CHAPTER 10: FUNGI

AND

PLANTS

Technological + biological advancements in agriculture = grain yields 3x for ever growing population. Scientists select plants w/ maximum growth + nutrient content = increased food production. Preferences appealing crops: tomatoes, oranges. Selecting these = produce more food + with greater appeal reduced genetic variety Genetically uniform crops, risking food supply: may not be ideally suited to withstand disease E.g. corn blight fungus 1970 switched to many varieties of corn w/ diff genetic makeups.

10.1 Kingdom Fungi

substrate: surface in/on which organism grows/ is attached chitin: nitrogenous polysaccharide of long fibrous molecule fossils fungi 900 mill years ago. By 300 mill representations of modern fungi. Before 570 mill ago, Cambrian period: heterotrophic adapted for 2 main functions: 1) absorption of nutrients 2) reproduction digestion: extracellular externally, before being absorbed multicellular forms: nutrient absorption mycelium (mycelia) mesh of microscopic branching filaments, usually on/below surface of substrate. Each hypha only visible parts reproductive structures: variety of sizes, shapes, colours

10.2 Life Cycle of Fungi Life cycle: development of organism single cell reproductive stage next generation. Wide variety asexually + sexually reproductive cells spores haploid chromosome #, produced in sporangia (sporangium), special reproductive structures dispersed by air currents. Suitable environment germinate(embryo inside plant seed grows/ sprouts). asexually: fragmentation breaking apart portions of mycelium.

Field Mushroom - wild fields, lawns, gardens common human consumption. Vegetative (part not involved w/ sexual reproduction), mycelium many hyphae just beneath surface of soil.

Reproductive phase 1) compatible haploid parent hyphae fuse, become dikaryotic (cells 2 haploid nuclei, each from separate parent) 2) new hyphae develop enlargements, eventually break soils surface small white spheres (buttons) 3) grow + mature form stalk, cap (spherical) 4) cap thin membranous gills formed, radiate from stalk consist of many tangled modified hyphae pink, then darken 5) tissue is dikaryotic from gills specialized extensions: sexual union 2 nuclei fuse insome of these. Diploid nucleus undergo meiosis => 4 haploid spores. 6) underside of cap detaches from stalk opening umbrella. Maturing gills visible 7) spores mature, ejected into spaces between gills, downward toward ground. Small enough for air to carry, discharged over several days. 1 cap = 2 bill+ spores. 8) favourable environment: protective coat splits, haploid cell divides by mitosis = new hypha => complex mycelium.

10.3 Importance of Fungi

vital to other organisms, proper functioning of ecosystems. Role as decomposers, recycling system. + Eubacteria: complex organic substances raw materials other fungi + plants new supplies of energyrich organic compounds. Benefit humans : 1) yeast (bread, wine, beer), 2) penicillium (antibiotic), 3) Aspergillus (flavour soft-drinks), 4) mushrooms, morels, truffles (food). 5)

Researchers: Fungi break down complex hazardous chemicals in toxic dumpsites, waste-water treatment plants (research). Fungus Symbiots - Symbiotic Relationship: between 2 organisms: both benefit: sometimes necessary - E.g. Mycorrhizae (mycorrhiza): between hyphae (certain fungi) + roots (specific plants) extensive fungal hyphae help plant absorb nutrients, e.g. phosphorus. Fungi obtain nutrients (sugars). Some plant seeds wont germinate without mycorrhizal fungi. Environmental Biologists monitor mycorrhiza fungi growth contaminated soils = whether plants will survive. Suggested: evolution of land plants dependant.

10.4

Organisms that lack mobility Eukaryotic cells Numerous organelles Cell walls contain cellulose Ability to synthesis carbohydrates through photosynthesis - Nonvascular: without conductive tissues found in vascular plants: bryophytes - Vascular: system of conductive tissue (xylem + phloem) (plants) transport water + dissolved materials throughout plants: tracheophytes - History of life: influenced by success of plants (diversified, established themselves) terrestrially - Figure 1: relationship <-> major divisions of plants + success of major plant taxa over geological time. 300 000 500 000 species = such diversity, no single species cited as typical example of kingdom.

10.5 The Evolution of Terrestrial Plants Evolution: importance of variety of organisms in natural community: organisms in large numbers are adapted well. Changes in environment, eg: ice age, disease-causing organisms require change in characteristics of species = likelihood of survival. Poorly adapted organisms (down), adapted (up) = slow process.

1 2

90% of time of life: organisms only in water, protected from harsh conditions. 400 million + years ago: environmental changes: colonization of world by terrestrial fungi + plants. Species washed up during storms, those with ability of survive colonized. May have also included Heterotrophs: no source of food. - Plants transformed landscape: some plants die, formation of richer soil. Taller plants shaded soil, changing microclimate lowering temperature, raising humidity. Roots: stabilized soil, reducing erosion. Plants: habitat + nutritional opportunities -> herbivores. - Evolution of terrestrial ecosystems depends on great diversity of plant groups. Need structures to keep them upright, no support of water Need conducting tissues to transport materials (most important). - Earliest forms of vascular tissue: no well developed conducting vessels had special tissue materials count be transported through their bodies. No rots, stems, leaves. Species with best conducting systems most successful terrestrial plants on land: gradual evolution of roots, stems, leaves. Early development: rizhoids (hairlike structures, function like tiny roots, lower surfaces of certain parts of mosses, ferns.) roots, stems more recent than rizhoids, and holdfast. Leaves gradually evolved (photosynthesis). Vascular system mainly xylem (vascular tissue in plants, carries water + dissolved materials up from roots of other plant parts): mostly dead cells microscopic tubes convey water, dissolve materials from roots + phloem (vascular tissue: transports sugars (from leaves) throughout plant root). Bryophytes: dont have nonvascular small organisms, moist environments. Some tissue capable transporting dissolved materials short distances, not nearly organized enough true vascular tissue. Needs method of reproduction not depending on water (most important) - Water transports gametes, disperse young. Terrestrial plants other methods: nectar, colourful flowers, pollen, fruit, spores, seeds (protective coats). Need to prevent excessive water loss by evaporation, must maintain proper exchange of gases between plant + air. - . Evolution of cuticle (layer of noncellular material secreted by epidermal cells protect cells from drying out) over stem retains water. Development of stomata (pores in epidermis of plants, permit exchange of gases between plant + atmosphere, helping prevent excessive water loss). Need structures to help them live, reproduce through extreme conditions

10.9 Seed Plants

Description -Seed plants: spermatophytes: subdivision of tracheophytes / vascular plants : have roots, stems, leaves (variety of textures, sizes, odours, colours) : most recently evolved plant group, most widely distributed: ancestors of over 270 000+ first appeared about 370 mill years ago (Devonian period). -Size very small duckweeds giant redwoods, eucalyptus trees (over 100 m tall). Vascular tissue, strengthened by special chemicals, allows spermatophytes to reach heights unattainable by nonvascular plants -Reproductive structures: not dependent on water. Major strategy: the seed (protection) for plant embryo (partially developed plant) -Some asexually, variety of mechanisms -Main method: alternation of generations. Seed plants: separate male, female gametophyte tissue. -Most seed plants autotrophic, some saprophytic, or parasitic.

Reproducti on

Nutrition

Habitat

-Majority live on dry land, others (pitcher plants, orchids, trees) wetlands. Others (duckweed, water lilies, cattails) submerged, partially submerged in water. Classificati -Whether or not seeds enclosed main criterion between gymnosperms, on angiosperms. Gymnosperms: unprotected, naked seeds in conelike structures (conifers). Angiosperms seeds enclosed, protected inside fruit formed by various flower parts. All seeds survival of embryos, reducing excessive water loss. - Gymnosperms: pines, spruces, junipers, cone bearing plants: most have evolved thin, needlelike leaves help resist harshness of hot, dry summers, cold winters, moderate rainfall covered by hard, waxy cuticle helps retain moisture. Evolved roots wide surface area, rather than penetrating deep anchor tree in locations scarce soil. 1 Form basis of many large ecosystems: anchoring soil, preventing erosion 2 Provide habitat, food for animal species 3 Important source of raw materials: Variety of commercial, industrial products. Economically: 85% of all wood in building/furniture construction. Million of tones Pulp and Paper. Products: varnishes, turpentine, disinfectants, fuels, medicines. 4 Help control flooding (absorb water through roots) Frontiers of Technology: Taxol Research Life Cycle of Gymnosperms

1 Pine tree: diploid sporophyte plant. Spring: each three: two types of cones. Male cones: pollen cones small and delicate, clusters. Consists of many scales, each with two sacs. Female cones: seed cones small, sticky. Often pinkish-purple colour, singly, groups of 2 or 3. Each one: many scales. 2 Male cone: each sac diploid microspore mother cells meiosis = four haploid microspores. Each haploid pollen grain (pollen: grains that contain haploid male gametophyte in seed plants). Gametophyte extremely tiny.

Female cone: upper side of each scale: two ovules (plant structures contain megaspore mother cell, later, single haploid megaspore (female gametophyte). Megaspore mother cell meiosis = only one survives as haploid megaspore. 3 Male cone: Pollen grains mature sacs of cones disintegrate, millions of dry pollen grains released little flaps or wings (for wind). Yellow dust. Remnants of male cones: dry up, fall off tree. Female cone: held by tree, tip upward, scales downward. Ripe: airborne pollen lands on female cones, sticky sap, angles ensure pollen ovules. After pollination (transfer of pollen - pollen-producing organs -> organs containing female gametophyte) become greenish, grow quickly, reorient tips downward. Some gymnosperms: immediate fertilization, or after a year 4 Fertilization (union of microspore + megaspore nuclei) = the diploid zygote (first cell of new sporophyte generation). Zygote grows (mitosis) = > diploid embryo (inside ovule). Ovule becomes seed (containing embryo developed from zygote). Seed coat protects embryo until suitable conditions. Some develop few months, most 2-4 years. Female cones brown, woody texture. Scales separate, seeds fall out. Eventually cone ground. 5 Suitable conditions germination. After seedling. Angiosperms - 250+ - more than all other plant divisions combined - All tracheophytes - Reproduction: many asexually (broad variety of mechanisms), all by alternation of generations - Seeds: enclosed in fruit formed by flower plants. Sexual phase of alternation of generations = genetic material recombined (fertilization). Genetic variability: increases survival. Extremely reliable dispersal + survival of generations. Flowers

Reproductive centre of plant sporophyte generation (cones of gymnosperms), within them meiosis -> haploid tissue (takes place in fertilization) Male + female reproductive organs = perfect flower Separate male + female flowers = imperfect flower, Sometimes on same plant, or different Stamen male part thin stalk (filament), and anther (where pollen grains formed) Pistil female 3 main parts: stigma, style, ovary. Carpel simple ovary, subunit of more complex ovary

Sepals: small, green, leaflike structures enclose developing flower. Sometimes large, coloured Many flowers tiny swelling deep inside, sugary liquid nectar. Attract insects, small birds

Monocots and Dicots - Angiosperms: 2 classes: monocotyledons (monocots) one seed leaf. E.g. water lilies, onions, orchids. And dicotyledons (dicots) two seed leaves. E.g. maples, oaks, cacti. - Cotyledon (seed leaf, stores carbs for seedling, young sporophyte, often first photosynthetic organ of young seedling).

Life Cycle of Angiosperms 1 Entire angiosperm plant diploid sporophyte generation Appropriate season: flower bud opens, petals unfurl. Reproductive parts revealed. Mature in a few days. Filament of stamen elongates, anther enlarges. Each several chambers, diploid microspore mother cells are located. Each meiosis = four haploid microspores (male gametophytes). Each => mature pollen grain. 2 When mature, anther chambers split, curl inside out, pollen grains appear to be coating outside of anthers. Pollen sticky or dry powder. Some tiny wings or distinctive ridges and grooves. Stamen development style of the pistil elongates, stigma enlarges slightly, secretes sticky, scented substance covering surface. Bottom of pistil ovary enlarges. Inside, one or more ovules. Within each diploid megaspore mother cell meiosis = four haploid megaspores, one survives as female gametophyte. 3 Pollination - wind, insects, birds, bats. Self-pollination: pollen anther to stigma same flower, another flower on same plant. Cross pollination: to a flower on a different plant. Pollen grains tend to adhere to sticky stigmas. Part of pollen goes to style tissue, sperm eventually reaches egg in ovule. 4 Fertilization (fusion of microspore, megaspore nuclei) = diploid zygote, first cell of new sporophyte generation. Zygote grows by mitosis = embryo, remains inside ovule = seed + protective seed coat. Besides embryo, seed contains special tissue nourishment to developing embryo + to seedling until photosynthetic leaves - functional.

Ovary, surrounding tissue fruit. Fruit fleshy, or hard and dry. Fruit protection for seeds, secures dispersal of seeds. Other flower plants become dry, blow away, or stay attached as withered bits of tissue. After time mature fruit falls / carried away by animals. Suitable conditions fruit decomposes, seed coat splits, germination occurs. Embryo grows quickly = seedling. Some big enough to produce own flowers + seeds in few months. Others, many years. Many reproduce asexually, vary widely. Humans intervened devising methods reproducing angiosperms by asexual/vegetative means. Also in pollination process either manually transferring pollen from one flower to another or preventing pollen from reaching stigmas of flowers.

Alternative Farming Methods - Conventional farms high reliance on technology (irrigation, use of pesticides), large scale, growing single crop continuously, using genetically uniform high yielding crops = increased food yield worldwide. - World bank estimates 70%-90% of recent increases in food production result of conventional agriculture techniques. - Looking at food production in country, whole world must look at amount produced / capita, amount produced / unit input of energy. - Alternative farming: growing movement: different: based on social, economic goals. Use of organic farming methods: retaining genetic, species diversity as possible, eliminating use of chemical products. Grow several species with wide genetic variability on smaller plots. Plants complement one another eliminate need for chemical additives.