated
Radar or microwave
FMCW continuous wave
Hydrostatic head
Frequency modulated
gauging
FM Guided wave radar
Hydrostatic head
GWR Head or hydrostatic head
gauging
H Hydrostatic tank gauging
capacitance
HTG Impedance
capacitance
I RF Relative dielectric
Hydrostatic head
K RF constant
gauging
LT Level transmitter
Hydrostatic head
P Pressure
gauging
DP Differential pressure
Hydrostatic head
PT Pressure transmitter
gauging
R RF Resistance
Hydrostatic head
RF RF Radio frequency
gauging
TT Temperature transmitter
capacitance
TDR Time-domain
capacitance
reflectometer
Hydrostatic head
gauging
Radar or microwave
The capacitance for the basic capacitor arrangement shown in Figure 1

can be computed from the equation:
C = E (K A/d) (1)
where:
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)
E = a constant known as the

absolute permittivity of free
space
K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material
... 7/5/02
A = effective area of the

conductors
d = distance between the

conductors
To apply this formula to a

level-measuring system, you
must assume that the process
material is insulating, which,
of course, is not always true.
A bare, conductive, sensing
electrode (probe) is inserted Figure 1. Basic capacitors all share
down into a tank (see Figure the same principle of operation.
2,) to act as one conductor of
the capacitor. The metal wall of the tank acts as the other. If the tank is
nonmetallic, a conductive ground reference must be inserted into the
tank to act as the other capacitor conductor.
With the tank empty, the insulating medium between the two
conductors is air. With the tank full, the insulating material is the
process liquid or solid. As the level rises in the tank to start covering
the probe, some of the insulating effect from air changes into that from
the process material, producing a change in capacitance between the
sensing probe and ground. This capacitance is meas ured to provide a
direct, linear meas urement of tank level.
As shown in Figure 2, the

electrode sensor, or probe, TABLE 1
connects directly to an RF level
transmitter, which is mounted Dielectric Constants of
outside the tank. In one design, Sample Substances
with the probe mounted
vertically, the system can be Substance Value
used for both continuous level Isopropyl alcohol 18.3
measurement and simultaneous Kerosene 1.8
multipoint level control. Kynar 8.0
Alternatively, for point level Mineral oil 2.1
measurement, one or more Pure water 80
probes can be installed Sand 4.0
horizontally through the side of Sugar 3.0
the tank; Figure 2 shows this Teflon 2.0
type being used as a high-level
alarm. Photo 1 shows a typical probe assembly with an enlarged view
of the microprocessor-based transmitter that fits in the housing; in use,
its digital indicator faces up. Trans mission of the level-measurement
signal can take several forms, as can the in strument that receives the
signal at either a local or a remote location.
Referring to Figure 2, the transmitter output is 4–20 mA DC plus
... 7/5/02
optional HART Protocol for remote diagnostics, range change, dry

calibration, and so on. The instrument receiving the signal can be a
distributed control system (DCS), a programmable logic controller
(PLC), a Pentium III PC, or a strip or circular chart recorder.
When the process material is

conductive, the sensing probe
is covered with an insulating
sheath such as Teflon or
Kynar. The insulated probe
acts as one plate of the
capacitor, and the conductive
process material acts as the
other. The latter, being
conductive, connects
electrically to the grounded
metallic tank. The insulating Figure 2. In the RF capacitance
medium or dielectric for this method of liquid level measurement,
application is the probe’s the electrode sensor connects directly
sheath. As the level of to an RF transmitter outside the tank.
conductive process material
changes, a proportional change in capacitance occurs. Note that this
measurement is unaffected by changes in the temperature or exact
composition of the process material.
RF Impedance or RF Admittance. When another electrical

characteristic, impe dance, enters the picture, the result is further
refinements in RF level measurement. Offering improved reliability
and a wider range of uses, these variations of the basic RF system are
called RF admittance or RF impedance. In RF or AC circuits, impe
dance, Z, is defined as the total opposition to current flow:
Z = R + 1/ j 2 p f C (2)
where:
R = resistance in ohms
j = square root of minus 1 (––1)
p = the constant 3.1416
f = measurement frequency (radio frequency for RF measurement)
C = capacitance in picofarads
An RF impedance level-sensing instrument measures this total

impedance rather than just the capacitance. Some level-meas uring
systems are referred to as RF admittance types. Admittance, A, is
defined as a measure of how readily RF or AC current will flow in a
... 7/5/02
circuit and is therefore the reciprocal of impedance (A = 1/Z). Thus,

there is no basic difference between the RF impedance and RF
admittance as a level-measurement technology.
In some cases, the process material tends to build up a coating on the

level-sensing probe. In such cases, which are not uncommon in level
applications, a significant meas urement error can occur because the
instrument measures extra capacitance and resistance from the coating
buildup. As a result, the sensor reports a higher, and incorrect, level
instead of the actual tank level.
Note that the equation for

impedance includes
resistance, R. The RF
impedance method can be
provided with specific
circuitry capable of measuring
the resistance and capacitance
components from the coating
and the capacitive component
Figure 3. In the conductive type of
due to the actual process
level measurement, two dual-tip
material level. The circuitry is
probes detect the maximum and
designed to solve a
minimum levels in a tank.
mathematical relationship
electronically, thereby producing a 4–20 mA current output that is
proportional only to the actual level of the proc ess material. It is
virtually unaffected by any buildup of coating on the sensing probe,
enabling an RF system to continue functioning reliably and accurately.
Conductance
The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the

electrical conductance of the measured material, which is usually a
liquid that can conduct a current with a low-voltage source (normally
<20 V). Hence the method is also referred to as a conductivity system.
Conductance is a relatively low-cost, simple method to detect and
control level in a vessel.
One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip

probe that eliminates the need for grounding a metal tank. Such probes
are generally used for point level detection, and the detected point can
be the interface between a conductive and nonconductive liquid.
Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes that detect

maximum and minimum levels. When the level reaches the upper
probe, a switch closes to start the discharge pump; when the level
reaches the lower probe, the switch opens to stop the pump.
Hydrostatic Head
... 7/5/02
One of the oldest and most

common methods of
measuring liquid level is to
measure the pressure exerted
by a column (or head) of
liquid in the vessel. The basic
relationships are:
P = mHd
or: Figure 4. The hydrostatic head, or

differential pressure, method can add
measurements (at left) for hydrostatic
H = mP/d (3)
tank gauging (HTG).
where, in consistent units:
P = pressure
m = a constant
H = head
d = density
P is commonly expressed in pounds per square inch; H, in feet; and d,

in pounds per cubic feet; but any combination of units can be used, so
long as the m factor is suitably adjusted.
The density of a liquid varies with temperature. For the highest

precision in level measurement, the density must therefore be
compensated for or expressed with relation to the actual temperature of
the measured liquid. This is the case with hydrostatic tank gauging
(HTG) described below.
For decades, DP-type instruments—long before the DP cell—were

used to measure liquid level. Orifice meters, originally designed to
measure differential pressure across an orifice in a pipeline, readily
adapted to level measurement. Today’s smart DP transmitters adapt
equally well to level measurements and use the same basic principles
as their precursors. With open vessels (those not under pressure or a
vacuum), a pipe at or near the bottom of the vessel connects only to the
high-pressure side of the meter body and the low-pressure side is open
to the atmosphere. If the vessel is pressurized or under vacuum, the
low side of the meter has a pipe connection near the top of the vessel,
so that the instrument responds only to changes in the head of liquid
(see Figure 4).
DP transmitters are used extensively in the process industries today. In

fact, newer smart transmitters and conventional 4– 20 mA signals for
communications to remote DCSs, PLCs, or other systems have actually
... 7/5/02
resulted in a “revival” of this technology. Problems with dirty liquids

and the expense of piping on new installations, however, have opened
the door for yet newer, alternative methods.
Hydrostatic Tank Gauging. One growing, specialized application for

systems that involve hydrostatic measurements is hydrostatic tank
gauging (HTG). It is an emerging standard way to accurately gauge
liquid inventory and to monitor transfers in tank farms and similar
multiple-tank storage facilities. HTG systems can provide accurate
information on tank level, mass, density, and volume of the contents in
every tank. These values can also be networked digitally for multiple
remote access by computer from a safe area.
Figure 4 shows a simplified

system that incorporates only
one pressure transmitter (PT)
with a temperature transmitter
(TT) and makes novel use of a
level transmitter (LT) to detect
accumulation of water at the
bottom of a tank. Mass
(weight) of the tank’s contents
can be calculated from the
hydrostatic head (measured by
PT) multiplied by the tank
area (obtained from a lookup
table). The liquid’s
temperature-density Figure 5. Radar (microwave) level
relationship can be used to measurement can use either of two
calculate the volume and types of antenna construction at the
level, provided the tank is not top of vessel.
under pressure. Data fed into a computer system make it possible for
all calculations to be automatic, with results continuously available for
monitoring and accounting purposes.
The level transmitter, with its probe installed at an angle into the
bottom portion of the tank, is an innovative way to detect accumulation
of water, separated from oil, and to control withdrawal of product only.
Moreover, by measuring the water-oil interface level, the LT provides
a means of correcting precisely for the water level, which would
incorrectly be measured as product.
Though the DP transmitter is most commonly used to measure

hydrostatic pressure for level measurement, other methods should be
mentioned. One newer system uses a pressure transmitter in the form
of a stainless steel probe that looks much like a thermometer bulb. The
probe is simply lowered into the tank toward the bottom, supported by
plastic tubing or cable that carries wiring to a meter mounted
externally on or near the tank. The meter displays the level data and
can transmit the information to another receiver for remote monitoring,
... 7/5/02
recording, and control.
Another newer hydrostatic measuring device is a dry-cell transducer

that is said to prevent the pressure cell oils from contaminating the
process fluid. It incorporates special ceramic and stainless steel
diaphragms and is apparently used in much the same way as a DP
transmitter.
Radar or Microwave
Radar methods of level measurement are sometimes referred to as

microwave types. Both use electromagnetic waves, typically in the
microwave X-band (10 GHz) range. This technology is being adapted
and refined for level measurement, so you should check out the latest
offerings. Most applications have been designed for continuous level
measurement.
Basically, all types operate on the principle of beaming microwaves

downward from a sensor located on top of the vessel. The sensor
receives back a portion of the energy that is reflected off the surface of
the measured medium. Travel time for the signal (called the time of
flight) is used to determine level. For continuous level meas urement,
there are two main types of noninvasive systems, as well as one
invasive type that uses a cable or rod as a wave guide and extends
down into the tank’s contents to near its bottom.
One type of noninvasive system uses a technology called frequency-

modulated continuous wave (FMCW). From an electronic module on
top of the tank, a sensor oscillator sends down a linear frequency
sweep, at a fixed bandwidth and sweep time. The reflected radar signal
is delayed in proportion to the distance to the level surface. Its
frequency is different from that of the transmitted signal, and the two
signals blend into a new frequency proportional to distance. That new
frequency is converted into a very accurate measure of liquid level.
The sensor outputs a

frequency-modulated (FM)
signal that varies from 0 to
~200 Hz as the distance
ranges from 0 to 200 ft (60
m). An advantage of this
technique is that the level-
measurement signals are FM
rather than AM, affording the
same advantages that radio
waves offer. Most tank noise
is in the AM range and does Figure 6. In continuous ultrasonic
not affect the FM signals. level measurement, a transducer
mounted at the top of the tank sends
The second noninvasive bursts of waves downward onto a
... 7/5/02
technology, pulsed radar or material to determine its level.

pulsed time-of-flight, operates
on a principle very similar to that of the ultrasonic pulse meth od. The
radar pulse is aimed at the liquid’s surface and the transit time of the
pulse’s re turn is used to calculate level. Because pulse radar is lower
power than FMCW, its performance can be affected by obstructions in
the tank as well as foam and low-dielectric materials (K < 2).
Antennas for the noninvasive methods come in two designs: parabolic

dish and cone. Sche matically, Figure 5 shows that the parabolic dish
antenna tends to direct the signals over a wider area while the cone
tends to confine the signals in a narrower downward path. The choice
of one or the other, and its diameter, depends on application factors
such as tank obstructions that may serve as reflectors, the presence of
foam, and turbulence of the measured fluid.
Guided-wave radar (GWR) is

an invasive method that uses a
rod or cable to guide the micro
wave as it passes down from
the sensor into the material
being measured and all the
way to the bottom of the
vessel. The basis for GWR is
time-domain reflectometry Figure 7. Not every level
(TDR), which has been used measurement technique is suitable for
for years to locate breaks in a given application.
long lengths of cable that are
underground or in building
walls. A TDR generator
develops more than 200,000
pulses of electromagnetic
energy that travel down the
waveguide and back. The
dielectric of the measured
fluid causes a change in
impedance that in turn
develops a wave reflection.
Transit time of pulses down Figure 8. The initial cost for five
and back is used as a measure continuous and point level-
of level. measurement technologies varies.
The waveguide affords a highly efficient path for pulse travel so that
degradation of the signal is minimized. Thus, extremely low dielectric
materials (K < 1.7 vs. K = 80 for water) can be effectively measured.
Further, because the pulse signals are channeled by the guide,
turbulence, foams, or tank obstructions should not affect the meas
urement. GWR can handle varying specific gravity and media buildup
or coatings. It is an invasive method, though, and the probe or guide
may be damaged by the blade of an agitator or the corrosiveness of the
... 7/5/02
material being measured.
Ultrasonic and Sonic
Both ultrasonic and sonic level instruments operate on the basic

principle of using sound waves to determine fluid level. The frequency
range for ultrasonic methods is ~20–200 kHz, and sonic types use a
frequency of 10 kHz. As shown in Figure 6, a top-of-tank mounted
transducer directs waves downward in bursts onto the surface of the
material whose level is to be measured. Echoes of these waves return
to the transducer, which performs calculations to convert the distance
of wave travel into a measure of level in the tank. A piezoelectric
crystal inside the transducer converts electrical pulses into sound
energy that travels in the form of a wave at the established frequency
and at a constant speed in a given medium. The medium is normally air
over the material’s surface but it could be a blanket of nitrogen or
some other vapor. The sound waves are emitted in bursts and received
back at the transducer as echoes. The instrument measures the time for
the bursts to travel down to the reflecting surface and return. This time
will be proportional to the distance from the transducer to the surface
and can be used to determine the level of fluid in the tank. For practical
applications of this method, you must consider a number of factors. A
few key points are:
• The speed of sound through the medium (usually air) varies with the
medium’s temperature. The transducer may contain a temperature
sensor to compensate for changes in operating temperature that would
alter the speed of sound and hence the distance calculation that
determines an accurate level measurement.
• The presence of heavy foam on the surface of the material can act as
a sound absorbent. In some cases, the absorption may be sufficient to
preclude use of the ultrasonic technique.
• Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause fluctuating readings. Use

of a damping adjustment in the instrument or a response delay may
help overcome this problem.
To enhance performance where foam or other factors affect the wave

travel to and from the liquid surface, some models can have a beam
guide attached to the transducer.
Ultrasonic or sonic methods can also be used for point level

measurement, although it is a relatively expensive solution. An
ultrasonic gap technique is an alternative way to measure point level
with low-viscosity liquids. A transmit crystal is activated on one side
of a “measurement gap” and a receive crystal listens on the opposite
side. The signal from the receive crystal is analyzed for the presence or
absence of tank contents in the meas urement gap. These noncontact
devices are available in models that can convert readings into 4–20 mA
... 7/5/02
outputs to DCSs, PLCs, or other remote controls.
Selecting the Best Method
Figures 7 and 8 summarize some guidelines that will help you select
the right level measurement method for your application. Remember,
however, that initial cost is only one consideration—a low initial cost
may be far outweighed by high maintenance costs or loss of accuracy
over time.
Suppliers often provide recommendations if you specify your needs,

usually by filling out a form. Five types of information commonly
define the level-measuring instrument or system needed:
• Process material. Give the generic name of the material, such as a 5%

sodium hydroxide solution.
• Material characteristics. Specify whether you need to measure a

liquid, slurry, solid, interface, granular, or powder. Give values of the
material’s dielectric constant, K, conductivity in microsiemens per
centimeter (mS/cm), viscosity in centipoise (cP), and density in pounds
per cubit foot (lb./ft.3). Also describe consistency in such terms as
“watery,” “oily,” “like a batter,” or “like molasses.” If this information
is not available, send the supplier a sample for evaluation.
• Process information. Give values of the normal temperature and

pressure, as well as the minimum and maximum. If turbulence is
present, indicate its degree as light, medium, or heavy. Describe vessel
material: Is it metallic, nonmetallic, or lined? Give materials of
construction of wetted materials, for example 316 stainless, Kynar,
Teflon, or other. Describe area classification: nonhazardous, hazardous
(list them), or corrosive (list them too).
• Vessel function. Describe the main function of the vessel, such as

sump, reactor, storage, water separation at bottom, and so on. Provide a
schematic diagram showing the vessel size and shape, the probe
mounting and location, 0% and 100% of level, and the presence of an
agitator or other internal obstruction.
• Power requirements. Specify from the following: 115 VAC, 230

VAC, 24 VAC, or loop- powered (24 VAC, two-wire type).
With a firm grasp of the principles underlying the methods, you should
be able to intelligently choose among the options the supplier offers
you.
For Further Reading
Bacon, J.M. June 1996. “The changing world of level measurement,”
... 7/5/02
InTech.
Boyes, W. Feb. 1999. “The Changing State of the Art of Level

Measurement,” Flow Control.
Carsella, B. Dec. 1998. “Popular level-gauging methods,” Chemical

Processing.
Considine, D.M. 1993. “Fluid Level Systems,” Process/Industrial

Instruments & Control Handbook. 4th Ed. New York, McGraw-
Hill:4.130-4.136.
Gillum, D.R. 1995. “Industrial Pressure, Level, and Density

Measurement,” ISA Resources for Measurement and Control Series.
Research Triangle Park, NC, Instru ment Society of America.
Johnson, D. Nov. 1998. “Process Instru mentation’s ‘Utility Infielder,’

” Control Engi neering.
Koeneman, D.W. July 2000. “Evaluate the Options for Measuring

Process Levels,” Chemi cal Engineering.
“Level Measurement.” 1995. Instrument Engineer’s Handbook:

Process Measure ments and Analysis, B.E. Liptak, Ed., 3rd Ed., Vol. 2.
Radnor, PA, Chilton Book Co.:269-397.
“Level Measurement and Control.” Apr. 1999. Measurements &

Control:142-161.
“Level Measurement Systems.” 1995. Omega Complete Flow and

Level Measure ment Handbook and Encyclopedia. Vol. 29, Stamford,
CT, Omega Engineering Inc.
“Level measurement, tank gauging sectors grow, diversify,” Apr.

1999. Control Engi neering:13.
Owen, T. Feb. 1999. “Advanced Elec tronics Overcome Measurement

Barriers,” Control.
Parker, S. 1999. “Selecting a level device based on application needs,”

Chemical Proc essing, 1999 Fluid Flow Manual:75-80.
Paul, B.O. Feb. 1999. “Seventeen Level Sensing Methods,” Chemical

Processing.
Ramirez, R.C. Oct. 1999. “Microwaves calm down black liquor

recovery,” InTech:50-53.
RF Level Measurement Handbook. 1999. Princo Instruments Inc.
... 7/5/02
Gabor Vass is National Sales and Marketing Manager, Princo

Instruments, Inc., Level Controls and Density Measurement Division,
1020 Industrial Blvd., Southampton, PA 18966; 800-221-9237, fax
215-355-7766, info@princoinstruments.com, http://www.princoin%
20struments.com/.
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Sensors - October 2000 -The Principles of Level Measurement Page 1 of 14

ARTICLES Site Search:

Friday, July 5, 2002

With the wide variety of approaches to level measurement and as

Before you can decide which

Capacitance Measurement Theory. All RF level systems make use of

The amount of capacitance here is determined not only by the spacing

Abbreviations for Common Flow Sensing

The capacitance for the basic capacitor arrangement shown in Figure 1

C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)

E = a constant known as the

K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material

A = effective area of the

d = distance between the

To apply this formula to a

As shown in Figure 2, the

Referring to Figure 2, the transmitter output is 4–20 mA DC plus

optional HART Protocol for remote diagnostics, range change, dry

When the process material is

RF Impedance or RF Admittance. When another electrical

j = square root of minus 1 (––1)

p = the constant 3.1416

f = measurement frequency (radio frequency for RF measurement)

An RF impedance level-sensing instrument measures this total

circuit and is therefore the reciprocal of impedance (A = 1/Z). Thus,

In some cases, the process material tends to build up a coating on the

Note that the equation for

The conductance method of liquid level measurement is based on the

One common way to set up an electrical circuit is to use a dual-tip

Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two dual-tip probes that detect

One of the oldest and most

or: Figure 4. The hydrostatic head, or

P is commonly expressed in pounds per square inch; H, in feet; and d,

The density of a liquid varies with temperature. For the highest

For decades, DP-type instruments—long before the DP cell—were

DP transmitters are used extensively in the process industries today. In

resulted in a “revival” of this technology. Problems with dirty liquids

Hydrostatic Tank Gauging. One growing, specialized application for

Figure 4 shows a simplified

Though the DP transmitter is most commonly used to measure

recording, and control.

Another newer hydrostatic measuring device is a dry-cell transducer

Radar methods of level measurement are sometimes referred to as

Basically, all types operate on the principle of beaming microwaves

One type of noninvasive system uses a technology called frequency-

The sensor outputs a

technology, pulsed radar or material to determine its level.

Antennas for the noninvasive methods come in two designs: parabolic

Guided-wave radar (GWR) is

material being measured.

Ultrasonic and Sonic

Both ultrasonic and sonic level instruments operate on the basic

• Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause fluctuating readings. Use

To enhance performance where foam or other factors affect the wave

Ultrasonic or sonic methods can also be used for point level

outputs to DCSs, PLCs, or other remote controls.

Selecting the Best Method

Suppliers often provide recommendations if you specify your needs,

• Process material. Give the generic name of the material, such as a 5%

• Material characteristics. Specify whether you need to measure a

• Process information. Give values of the normal temperature and

• Vessel function. Describe the main function of the vessel, such as

• Power requirements. Specify from the following: 115 VAC, 230