Diesel Emissions Sink to New Lows as R&A Cleans Up Diesels Image

Recent progress in diesel engine technology has been rapid and dramatic especially in Europe. Today, diesel-powered vehicles make up over half of the European market. Will the market grow similarly in North America? Ford believes the potential is there, and diesel experts in its Research and Advanced Engineering groups are working hard to be ready for that demand. The modern diesel engine is nothing like the loud, smoky diesels of the past, and our customers both in Europe and North America are beginning to recognize this, said Dr. Horst Schulte, diesel expert of the Ford Research Center Aachen (FFA). At FFA, we are working tirelessly to explore diesel technology and continue to refine the performance and minimize the environmental impacts of our diesel engines. In Europe, the growth in the diesel market can be attributed to more than just lower diesel fuel prices compared to gasoline. The vehicle refinement, acceleration capability and convenience of increased driving range now available in all segments up through premium sedans make diesel the powertrain of choice. Diesel engines have experienced significant improvements in engine torque and horsepower, and clearly, customers appreciate the performance and feel of modern diesel engines. Diesel also provides a C02 emissions advantage, as evidenced by 2001 German certification data. C02, one of the greenhouse gasses, is a major contributor to global warming. Compared with similar gasoline vehicles, diesels are capable of providing a 20 percent to 25 percent reduction in CO2 emissions in a well-to-wheel analysis. However, concerns have been expressed regarding the impact of diesel, particularly the impact of particulate mass, or soot, emissions on air quality, human health and climate change. In addition, the control of Nitrous Oxide emissions remains a challenge. Furthermore, the availability of clean, low-sulfur diesel fuel will be a critical factor in the success of all diesel emissions-control strategies and aftertreatment technologies.

Particulate Mass Emission Control

Older generations of diesel engines emitted greater amounts of particulates than the modern diesels that proliferate Europe today. Since 1989, when the first particulate emission standards were introduced in Europe for light diesel vehicles, particulate-emission limits have been lowered by a factor of 22, from the original 1.1 grams per kilometer (old test cycle) to todays limit of 0.05 grams per kilometer (Stage III). While the Stage III limits are stringent, even tougher diesel particulateemission limits are now in place for the European Stage IV standards. With this in mind, alternative technologies have to be considered to achieve these targets. In North America, diesel emissions regulations are also taking center stage. By the 2007 model year, North American diesels must meet the EPA Tier 2 emissions standards and exhibit the same emissions characteristics of gasoline engines. The FFA has taken the lead in addressing the goal of particulate reduction for Ford Motor Company with the use of one essential technology in this area: the Diesel Particulate Filter. The advantages and innovations of this system, compared with existing DPF systems, include elimination of the need for a fuel additive, significantly increased service intervals and more robust, yet less costly, system implementation.

First generation DPF technology consists of a filter that collects the particulate mass produced by a diesel engine and supports its combustion when the exhaust gas temperatures are high enough. Utilizing such a device effectively filters out more than 99 percent of the particulate mass. The remaining material is mainly sulfate stemming from the sulfur in the fuel and oil. To eliminate this, there has been a supported request for the oil companies to help supply the demand for sulfur-free fuel availability. With the introduction of first-generation DPF systems that are capable of filtering out 99 percent of soot particulates, one may wonder why there has been such concern over this technology. Filtering out the particulates has never been a problem; the main challenge lies in the regeneration of the filter once it is filled with a critical amount of particulates. Filter regeneration requires complicated engine management to support regeneration. To cause regeneration at a lower exhaust gas temperature, a fuel additive or fuel-born catalyst is used. However, with such systems, additional attention must be paid to the collection of ash residues in the particulate filter. These ash residues come from four sources: engine wear, fuel, oil and the fuel additive itself. The ash is inert, and the filtration efficiency of the DPF is so high that ash is eliminated from the tailpipe emissions. However, storage is not infinite, and thus requires the system to be serviced. Here lies the next development by Ford Motor Company.

Second-Generation DPF Technology

The second-generation DPF developed by the scientists and engineers at FFA is coated with catalytic material and combines the functions of both filter and catalytic converter into a single component which could simplify packaging within the exhaust system. The catalyst supports the oxidation mechanism for the removal of the soot collected previously by the filter support. The one major advantage is that the catalytic diesel particulate filter, C-DPF, functions without a fuel additive. Engineers consider this one of the major challenges for future particulate filter systems because fuel additives produce almost half of the ash deposits in the filter. A typical filter consists of a ceramic honeycomb similar to a catalyst, but with alternate passages blocked to force the exhaust gases to flow through the porous wall. The exhaust gases pass through, but the soot cannot penetrate, and it accumulates on the wall until a limiting quantity is reached. At this point, the system is forced to move into a regeneration mode in which several measures are taken to increase exhaust temperature. One of these measures is to pass unburned fuel to the catalyst, raising the temperature of the exhaust. The filter is heated up enough to ignite and burn out the soot that has accumulated in the particulate trap. A catalytic coating on the filter can help this process take place. Ford Motor Company has worked in the area of DPF technology since the late 1980s, said Schulte. However, only today have the materials and control systems sufficiently matured to introduce them to the marketplace, and more is to come. New developments are occurring daily to bring added value to our product and to our customers. Ford Motor Company has over 20 issued patents and more are pending in the area of DPF technology.

NOx Reduction Technologies

In gasoline vehicles, three-way catalysts achieve NOx reductions. These catalysts work very well when the engine operates at stoichiometric air fuel ratios where the fuel injected into the

engine consumes all of the oxygen that is drawn into the engine. The threeway catalyst uses the HC and CO formed in the engine to reduce the NOx. Diesel engines operate at lean airfuel ratios, however, and there is not enough HC and CO available to reduce the NOx. In addition, the excess oxygen in the exhaust tends to consume the minimal HC and CO that is available. Thus, the threeway catalyst becomes ineffective in controlling NOx in diesel applications. To achieve the necessary NOx reductions for diesel emissions, there are two main technologies being explored: Lean NOx Traps and Selective Catalytic Reduction. LNTs use materials that adsorb NOx under lean conditions and require periodic regeneration under rich conditions to reduce NOx to N2. LNTs are being applied on gasoline vehicles that operate with lean air-fuel ratios and are now being developed for diesel applications. Although the NOx adsorber can achieve high efficiency, it has proven to be effective only over a limited temperature range. Unfortunately, the range is narrower than encountered on gasoline and diesel vehicles. Gasoline engines can easily operate at stoichiometry using the three-way catalyst; the narrow temperature range of the NOx traps simply limit the conditions under which the engine can operate lean. Diesel engines have much greater difficulty operating at stoichiometry; the limited temperature range means higher NOx emissions when exhaust temperatures become too low or too high. Other issues with LNT technology include a negative-fuel economy impact because of the necessity of running rich during NOx purge. They are also subject to deactivation by the sulfur currently contained in most diesel fuels, and the NOx trap must be purged periodically of sulfate at high temperatures. NOx traps also require a high loading of precious metals, and durability has not been well-established. The technology with the most potential to achieve 90+ percent NOx conversion with minimal fuel economy penalty is SCR. An SCR catalyst uses a reducing agent injected into the exhaust to continuously remove NOx. Typical reductants include ammonia or aqueous urea. This reduction reaction occurs readily even in lean exhaust. Its high selectivity and reactivity with NOx makes ammonia SCR attractive for diesel vehicle use. This approach already is being used successfully in stationary powerplant applications using diesel engines, on retrofitted diesel trucks used in some cities that exceed ambient air quality standards and will soon be used on new European heavyduty trucks. R&A Dearborn leads in the application of this technology on light-duty vehicles. In 1995, it was first to publish work on the use of urea SCR to control NOx while achieving over 80 percent NOx reduction. Recently, scientists there have achieved a 95 percent reduction of NOx. Several hurdles were overcome to reach this level. The amount of urea injected had to be carefully matched to the NOx emitted from the engine to prevent ammonia emissions. The injected urea also had to be well-mixed with the exhaust. The SCR catalyst was placed close to the engine so that it could be heated quickly to operating temperatures. Even then, the engine had to be tuned to produce additional heat to more quickly heat the catalyst. Steps also were taken to prevent temporary poisoning of the SCR catalyst by HC. All of these features were demonstrated on a diesel Focus. While today urea SCR has clear advantages over LNT technology, it faces several hurdles. SCR requires urea supplies at service stations across the country, said Dr. Robert Hammerle. The industry is understandably reluctant to develop this urea infrastructure, especially if NOx trap technology can become competitive. There is also reluctance by regulators who believe that consistent cofueling of diesel vehicles and urea cannot be assured, and that NOx trap technology must be the ultimate goal.

Technology in Action

Both the advanced particulate filter system and a NOx reducing system have been installed in a demonstration vehicle based on the European Ford Focus. These technologies represent a new stream for future development. Together with the latest common-rail technology, it will provide generationthree aftertreatment technology. This demonstrator tackles the aggressive emission standards of North America where the regulation calls for 90 percent conversion of NOx and soot. The NOx reduction technology used in this demonstrator was a SCR system utilizing urea as the reagent. This system offers the greatest conversion efficiencies known to the technical community. In the last decades, the diesel share has been growing continuously in the European market, and Im sure that it will further increase, said Schulte. One of the major drivers for the popularity of diesel cars is certainly the fuel economy and the low diesel price in Europe relative to gasoline. And, in terms of performance, todays diesel engines are absolutely competitive with gasoline engines.

Climate Change
Climate change is a serious environmental issue. The combustion of fossil fuels results in emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. The weight of scientific analysis indicates that, while there are many uncertainties, the amount of these gases in the atmosphere is increasing and the influence of human activity on our climate cannot be ignored. A sound understanding of the history and science behind climate change is a necessary prerequisite to the formulation of successful technology strategies and business models for the automotive industry in the 21st century. Concern for global sustainability has led Ford Motor Company to expand research efforts into issues related to global climate change and its implications for energy and environmental resources. Ford Motor Companys commitment to understanding and mitigating the environmental impact of its products has had the longest history within the automotive industry, and Ford Research and Advanced Engineering is home to the worlds leading industrial-atmospheric science research effort. For over 30 years, Ford scientists have made pioneering contributions to the scientific understanding of emissions sources, atmospheric chemistry and air quality modeling on local, urban and regional scales. At Ford, we are trying to ascertain the extent of climate change and determine how we can minimize the effects of our products and processes on the global climate, said Tim Wallington, a Ford atmospheric chemist.

Weather and Climate

Weather and climate have a profound impact on human welfare. Weather is what we experience daily and has a temporal scale of several days and a spatial scale of up to say, 1,000 kilometers. Climate is what we experience from season to season, from year to year, from decade to decade and so on. The ranges of both the temporal and spatial scales in climate are considerably greater than those for weather. Although climate can be said to be some kind of averaged weather, the fact of the matter is, that unlike weather, there are many multi-year and longer atmospheric and oceanic processes that influence the climate (but influence the weather only as initial and boundary conditions) and are not well understood.

Consequently, predicting the climate is, in some respects, even more challenging than longerterm weather prediction. Note, for example, that a temperature change of a few degrees is not a big deal in weather but is a very big deal in climate. Because of the difficulty in predicting future climate, the science of global climate can often be distorted to suit different purposes. We have to be particularly vigilant in making sure that our decision making is based on the best available scientific understanding, said David Chock, an experienced Ford atmospheric modeler. Climate change is not a new phenomenon in the earths history. The geological record shows that climate is in a state of more or less continual change, with major ice ages occurring approximately every 100,000 years. The regular occurrence of ice ages is believed to have an astronomical origin associated with subtle changes in the separation and relative orientation of the Earth and sun. During ice ages, the global average temperature is 5-10C cooler than at present. Over the past 1,000 years, the average northern hemispheric temperature has been far from constant and has exhibited many fluctuations. For the time period of 1000 to 1850, there is a small but discernable general trend of decreasing temperature by about 0.2-0.5C. Most significant to the global warming discussion, however, is the pronounced and geologically abrupt warming over the past century, co-incident with the onset of industrialization. Over the past 140 years, warming has occurred during two marked periods: 1910 - 1940 and 1980 - present. During this time, it can be noted that 1998 was the warmest year; the 1990s was the warmest decade; and the 1900s was likely the warmest century in the past millennium. The temperature record is not the only indication of a changing climate. There are many other indicators like the melting of glaciers around the world, decreased snow cover in the Northern hemisphere, decreased tropical precipitation, increased mid-to-high latitude precipitation, sea level rise, decreased extent of Arctic ice and thinning of Arctic ice. The warming observed thus far (0.6 0.2C since the late 19th century) is modest, and, by itself, is unlikely to lead to a substantial global impact. Concern regarding global warming centers on the forecasted changes in the future climate. A major aim of our atmospheric research in both our Dearborn and our Aachen, Germany, laboratories is to understand and reduce the vehicle contributions to global climate change, said Ken Hass, manager of R&As Physical and Environmental Sciences Department. We have a number of initiatives in place to advance the scientific understanding of key environmental issues, especially those related to the greenhouse effect.

What is the greenhouse effect?

Although the term greenhouse effect sounds like a detrimental phenomenon that will result in overwhelming heat waves, the greenhouse effect is really what makes the earth habitable in the first place. Without the greenhouse effect, our planet would be locked in a permanent, severe ice age. It has been known for almost 200 years that the atmosphere allows short wavelength radiation from the sun to reach and warm the earths surface, but it blocks emission of longer wavelength radiation, which would cool the earth. The effect has been compared to that of the glass panels in a greenhouse (hence greenhouse effect). Prevention of the loss of warm air via convection is actually the main factor by which heat is retained in a greenhouse. However, for historical reasons, the terms greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases are still used when describing radiative trapping of heat in the atmosphere.

At pre-industrial levels of greenhouse gases, the greenhouse effect warmed the earths surface by about 34C (maintaining a comfortable average global surface temperature of 15C rather than a frigid 19C expected in the absence of greenhouse gases). Greenhouse gases act as a blanket keeping the earth warm. As more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere, the thickness of the blanket increases, and the earths temperature rises. The enhanced greenhouse effect caused by the addition of man-made greenhouse gases is generally referred to as global warming. The natural greenhouse effect keeps the earths surface warm and is a good thing. Human activities have been attributed to causing large increases in the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The scientific evidence indicates that a likely consequence of this will be significant changes in future global climate, said Wallington. To combat global warming, Ford researchers are focusing their efforts on three areas: radiative forcing of gaseous emissions, atmospheric aerosols and the study of carbon dioxide fluxes.

Radiative Forcing
When greenhouse gases increase in the atmosphere, the radiative balance of the earth is altered. The change in net radiation caused by changes in greenhouse gas or aerosol concentrations, relative to the pre-industrial period, is called radiative forcing. Radiative forcing can be positive or negative and can lead to increased or decreased temperatures depending upon the agent considered. Positive radiative forcing occurs when greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation emitted from the earths surface and trap heat in the atmosphere. Negative radiative forcing occurs when atmospheric aerosols reflect solar radiation back into space and results in cooling. R&As atmospheric chemistry experts, in conjunction with the University of Reading, evaluated the direct radiative forcing of 65 chloroflourocarbons, hydroflourocarbons, hydrofluoroethers, halons, iodoalkanes, chloroalkanes, bromoalkanes, perfluorocarbons and nonmethane hydrocarbons. The 65-molecule data set is the most comprehensive and consistent database available to evaluate the contribution of vehicle emissions to climate change. This work provides an accurate, consistent and documented data set with which to evaluate the relative impacts of various gases. Such data is useful to decision makers in weighting the relative importance of the different gases and the effectiveness of different control strategies, said Wallington. The Ford data set has been made available to the scientific community and forms an important part of international evaluations of climate change issues.

Atmospheric Aerosols
The largest uncertainty in radiative forcing is that of aerosols. Atmospheric aerosols consist of mixtures of solid and liquid particles dispersed in air. Sulfate and organic carbon aerosols reflect incoming sunlight and have a negative direct radiative forcing, whereas black carbon (primarily elemental carbon) aerosols, and to a much lesser degree, organic carbon, absorb incoming sunlight and have a positive direct radiative forcing. Additionally, waterabsorbing submicron aerosols (or condensation nuclei), which include the sulfate and many carbon aerosols, can promote the formation of small cloud droplets and prolong the lifetime of

the cloud. This produces a negative indirect radiative forcing with a highly uncertain magnitude. Because existing diesel vehicles emit soot that includes organic and black carbon aerosols, it is important that we understand their role in climate change. The climate impact of black carbon and organic carbon emissions is presently a topic of intense study in many climate modeling centers, said Chock. Heinz Hass, an atmospheric scientist in Fords Aachen laboratory, adds that the development of diesel particulate filters and other advanced aftertreatment technologies have the potential to significantly reduce diesel aerosol emissions, providing local air quality benefits independent of any climate impacts. Environmental modeling in R&A has led to improved parameterization of the physics and chemistry of clouds and the interaction between clouds and aerosols. Research is now focused on estimating the indirect forcings of black carbon and implementing the results into a global circulation model.

Carbon Dioxide Sinks

Advancing the scientific understanding of carbon dioxide sinks is also a key element of the global warming issue. There are several storage media for CO2, including the atmosphere, biota (plants, trees, etc.), soils and surface layers of the ocean and the deep ocean. With the exception of the deep ocean, CO2 cycles through all of these media with a residence time of about 6 to 50 years. Growing trees absorb CO2; however, when these trees die or catch fire, decay or combustion returns the CO2 to the atmosphere. The deep ocean is the only longterm CO2 sink. The CO2 exchange rate with the deep ocean is very slow (on the order of 1,000 years), and the effective lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere can be 100 years or more. The source-sink distribution at a given time or year is difficult to ascertain and is an area of intensive research. Fords environmental modeling experts developed the Carbon Emissions Lifetime Calculator spreadsheet model to simulate the relationship between CO2 emissions and atmospheric concentration. The model shows that a delay in an emission reduction plan requires a considerably longer period of time than the length of the delay to recover the atmospheric concentration. Because of the long atmospheric life of CO2, immediate emission reductions are needed to avoid prolonging the increase in atmospheric conditions. Further study on the CO2 sink characterization has been initiated in collaboration with Princeton University.

Global Climate Change and the Automotive Industry

While significant quantitative uncertainties remain in climate science, there is a great deal of qualitative certainty. Atmospheric levels of CO2 will increase for the foreseeable future. Public and regulatory awareness is also very likely to increase. Extreme weather events and ecosystem damage will be linked by the public, correctly or incorrectly, to climate change. The pressure to reduce CO2 emissions from vehicles will continue to increase with time. In June 2003, Ford Motor Company celebrates its 100th anniversary. The challenge to Ford, the rest of the industry and society at large in the next 100 years is to provide a smooth

but speedy transition in the personal transportation system toward one that has minimal impact on our climate and the environment.

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine

Another totally new aspect of the Model U is that it is powered by an internal combustion engine optimized to run on hydrogen fuel. The engine is supercharged and intercooled for maximum efficiency, power and range. Its emission of all pollutants, including carbon dioxide, is nearly zero, and the engine is up to 25 percent more fuel-efficient than gasoline engines. A hybrid electric transmission system further improves efficiency. We believe that hydrogen will be the automotive fuel of the future, said Dr. Schmidt. The hydrogen ICE can act as a stepping stone to hydrogen-fueled mass transportation that eventually will incorporate fuel cells. The hydrogen ICE is a common-sense powerplant that uses existing, proven technologies to deliver most of the environmental benefits of a hydrogen fuel cell but at a fraction of the complexity and cost. By changing the fuel to hydrogen the cleanest fuel known current technology engine systems can provide significantly increased fuel efficiency and vehicle emissions benefits at a cost competitive with current alternative fuel vehicles. The hydrogen internal combustion engine technology involves conducting minor modifications to an existing gasoline internal combustion engine. Model Us hydrogen ICE is based on Fords global 2.3-liter I-4 engine used in the Ford Ranger, the European Ford Mondeo and a number of Mazda vehicles. The engine is optimized to burn hydrogen with 12.2:1 high-compression pistons, fuel injectors designed to handle hydrogen gas, a coilonplug ignition system, an electronic throttle and new engine management software. Because hydrogen has a very wide combustion range (from 4 percent to 75 percent), hydrogen-fueled engines can use a wider range of air/fuel mixtures than gasoline engines and can be run in the fuel-efficient lean regime without the complications of preignition or knock. Much like a diesel engine, the hydrogen ICE runs unthrottled while under way, with air/fuel mixtures as lean as 86:1 during highway cruise, compared to the 14.7:1 of gasolinepowered vehicles. The engine can reach an efficiency of 38 percent, which is approximately 25 percent better than a gasoline engine. In terms of emissions, because there are no carbon atoms in the fuel, combustion of hydrogen produces no hydrocarbon or carbon dioxide emissions. Even without aftertreatment, nitrogen oxides are very low, and catalyst research may soon reduce tailpipe output of potentially smog-forming emissions to below ambient conditions in many cities. Designing a gasoline engine to burn hydrogen fuel has typically resulted in significantly lower power output until now. Ford researchers have shown that with supercharging, the hydrogen ICE can deliver the same power as its gasoline counterpart and still provide nearzero- emissions performance and high-fuel economy. The centrifugal-type supercharger provides nearly 15 psi of boost on demand. Also, Model U uses a novel dual-stage intercooling process. After leaving the supercharger, the intake air passes through a conventional air-to-air intercooler, then through an air conditioning-to-air intercooler for a further reduction in temperature. This patented solution further improves the performance of the engine. In addition to the dual-stage intercooling process, there are a number of other patents that have been issued or are pending related to hydrogen internal combustion engine technology. Many of these technologies are also available for licensing.

Bio Materials
The Model U is a realistic approach to the future, guided by a powerful, positive vision. It follows the traditions of the Model T by being designed for the masses and addressing social issues, specifically environmental concerns. The Model U represents how using and producing personal transportation can have a positive effect on the planet instead of simply minimizing negative effects. Model U takes a positive approach to its materials and manufacturing, said David Wagner, Model Us technology project manager. Some of these concepts wont come to fruition for years, but this is an important first step. Examples can be found all around the vehicle, inside and out. The Model U is helping encourage development of materials that are safe to produce, use and recycle cradle-to-cradle. These materials never become waste, but instead are the nutrients that either feed healthy soil or the manufacturing processes without moving down the value chain. Eco-effective polyester, the fabric designed by Milliken and Co., is an example of a technical nutrient. It can be recycled into base elements and reprocessed into material fiber again and again without losing any performance qualities, and it is made from healthy substances. This polyester is used inside the Model U on its seats, dash, steering wheel, headrests, door trim and armrests. The Model U also uses a potential biological nutrient called polylactide or PLA. Made to safely return to the soil to feed the next generation of resource growth, it is a biopolymer from Cargill Dow derived from corn. PLA fabrics are used for the Model Us canvas roof and carpet mats. The fabric has the comfort and feel of natural fibers while having the performance and easy care of petroleum-based synthetics. Because cradle-to-cradle materials (technical and biological nutrients) arent available in all cases, other materials, like the following, are used in Model U to lighten its environmental impact: Renewable, plant-based components are used in several cases to replace petroleum-based materials. Rubber tires use corn-based fillers as a partial substitute for carbon black. They offer lower rolling resistance and lower weight, leading to improved fuel economy and improved traction on wet pavement. There are also several soy-based components in Model U, including polyurethane seating foam and polyester resin reinforced with fiberglass to make the tailgate. The team from Ford Research and Advanced Engineering is also working with Shell Global Solutions to test a bio-based lubricant from sunflower seeds to replace conventional engine oil. The Model U also begins to address manufacturing issues like the develoment of flexible manufacturing processes that reduce energy use and parts complexity, as well as the development of technical processes that have a positive environmental impact. Flexible manufacturing plays a role in allowing easy reconfiguration of future vehicles. Various types of vehicle body architectures can be constructed with common nodes and common extruded tubes joined with energy-efficient methods. This could also allow many

different vehicles to be built in a single assembly plant with reduced inventory and lower tooling cost. This type of efficiency is also expressed in the interior of the Model U. The armrests on all four doors are exactly the same, as are the center armrests in the front and rear seating rows. This modularity begins to facilitate the recovery of the cradle-to-cradle materials as Model U is dismantled, assuring highest-quality recycling of these valuable substances. Environmental concerns in manufacturing are also addressed with a new UV-cure clearcoat system developed by Akzo Nobel. Clearcoat is the topmost layer of a vehicles paint. It gives a vehicle its shine and protects the paint from damage. During the clearcoat cure, the Model U was exposed to ultraviolet light rather than to the high temperatures that are used traditionally. This system provides a harder finish and means the Model U will be more resistant to scratches than most cars and trucks. The process eliminates the need for a bake oven and uses less energy and solvents than traditional systems.

Meeting the Hydrogen Challenge

As auto manufacturers and fuel cell suppliers race towards the future, a seemingly immovable beast looms on the horizon prepared to thwart the promise of fuel cells that will end the 100-year reign of petroleum-based vehicles. Its really about the fuel, isnt it? asks Mike Schwarz, Fords chief fuel cell strategist and director of the Sustainable Mobility Technologies group, Fords center of excellence for fuel cell and hybrid technology. While technological progress makes fuel cells more competitive with the internal combustion engines theyre meant to replace, significant challenges remain for building the fuel infrastructure to support the vehicles. Theres even a lack of consensus on what form the fuel infrastructure should take. While some automakers promote on-board storage of direct hydrogen, other automakers believe its easier to build on-board reformers that extract hydrogen from a well-established liquid fuel source such as methanol or gasoline. Ford says direct hydrogen is better, and the automaker is not alone. The vast majority of fuel cell experts believe that pure hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are the ultimate goal. Hydrogen could be extracted off-board from several sources like steam reformation of natural gas, electrolysis of water or from ethanol, a renewable, biomass fuel made primarily from corn. Hydrogen also offers customers significant flexibility when refueling. Direct hydrogen can be supplied to a centralized fleet, similar to the way natural gas and propane vehicles are fueled. Hydrogen could be supplied from public stations, or hydrogen could be supplied at home, using refueling appliances similar to the way electric vehicles are refueled now. The benefits of direct hydrogen in terms of a simpler vehicle averting significant technological hurdles with on-board reformation and, most importantly, the goal of creating a clean, sustainable hydrogen economy make pure hydrogen the ultimate goal, said Schwarz. Ford is focused on solving the challenges of onboard hydrogen storage. The new Ford Fuel Cell Vehicle, based on Fords popular Focus compact car, combines hybrid electric vehicle technology with advanced fuel cell and compressed hydrogen storage tank components. Low-volume customer production begins in 2004. It is one of the industrys first hybridized fuel cell vehicles and exhibits the improved range and performance of hybrid technology with the overall benefits of a fuel cell. The Ford Focus FCV is hybridized with the addition of a Sanyo battery pack and a brake-by-wire electrohydraulic series regenerative

braking system. Both of these advances also are found on the Ford Escape Hybrid Fords first hybrid electric production vehicle. The Focus FCV will be part of a fuel cell vehicle demonstration fleet, which will help prove out the technology. The demonstration program will be supported by the U.S. Department of Energy and the California Fuel Cell Partnership. Fords participation in the program will help automakers and fuel cell suppliers, energy providers and government agencies map out a pathway for the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. The Focus FCV is Fords thirdgeneration drivable fuel cell vehicle. The first, the P2000 FCV, was introduced in 1998 and holds the national record for fuel cell endurance. The original Focus FCV production prototype debuted in 2000. The first production model Focus FCV was released at the New York Auto Show in March 2002. The newest generation FCV uses a battery pack made up of 180 individual D-size batteries packaged between the rear seat and the hydrogen fuel storage tank. Since the Focus FCV is a mild hybrid, the battery pack aids vehicle performance but cannot drive the vehicle itself. The battery is used during launch and assists the fuel cell system in improved drivability, providing a smoother overall drive and more acceleration when needed, like when passing. The regenerative braking system works to recapture energy in the form of electricity as the brakes are applied. This electric energy normally lost in the form of heat generated by the braking pads in conventional systems is directed back to the battery for future use. Brake-by-wire eliminates the mechanicalconnection between the brake pedal and brakes and replaces it with an electronic system designed to optimize regenerative and friction braking for maximum fuel economy and control. In addition to these hybridized improvements designed to keep the Focus FCV on the road longer, the vehicle also has a technologically enhanced hydrogen storage tank. The new storage tanks can handle 5,000 pounds per square inch of hydrogen vs 3,600 psi in the previous version. This dynamic duo of a smarter battery pack and a beefier storage tank helps increase the driving range of the four-passenger Focus FCV to somewhere between 160 and 200 miles, a significant improvement over the previous version. The tank technology used on the Focus FCV came out of Fords natural gas vehicle programs. The new tank stores about four kilograms of hydrogen, which is equivalent to four gallons of gasoline in terms of its heating value. An in-tank pressure regulator lowers the pressure to 150 psi, so the gas can work its way through the fuel cell system without tearing it up. Ford sees great promise in the new tanks. This is a very important area of advancement, said Mark Mehall, Fords chief fuel cell engineer. Range has been a key issue for direct hydrogen, and this 5,000 psi tank allows us to deliver a vehicle with a range our early fleet customers tell us they can accept. Further range gains are achieved by using lightweight materials like magnesium, aluminum, titanium and composites throughout the vehicle. For example, the wheels of the Focus FCV are made of forged aluminum. In all, this next-generation vehicle is 400 pounds lighter than its predecessor. The car is also equipped with low-rolling resistance tires for improved fuel efficiency. Ford also thinks internal combustion engines may play a role in helping develop the hydrogen infrastructure. As part of a research program, Ford recently introduced a hydrogen-fueled car with an internal combustion engine. Ford says the hydrogen-powered ICE could help bridge the gap

between petrol vehicles today and the fuel cell vehicles of the future. Ford has a number of issued and pending patents in the area of hydrogen internal combustion engines. Fords hydrogen concept offers dramatically decreased emissions levels and improved engine efficiency compared with production gasoline vehicles. Our hydrogen ICE technology could be used to take the chicken out of the chicken and egg debate about which comes first, the hydrogenfueled vehicle or the hydrogen fueling infrastructure, said Schwarz. We could put a critical number of hydrogen-powered ICE vehicles on the road, along with small numbers of hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles to support the hydrogen infrastructure. Over time, the mix would shift to a majority of the hydrogen vehicles being powered by fuel cells. Because the hydrogen ICE uses conventional vehicle technology found in Ford Motor Company manufacturing plants today, these vehicles could be produced in meaningful volumes in just a couple of years. The vehicle, therefore, could be used as a bridge to fuel cell vehicles by increasing the usage of hydrogen fuel and developing the hydrogen infrastructure while fuel cell engineering and manufacturing technologies are maturing to high volume production. While the hydrogen-powered ICE concept is just a research vehicle today, demand for hydrogenpowered vehicles may be just around the corner. Fords own timeline for fuel cells forecasts commercialization potentially only 10 years out. Fords first production program, which will use a direct hydrogen-powered fuel cell manufactured by Ballard, is already scheduled to hit the road in 2004. After that, Ford predicts two generations of technological refinements before fuel cells are ready to compete with petrol vehicles on the basis of performance, function and cost. Of course, there are also a number of external factors that would have to be addressed like the development of a hydrogen-refueling infrastructure, which would require significant government support. The U.S. Department of Energy's endorsement of hydrogen fuel development is a strong step in the right direction. Fords timeline mirrors the timeline developed by FreedomCAR a government and industry partnership to build zero-emissions fuel cell vehicles that sets specific performance goals and cost targets for developing fuel cell technology. The FreedomCAR timeline lays out a plan to have thousands of fuel cell vehicles on the road by 2008 and commercially viable fuel cell vehicles on the road in significantly large numbers by 2012.

FreedomCAR: A Vision of the Future

In his 2003 State of the Union address, U.S. President George W. Bush announced a bold vision of a transportation system powered by hydrogen. The president proposed $1.2 billion in research funding towards this vision. With a new national commitment, our scientists and engineers will overcome obstacles to taking these cars from laboratory to showroom, so that the first car driven by a child born today could be powered by hydrogen and be pollutionfree, he said. Delivering this vision is the responsibility of the FreedomCAR program. FreedomCAR is the joint government and auto industry research partnership announced by Department of Energy Secretary Spencer Abraham at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit Jan. 9, 2002. The Freedom in FreedomCAR represents:

 Freedom from petroleum dependence Freedom from pollutant emissions Freedom to choose the vehicle you want Freedom to drive where you want and when you want Freedom to obtain fuel affordably and conveniently The CAR in FreedomCAR stands for Cooperative Automotive Research. The DOE and USCAR (a partnership of Ford, DaimlerChrysler and General Motors) represent the government and industry in FreedomCAR. The ultimate vision of FreedomCAR is a transportation system powered by hydrogen. FreedomCAR builds on the cooperative research programs with the DOE that were launched under the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles. FreedomCAR has several major differences from PNGV. Importantly, the emphasis and commitment to hydrogen as the fuel of the future is a major new thrust. In addition, major energy providers are being invited to join the effort, recognizing that realization of the hydrogen vision will depend on a coordinated parallel deployment of new vehicles and a new fueling infrastructure. A first step in this effort is a major hydrogen demonstration program contained in the presidents budget initiative. The demonstration program will begin in 2004 with the goal of validating hydrogenpowered vehicles and infrastructure in realworld operating conditions. Ford expects to participate in the demonstration with Ford Focus Fuel Cell Vehicles (see story page 40) as the cornerstone of our participation. We fully support the presidents vision, said Mike Schwarz, director of Sustainable Mobility Technologies at Ford. The learning we gain from this program will provide direction for ext-generation fuel cell programs. And our Focus Fuel Cell vehicle will showcase Fords leadership in developing these technologies. Although the focus of FreedomCAR is certainly on hydrogen, the portfolio of research programs is broad. As Secretary Abraham said at the FreedomCAR announcement, This program has a long, but realistic time horizon. To ensure that interim progress towards improving energy efficiency continues, FreedomCAR also has active research programs in battery development, lightweight materials, clean combustion and power electronics. Many of the these technologies, like the materials efforts, will benefit nearerterm vehicles, as well as the longer term fuel cell vehicles, said Bob Culver, Fords FreedomCAR director. The presidents vision of a child born today driving a hydrogen-powered vehicle is both compelling and timely. It also recognizes that significant technical and infrastructure challenges must be addressed, barriers must be overcome and commitment by government and industry is crucial. FreedomCAR is poised to deliver on this vision.