Biology Exam Review Nutrients 1.

Carbohydrates: CHO: primary energy, plant cell walls: monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose), dissacharides (maltose, surcrose, lactose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen) 2. Fats or Lipids: CHO energy storage, cell membranes, cushions, raw materials for hormones, insulation, absorption of vitamins: triglyceride = 1 glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acids. Saturated fats: single bonds, firmer. Unsaturated: double, polyunsaturated hydrogenation. Phospholipids (1 phosphate + 2 fatty acids + glycerol backbone), Steroids, Cholesterols (hormones) 3. Proteins: CHON (S) structural/functional components, enzymes, store foods. Amino acids (8 essential, coded by triplet of bases). Translation (mRNA ribosome. tRNA amino acid. tRNA + mRNA amino acid correct position. Ribosomes endoplastic reticulum membrane golgi complex plasma membrane 4. Nucleic Acids: genetic material, sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous bases. DNA: AT, CG. RNA: AG, CU 5. Vitamins and Minerals: help chemical reactions, complex chemicals Polymerization Reactions: Condensation synthesis (H20 Removal: covalent link), Hydrolysis (breaks) Cell Membrane: Phospholipid layers, glycoproteins (specials sugar molecules), protein molecules (gatekeepers, receptor sites, transport). Passive Transport: movement of materials across membrane without use of energy from cell. E.g. Diffusion (net movement of particles down electrochemical gradient), Osmosis (selectively permeable membrane: equilibrium, isotonic solutions, homeostasis, hypotonic solution, hypertonic solution, Facilitated Diffusion (protein carrier molecules aid passive transport). Active Transport: Exocytosis (cells ingest large materials vacuole enzymes digest), 1) Pinocytosis (liquid droplets), Phagocytosis (solid particles, e.g. phagocytes). Endocytosis: transported out. Cell Division Mitosis 1. Interphase: growth, genetic material chromatid duplicated 2. Prophase: chromosomes shorten and thicken, centrioles move, spindle fibres, nuclear membrane dissolves 3. Metaphase: chromosomes equatorial plate 4. Anaphase: centromeres divide 5. Telophase: chromosomes lengthen, spindle fibres dissolve, nuclear membrane forms 6. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides Cell Clock: biological clock regulating number of divisions Cloning: genetic engineering (delaying specialization), asexual reproduction. Animal clones (blastula stage, micropippete, enucleate cells replace nucleus. Totipotent nucleus). Adult cells (Dolly) Cancer: metastasis: dislodge from one area

Meiosis 1. Prophase 1: same, homologous pairs, synapsis, crossing over 2. Metaphase 1: same (homologous) 3. Anaphase 1: reduction division (homologous opposite poles) 4. Telophase 1: chromosomes not identical Stage 2: continue as usual, no duplication. Reproduction: gametogenesis, females: 3 polar bodies, 1 haploid surviving (ootid) Abnormal Meiosis: Non-disjunction: trisomy, monosomy: 1. Down Syndrome: trisomy number 21 2. Turner Syndrome: monosomy 1 X chromosome 3. Klinefelter: 2 x, 1 y Karyotype Chart: tissue solution mitosis stops metaphase slide, stained, bands organized Genes and Hereditary Terms: genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, law of segregation, genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygeous, monohybrid cross, punnett square, homologous chromosomes, test cross (hymozygous recessive w/ ??) Breeding: selective breeding, inbreeding, hybridization Multiple Alleles: eyes: wahw Incomplete Dominance: intermediate inheritance: 2 new one. Codominance: both Genetic Screening: amniocentesis, chorionic villi sampling Dihybrid Crosses: law of independent assortment. Heterozygous crosses = 9/16, 3/16, 3/16, 1/16 Probability: number of ways a given event could occur/ total # of possible events The Source of Hereditary Cytology: study of cell formation, structure, function Walter S. Sutton + Theodor Boveri: segregation of chromosomes, homologous chromosomes, union of 2 in offspring. Chromosomal Theory: 1) chromosomes 2) paired chromosomes segregate (meiosis) Drosophila Melanogaster: 1) reproduces rapidly, 2) small, 3) genders distinguishable XR XR Xr XRXr XRXr Y XRY XRY XR Y XR XRXR XRY Xr XRXr XrY

Sex Linked Traits: on sex chromosomes, part that doesnt match

Human recessive lethal sex-linked disorders. DNA Structure James Watson (ornithology and genetics/molecular biology) + Francis Crick (physicist) Rosalind Franklin: X-ray diffraction structure of DNA molecule Nucleotides: deoxyribose sugars, phosphates, nitrogenous bases, paired by hydrogen bond (weak forms between + hydrogen atom and nitrogen/oxygen atom). Pair = complementary base pair. Bases with double rings: Adenine and Guanine(purines) single rings: Cytosine and Thymine (pyrmidines). Adenine / Thymine = 2 hydrogen bonds, Cytosine / Guanine = 3 hydrogen bonds Transposons: segments of DNA that move along chromosomes: insert genes new position of chromosome. Recombinant DNA: DNA fragments spliced together cut with restriction enzyme (leaves unpaired ends) joined bonds = complementary nitrogenous bases Human Genome Project: DNA sequencing techniques: pieces of DNA replicated and changed so fragments detected by laser. Automated equipment exact number of nucleotides, computer combines original sequence. DNA Fingerprinting: DNA samples cut w/ restriction enzymes reproducible DNA fragments. Differences in molecular structure = unique cuts Nylon sheet, radioactive marker identifies unique sequence X ray film black bands appear where markers attached identity Print from film, compare. Gene Therapy 1. Gene Insertion: normal gene position by virus 2. Gene modification: defective gene modified chemically recode genetic message 3. Gene surgery: remove defective gene, replace w/ normal gene X Ray: high energy electromagnetic waves w/ stain = white image of organs Computerized Axial Tomography Scan: 100s of X rays computer thin cross sectional views, 3 d imaging: identifies tumours, useful diagnostic tool for head injuries Mouth Saliva: amylase (starches), lubricates food, dissolves food particles, taste Teeth: physical digestion (crown, root (dentin and pulp cavity)) Esophagus: peristalsis Stomach Sphincters: constrictor muscles (cardiac, pyloric) Ridges for SA 1. Mucus 2. HCl 3. Pepsinogen Pepsin (proteins)

Ulcers: destruction of cell membrane by HCl and pepsin after mucous lining breaks down. Endoscope (instrument with glass fibre) can view inside + extract tissues. Small Intestine and Pancreas Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum (different cell shapes). Acids enter Prosecretin secretin Pancreas HCO3- Bicarbonate ions neutralizes HCl in small intestine, raises pH 2.5-9.0, inactivates Pepsin Protein Digestion: 1. Pancreas trypsinogen SI 2. SI enterokinase converts trypsinogen into trypsin 3. Pancreas + SI erepsins Carbohydrate Digestion: 1. Pancreas Amylase 2. SI dissacharidases Lipid Digestion: 1. Pancreas lipases (pancreatic lipase, phospholipase) Absorption: villi, microvilli (capillary network, lymph vessel lacteals transport materials) Liver and Gall Bladder Liver: bile salts in gall bladder Problems: Cholesterol gallstones, Jaundice, Cirrhosis Large Intestine Colon: stores wastes, reabsorbs water, inorganic salts, minerals, vitamins Bacteria E. coli Cellulose fibre bowel movement Homeostatis: exercise, regulator adjustments, blood sugar levels (insulin makes cells more permeable to glucose and glucose is turned into glycogen. Glucagon turns glycogen into glucose to be used). Secretin, Gastrin (release of gastric juices to digest proteins) Food energy: basal metabolic rate. Factors affecting metabolism: chemical messenger in thyroid gland. Vitamins: change food into energy. Fats help absorb vitamins. Minerals needed in small amounts. ANtioxidents reduce danger of oxygen-free radicals. Circulatory System: oxygen, wastes, chemical messages, heat, body fluids, immune cells. Open and closed. Blood: 55% Plasma (albumins, globulins, fibrinogens), 1% white blood cells, 45% red blood cells: hematocrit - Erythrocytes: red blood cells, oxygen, hemoglobin, no nucleus - Leukocytes: white blood cell, nucleated, granulocytes, agranulocytes - Platelets: no nucleus, small fragments of cytoplasm from megakaryotes in bone marrow, blood clotting Blood Vessels:

Arteries: oxygenated. Thick walls (inner + outer connective tissue, middle muscle fibres + elastic connective tissue. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation: autonomic nervous system. Precapillary sphincters) Atheroscerlosis Arteriosclerosis. Capillaries: 1 layer, fluid + gas exchange Veins: Venules Veins Heart. Low pressure, uses valves + skeletal muscles, blood reservoirs.

Capillary Fluid Exchange: Fluid Pressure and Osmotic Pressure, regulated by blood pressure in capillary + large materials in blood. Arteriolar end: high filtration. Venous end: high absorption. Hemorrhage (in), Starvation (out), Inflammation (out) Hearts tempo: Myogenic muscle, sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, purkinje fibres, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (conduct impulses from brain to SA node, regulates homeostatic adjustments) 1) Heart: Superior Vena Cava and Inferior Vena Cava carry deoxygenated blood to the right atrium 2) The atria are relaxed, and they fill with blood: diastole 3) The atrias muscular walls contract, increasing fluid pressure, and forcing AV valves open 4) The blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle. 5) It fills with fluid and contracts: systole, forcing AV valves shut (lubb) 6) The blood pushes through the semilunar valves and into the pulmonary circulatory system. 7) The ventricles relax, fill with volume. Pressure decreases and the semilunar valves shut. (dubb) 8) The pulmonary arteries take the blood to the lungs, where it meets oxygen. 9) Blood enters through the pulmonary veins and into the left atrium. 10) The heart undergoes diastole and systole. 11) Blood is pumped through the aorta. Cardiac Catheterization: thin, plastic tube fluoroscope. Angioplasty. EVAD: electrohydraulic ventricular device Blood Pressure: Sphygmomanometer. Systolic blood pressure, Diastolic blood pressure: 120/80 mm Hg 2 factors: cardiac output, arteriolar resistance. Regulated by blood pressure receptors in aorta, carotid arteries. Cardiovascular disease: hypertension, arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, heart attack, stroke, arrhythmia Lymphatic System: drains proteins. Lymph, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland (T cells). Respiratory System Nasal cavities, Pharynx, Larynx, epiglottis, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli, Pleural Membrane Inspiration and Expiration: diaphragm muscle, external intercostals muscles, air pressure. Daltons law of partial pressure: each gas has partial pressure.

Oxygen Transportation: Amount in blood depends on partial pressure. Carbon Dioxide Transport: 9% in Plasma, 27% in carbaminohemoglobin, 64% in carbonic acid (carbonic anhydrase increase 250x). Carbonic acid bicarbonate ions + hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions dislodge oxygen, combine reduced hemoglobin. Lungs Oxygen dislodges hydrogen ions, hydrogen + Bicarbonate = carbon dioxide and water. Maintaining: chemical receptors in brainstem muscles that control breathing movements Bronchitis: inflammation of mucous lining in bronchial tubes. Emphysema: long term, sites rupture. Psychoactive drugs: interfere with transmitter chemicals between nerve cells. Stimulant (speeds up nervous system), Depressant (slows down nervous system) Taxonomy Binomial nomenclature: Genus, Species Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species Phylogeny, phylogenetic tree Viruses: lifeless chemical. Attachment, Synthesis, Assembly, Release = Lytic Cycle. Or lysogeny. Vaccines can prevent. Phylogeny: 1) parasites, 2) precellular forms, 3) Fragments of genetic material. Viral vectors Eubacteria: prokaryotic, heterotrophs or autotrophs, asexual, live everywhere, peptidoglycan, coccus, bacillus, Spirillum Archaebacteria: prokaryotic, heterotrophs, harsh habitats (Methanogens, extreme thermophiles, extreme halophiles) Protista: single celled (most), autotrophs, heterotrophs, both, both reproduction, aquatic + moist habitats: Plantlike Protists (photosynthetic, algae), Animal like Protists (heterotrophic, holozoic and saprozoic), Fungi like Protists (slime moulds, can be amoebalike) Fungi: multicellular, heterotrophs, asexually + sexually, terrestrial (substrate, cell walls of chitin.) - 1) compatible haploid parent hyphae fuse, become dikaryotic (cells 2 haploid nuclei, each from separate parent) - 2) new hyphae develop enlargements, eventually break soils surface small white spheres (buttons) - 3) grow + mature form stalk, cap (spherical) - 4) cap thin membranous gills formed, radiate from stalk consist of many tangled modified hyphae pink, then darken - 5) tissue is dikaryotic from gills specialized extensions: sexual union 2 nuclei fuse insome of these. Diploid nucleus undergo meiosis => 4 haploid spores. - 6) underside of cap detaches from stalk opening umbrella. Maturing gills visible - 7) spores mature, ejected into spaces between gills, downward toward ground. Small enough for air to carry, discharged over several days. 1 cap = 2 bill+ spores. - 8) favourable environment: protective coat splits, haploid cell divides by mitosis = new hypha => complex mycelium. Plantae: multicellular, autotrophs, sexually and asexually, terrestrial (most)

Bryophytes, Tracheophytes, Pteridophytes, spermatophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms To live on land, needed: structures to keep them upright, conducting tissues, methods of reproduction, prevent water loss. Seed Plants: spermatophytes Gymnosperms: male and female cones Angiosperms: flowers, monocots, dicots, Pollination in flower Meristems, Primary Growth, Secondary Growth, Plant Tissues (Dermal Tissue, Ground Tissue, Vascular Tissue System: Xylem (tracheids and vessels) and Phloem (Sieve Tubes and companion cells)) - Leafs: nodes, internode, simple leaf, compound leaf, stomata, mesophyll, leaf adaptations (biotic, abiotic, others) - Roots: Primary root, secondary root, taproots, fibrous roots, endodermis, pericycle. Cambium divides, everything pushed out by secondary xylem and phloem. Pericycle develops into cork cambium. Adaptations (pneumatophores, aerial roots, allelopathy) - Stems: herbaceous, woody. Cambium produces xylem and phloem, crushing older ones. Secondary xylem wood. Annual rings form. Bark (cork cambium, etc), Heartwood, Sapwood, Sap. Stem adaptations: cacti, reproduction, tubers, runners, etc. - Transport: pressure flow hypothesis Animalia: multicellular, heterotrophs, sexually, aquatic and terrestrial -

Evolution Evolution, Adaptation, Gene Pool, Natural Selection, Selective Pressure, Artificial Selection, Fitness. Cuvier: paleontology Lamarck: Inheritance of acquired characteristics Hutton: gradualism Lyell: uniformitarianism Darwins evidence: organisms structurally similar in locations, fossils related, Galapagos species resembled others, finches species Evidence: - The Fossil Record - Geographical Distribution - Anatomy - Embryology - Molecular Biology Population Genetics: Macroevolution, Microevolution, Modern synthesis, Population, Polymporphic Measuring genetic variation: 1) Electrophoresis: DNA sample gel solution Electrical circuit movement distinct pattern of bands DNA fingerprint stained + analyzed 2) Polymerise chain reactions: amplifying DNA from small samples Frequency: number of occurrences of particular allele/ number of total alleles in population Hardy-Weinberg Principle: p2+2pq+q2= 1

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: random mating, no mutation, isolation, large population, no natural selection Mechanisms for Genetic Variation: 1. Mutations 2. Genetic Drift (bottleneck effect, founder effect) 3. Genetic Flow 4. Non Random Mating (inbreeding, assortative breeding) 5. Natural Selection (Stabilizing selection, Directional selection, Disruptive selection) 6. Sexual Selection (sexual dimorphism) How Species Form: biological species concept transformation, divergence, speciation Biological Barriers to Reproduction: Pre-Zygotic barriers: 1. Behavioural Isolation 2. Habitat Isolation 3. Temporal Isolation 4. Mechanical Isolation 5. Gametic Isolation Post-Zygotic Barriers: 1. Hybrid Invariability 2. Hybrid Sterility 3. Hybrid Breakdown (reproductively compatible population):