J. M.

Williams

Color Vision Notes

Notes on Color Vision Theory

by John Michael Williams

jmmwill@comcast.net jwill@BasicISP.net

2012-06-11

Mathematical and physical assumptions, with graduate-level commentary, on the content of MacAdams' Sources of Color Science textbook.

Keywords: color vision, color, color science, vision, wavelength, brightness, luminance, illuminance, line element, trichromatic, Schroedinger, Helmholtz, differential equation, calculus, derivative, integral, tensor, Grassman's laws, just noticeable difference, spectral locus, pigment

Copyright (c) 1978, 2012 by John Michael Williams. All rights reserved.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

Preface
This is a reprint of notes and exercises slightly revised from a series of lectures given in the summer of 1978 at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, as part of a graduate-level advanced seminar on vision, hosted by Professor Alfred Lit. These Notes include only the topics on color vision by the present author. The coverage below is very much up-to-date in 2012, even after more than 30 years, because the understanding of quantitative aspects of human color vision has changed little since the middle of the twentieth century. A few minor differences, such as the order of arguments in integrals, will be noticed. The reading references for the Notes are for the book, Sources of Color Science, by D. L. MacAdam -- Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1970. This book of writings by classical and modern experts was required of the attendees of the lecture series. This book is out of print at present, but it is available in libraries and from Google and other online suppliers. A few of the explanations below are meaningful only in the context of the MacAdam book. However, considerable additional explanatory material is included in these Notes, which were written to be understandable to anyone with some knowledge of the problems and a semester or so of calculus. All the theory and practice of color vision is heavily mathematical, so a great deal of the content of these Notes is devoted to a review of certain specific mathematical topics possibly overlooked or forgotten by the attendees. Readers seeking further insight into human color vision should supplement the MacAdam text with the authoritative coverage in Color Science (2nd ed.), by G. Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles -- John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1982. Other relevant material may be found in Vision and Visual Perception, by C. H. Graham -- John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1985; in Human Color Vision, by R. M. Boynton -- Holt, Rinehart & Winston: New York, 1979; in Visual Perception, by T. N. Cornsweet -- Academic Press: New York, 1970; and, in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
Original Day

Topic
I. Early Formulations of Color II. The Nineteenth-Century Chromaticity Diagram III. The Nineteenth-Century Trichromatic Retina IV. Color Photography V. Basic Color Operations VI. Introduction to the Line Element VII. The Line Element IX. Colorimatry and Psychophysics X. Review (not included here)

June 12: June 13: June 14: June 15: June 16: June 19: June 20: June 22: June 23:

June 21: VIII. Colorimatry

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

Basic Terms and Definitions for the Readings and these Notes
Note: These terms and definitions may be somewhat informal and are tailored for the current course. They provide supplementary explanations for all the special terms used in the MacAdam textbook and other similar publications. Readers new to the numerical analysis of vision especially should understand the difference between radiometric and photometric quantities. 1. A light. A stimulus defined by its physical properties and capable of evoking a response of color. 2. color. A response to light energy which makes lights discriminable independent of their spatial characteristics such as size, shape, distance, or association with an object. For present purposes, this word will be used to refer to any difference, including a luminance difference, which is reduced to near-zero during color matching. 3. reflection (of light). A change in the direction of flow (= flux) of light energy which leaves the wavelength unaltered and which, at a smooth, abrupt interface, obeys the laws of ray optics governing reflection. 4. refraction (of light). A change in the direction of flow of light energy which depends on a change in wavelength and which, at a smooth, abrupt interface, obeys the laws of wave optics governing refraction. 5. refractive index (of a medium). The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium. For a speed of light c = in a narrow frequency band d, the change in speed at an interface is given exactly by the change of wavelength . Refractive index n in general depends upon (a) frequency and (b) the direction of the E-vector (polarization) of light in the medium. 6. absorption (of light). Diminishment of energy of light because of conversion of some or all of the energy to heat or to the motion of atoms or charged particles in the absorbing medium. 7. pigment. Something which absorbs light. 8. visual pigment (of the eye). A pigment which supplies energy for physiological processes governing vision. 9. absorbance spectrum (of a substance). A graph of light energy which is being absorbed as a function of the wavelength or the frequency of incident light. The incident light is assumed, or its units of measurement are normalized, to have equal energy flux in each small interval d or d. 10. reflectance spectrum (of a substance). A graph of light energy which is being reflected as a function of wavelength or frequency . Again, an equal-energy incident light is assumed or is normalized. 11. action spectrum (of a response). A graph of some measure of a response as a function of the wavelength or the frequency of a light-stimulus which is or was being presented. The response may be an operant [in the sense of operant conditioning]; or, it may be some neural or biochemical reaction occurring in the visual system.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

12. radiance (of a light source). This is a radiometric term. Radiance is measured in units of power (or flux) P radiated toward some receiving surface. This is power per unit solid angle per square meter of source surface. Radiance is defined in small regions dA near any point on a source in terms of radiant emittance P/A at that point; the energy involved is that which leaves the region in a narrow pencil (cone) including a given angular direction toward the receiving surface. The orientation of the element of area dA with respect to the radiating angle involves a cos factor for which = 0 if dA is perpendicular to the direction . All this leads to a differential definition of radiance N at a given wavelength as N = ____d2P _____ (cos dA d) (1)

13. irradiance (of a receiving surface, caused by a source). This is a radiometric term in units of power P incidental (but not necessarily absorbed) per square meter of receiver surface. Irradiance is defined in small regions dA near any point of the receiving surface in terms of the radiant flux per unit area P/A at that point. Radiant flux is energy flow per unit time per unit area and varies inversely as the square of the distance between source and receiver. This flux also varies as cos , with the direction of orientation of the receiver element dA with respect to the source direction. A differential definition of irradiance H at a given wavelength therefore is H = dP / dA (2) 14. luminance (of a light source). A photometric term corresponding to source radiance adjusted for the sensitivity of the human eye. To obtain luminous flux F from radiant flux at photopic (color-visible) levels of illuminance, the relative luminous efficiency curve V is used: F =k
visible

P V d

(3)

Then, a differential definition of the luminance L of a source becomes, L= d2 F _ _ cos dA d (4)

as in the definition of radiance above. At scotopic levels, the Purkinje-shifted scotopic relative luminous efficiency curve V' is used in (3). 15. illuminance (of a receiving surface caused by a source). A photometric term corresponding to irradiance, but adjusted for the sensitivity of the human eye. Once the source luminous flux is obtained as in (3) above, a differential definition of illuminance E is given by, E= dF dA (5)

This term is extremely important in experimental and diagnostic computations. A corrected retinal illuminance E' may be obtained from the transmittance T of the ocular media. For such a correction, it would be possible first to compute a corrected luminous flux by corrected F ' = k
visible

P T V d

(6)

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Color Vision Notes

Next, the definition (4) above may be used: d F' 1 d dF ' corrected L' = = ( ) cos dAd cos d dA Using (5) above, and for retinal and distant source surfaces perpendicular to the optic axis, we then find L' d = dF ' = kdE ' ; dA (7)
2

and the final transmittance-corrected troland value E' then would be E' =
: pupil area

L' d = L ' S

(8)

in which by convention S = total pupil area in multiples of a 1 mm 2 artificial pupil (to standardize the area of visual input just before the eye). The troland value E commonly in use is uncorrected and is based on a luminance L directly taken from equation (4) above: E = L S (9) To control for the Stiles-Crawford effects, a different measure of retinal illuminance may be defined by making L a function of pupillary entry , which is measured by displacement from the visual axis. This just means that the illumination of the eye is displaced from the imaging center of the pupil and/or is no longer exactly perpendicular to the pupil. In this context, the Stiles-Crawford effects mean that L 0 and so, troland value E ' ' = L d ] d (11) (10)

pupil area

pupil radius

= S

L d pupil radius

16. hue (of a color). A change in hue depends mainly upon a change in wavelength of a light, but it also may depend upon changes in purity and/or luminance of that light. In terms of generalized differential quantities, if d (hue) = then, for a change in hue, (color ) (color) (color ) >> or . (purity) (L) (color ) (color) (color ) d+ d(purity) + dL ; (purity) (L)

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Color Vision Notes

17. saturation (of a color). A change in saturation depends mainly on a change in spectral purity of a light, but it also may depend upon changes in wavelength and/or luminance. To restate this in generalized differential terms, if
d (saturation) = (color ) (color ) (color) d+ d (purity) + dL ; (purity) (L)

then, for a change in saturation, (color ) (color) (color) >> or . (purity ) (L) 18. brightness (of a color). A change in brightness depends mainly upon a change in luminance of a light, but it also may depend upon changes in wavelength and/or spectral purity. To restate this, if d (brightness) = then, for a change in brightness, (color ) (color) (color) >> or . (L) (purity) () 19. primary (arbitrary choice of a standard light). This refers to a light which may or may not be spectrally pure (= "homogeneous") and which is intended to be mixed with other primaries to match an unknown light in a colorimeter. A primary color is the color of a primary light, which latter, for measurment purposes, may be reflected by a pigmented surface, transmitted by a pigmented filter, dispersed by a prism or grating, emitted by a filter or plasma, etc. 20. fundamental. This technical term has two major meanings: (a) A mathematical function of (or ) which is used as a basis for explaining colormatching behavior in a colorimeter; or, (b) an action spectrum of a visual pigment as inferred (usually) from color-matching behavior. 21. Trichromatic theory refers to the hypothetical three, and only three, fundamentals which are necessary to explain normal human color vision. (color) (color) (color) d + d (purity) + dL ; (purity) (L)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

7 d f (x ) d( x)

Short Table of Derivatives

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. da = 0 , for any constant a. dx

d d(ax) d(b) adx (a x + b) = + = + 0 = a , for constants a & b, and any variable x. dx dx dx dx d (ax ) d(bx ) dc d 2 (a x + bx +c) = + + = 2 a x + b + 0 = 2 a x + b. dx dx dx dx d(ax ) d(bx ) dc d 3 2 2 (a x + bx + cx + d) = + + = 3a x + 2b x + c + 0. dx dx dx dx d d 1 ( x) = (x 2 ) = (x 2 ) = dx dx 2 d d 1 (ln x) = (log e x) = . dx dx x
1 1 2 2

1 2x
1 2

1 2 x

1 x . 2 x

6.

1 ( ) x d 1 1 = (x ) = (1)x2 = x2 = 2 . 7. d dx dx x

Some Basics of Partial Derivatives

F are for functions F of more than one independent variable; x they are called "partial" in part because solving for one variable is only part of the solution and usually affects the attempted solutions of all the others. Examples of typical partialderivative expressions are: f : f (x , y) , f ( ) , f ( x1 , x 2 , x 3) , etc. General approaches to x solving partial derivatives can be extremely complex and are too much for this presentation, so we only touch on a few simple aspects here. Partial derivatives Partial derivatives algebraically can be simpler than other derivatives in that all variables remain constant except one; they usually are more complicated in that the f f expressions , , etc. generally must be treated as single numbers and cannot be x y solved in quotient form to obtain differentials such as dx, dy, or df. The symbols "x", "y", or "f" are meaningless for differential equations. Example of an analysis of a simple partial differential equation: Let the equation be f ( x , y , z) = 3 x y + y z + x + 5 .
2 2

( )

This example is extremely simple, as shall be shown.

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Color Vision Notes

Three partial derivatives are possible, in this simple example allowing terms in square brackets [ ] to be held constant: (a) (b) (c) ([3 y ] x [ + y z ] + x [ + 5]) F = = 3 y(2 x) + 0 + 1 + 0 = 6 x y + 1 ; x x ( [3 x ] y + y [z ] [ + x + 5]) F 2 2 2 2 = = 3x + z + 0 = 3x + z ; y y ( [3 x y] + [ y] z [ + x +5]) F 2 2 2 2 = =3x + z +0 =3x + z . z z
2 2 2 2 2 2

Here are two examples of how to solve for a differential in a derivative expression: (a) If df = x , solve for df: dx df 1 /2 = x => df = x dx = x dx . dx (b) If x =2y
2 1/2

, solve for dx:

x = 4 y => y =
4

1. Find y = f (x ) by algebra:

1 4 x . 4

2. Then, differentiate -- using, if necessary, the table above: dy d f (x) 1 dy = = (4) x3 = x3 => = x3 . dx dx 4 dx 3. Finally, solve for dx, using algebra: dy 3 = x => dx dy = x dx => dx =
3

dy -- which is the answer, if x 0 . 3 x

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

Early Formulations Lecture I:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 1 - 61, for Day 1 of the lectures. 1. Isaac Newton used a prism to disperse the sun's rays into a spectrum. He then picked out a small region of the spectrum and found that this region could not be dispersed further. The insights he developed were that elongated, multicolored images of the sun meant "compound light"; elliptical images meant light which was less "compounded"; and, circular images meant pure light ("regular, [un]dilated" rays).

2. Newton found that his homogeneous rays (= spectral lights) could not be changed further in color but could be mixed again to make white light. 3. Newton's color circle was based on a center-of-gravity approach: By analogy, lights made brighten in various regions of the circle weighed down the visual system in those regions; the resulting tilt determined the final color seen in a mixture. 4. Grassman's Laws. These, like "Maxwell's" equations of electromagnetism, actually are a collection of principles discovered by several contemporaries and predecessors (see Graham, 1965, pp. 371 - 372). The concept of dominant wavelength is most important in understanding these Laws: Not only is every color compoundable from the lights of the spectrum (Newton); but, also, every color and/or its complementary color is compoundable from one "dominant", unique spectral light of wavelength , plus a certain amount of white light. Grassman's fourth assumption corresponds to Abney's law, which states that L = V N d , (1)

which, if L is determined by flicker photometry in a 20 field, may be used to define luminance.

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Color Vision Notes

10 (2) (3)

For example, if and

L1 (white) = V (N 1) d
L2 (green) = V (N 2) d ,

then the term, L1 + L2 = L(white1 + green2), will be defined as,

V (N 1 + N 2) d .
And, in particular, if L1 = L2, L1 + L2 = 2 L1 = L(2N). Given this, we then have,

(4)

(5)

V N d + V N d = 2 V N d = V (2 N ) d .
Hence, "luminance" makes possible a color metric.

(6)

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Color Vision Notes

11

Day 1 Exercises
1. A derivative dy/dx may be viewed as the slope of a line which rises a certain distance dy for each horizontal run of distance dx. a. What is the slope dy/dx that the straight line, y = f(x) = 5x + 6, has at the following values of x? x=0 x=3 x = -1. b. A parabola with formula, y = f(x) = x2, is drawn below. Using a ruler to estimate the slope dy/dx, letting dx = 1.0 cm, at the following values of x: x=0 x=1 x = -1 x=2 x = 3.

c. For the parabola y = f(x) = x2 above, use the "Short Table of Derivatives" above to find the general derivative dy/dx (which is exact for any value of x): dy/dx =

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Color Vision Notes

12

d. Complete Table 1 below, using your answers from parts b and c above:

x
0 1 -1 2 3

f(x)

dy/dx by ruler (1-cm runs of dx)

dy/dx by formula from the "Short Table"

Table 1
e. For the parabola y = f(x) = x2 graphed above, use a ruler and let dx = 2 cm. Estimate dy/dx at x = 0, x = 1, x = 2, x = 3, and x = -1 as before. Compare these new estimates of dy/dx with the values you have tabulated in Table 1. Are your answers closer for large or small runs of dx? Is your error in applying the ruler important here? 2. Consider the unknown function y = f(x) graphed here:

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Color Vision Notes

13

a. Use a ruler and 1.0-cm runs of dx to estimate df(x)/dx at x = 0, x = 1, x = 2, . . ., x = 10. Enter these estimates into the top row of Table 2 below. b. Use the "Short Table of Derivatives" to find general derivatives of the following two functions: g(x ) = x
1 2

and h( x) = ln(x).

For values of x greater than or equal to 0, these functions provide upper (g) and lower (h) bounds on the unknown function f. c. Compute the specific values that dg(x)/dx and dh(x)/dx assume at the values of x = 1 to x = 10; enter them into the second two rows of Table 2 below. This exercise is intended to show how the two alternative "theories" g(x) and h(x) might explain the "data" of f(x). Notice that Table 2 compares only the derivatives of the theoretical functions and data, not the functions or the data points themselves. One result of this is that constant displacements of g(x) or h(x) from the data f(x) are eliminated (recall the first formula of the Short Table) and need not be taken into account. Only the shapes of the derivative graphs, governed by the varying tangent slopes of the graphs, remain. d. Compute the three Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients r of the three rows of data you entered into Table 2 in the previous steps. Square each r to obtain a variance and see how the derivatives of the data and the derivatives of the theories match. Which of g or h explains f better?

x
df(x)/dx (1-cm rows) dg(x)/dx (formula) dh(x)/dx (formula)

10

Table 2

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Color Vision Notes

14

The Nineteenth-Century Chromaticity Diagram Lecture II:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 62 - 96, for Day 2 of the lectures. 1. Maxwell defines a "color triangle" with primary colors at its corners. Only three primaries are required because normal color vision is trichromatic. A plane surface containing Maxwell's triangle will substitute in appearance for a normally-visible three-dimensional space if the sum of luminances (= total luminance) of the three primaries is held constant. Two primaries would define only a line rather than a plane. 2. Maxwell's colorimeter involved the matching of lights in a bipartite field. Two different bipartite fields are shown here: ====================> 3. Helmholtz gives an interesting and merciful account of Goethe's little-known and totally wrong theory of color perception. Also, to understand physiological optics, it is important to note the difference between color mixing for paint pigments versus for lights. 4. Helmholtz defines on p. 95 a "color pyramid" or "color cone" which is very important to understand. Interested readers may find an expansion of this discussion in Cornsweet's chapter 10. 5. Helmholtz has changed Newton's color circle into a more accurate flattened shape (Helmholtz's p. 96, Figure 4). In this representation, colors of the spectral lights are on the perimeter, while colors of mixtures of those lights lie within. Back to Derivatives: Concept and Usage of Differentials 6. Consider the derivative,
dy 2 =x , dx

(1)

which happens to be the derivative of a function such as y = f(x) = (1/3) x3 + any constant. Under certain conditions, dy and dx may be considered numbers and, thus, they may be manipulated algebraically. For example, from (1), dy = x dx or, Such expressions as dx + dy = 3 or,
(dy) + (dx) = 0
2 2

(2) (3)

dx =

dy 2 = x dy . 2 x

(4) (5)

then may have algebraic or geometric meaning independent of any need to solve for a function y = f(x) in which dy/dx might have a derivative. In such use, for example, dy or dx alone might stand for a small error in estimating the value of some quantity; likewise, it might stand for a "jnd" ("just-noticable difference" by human perceptions), for a small change in a stimulus

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Color Vision Notes

15

value, etc. -- again, independent of any need to form the ratio dy/dx or to solve for a function of which the ratio is a derivative. In standard usage, the ratio dy/dx is called a derivative; dy or dx alone is called a differential. Differentiating a function may mean either finding a derivative or finding one or more of the associated differentials. 7. Consider a three-dimensional space defined by orthogonal x, y, and z axes. Assume that the nature of the space is unknown, but that small changes in x, y, and/or z produce small and possibly measurable changes in some dependent variable f = f(x, y, z). In terms of differentials, this is the same as saying that a small change df occurs as a result of small differences in dx, dy, and/or dz. If we now introduce small changes in dx, dy, or dz one-at-a-time, we can measure the dependence of df upon the appropriate small difference in the corresponding differential. This then suggests the meaning of measuring the partial derivatives of f. The results of such measurements would be written in general as follows: f = g 1 (x , y , z ) x f = g 2 (x , y , z ) y f = g 3 (x , y , z) , z

(6)

and these could be estimated or calculated at various points (x, y, z). In general, g1, g2, and g3 would be different functions and would vary differently at different locations (x, y, z) in the three-dimensional space. 8. Consider the Pythagorean Theorem as applied to differentials: In two dimensions, the theorem would state that
(ds) = (dx) + (dy) ;
2 2 2

(7)
2

in three dimensions,
(ds) = (dx) + (dy) + (dz) .
2 2 2

(8)

So, when a small change ds takes place in any arbitrary direction, the distance of the change can be expressed in terms of the differentials dx, dy, and dz along the coordinate axes. This distance ds, then, may be defined, as above, by
(ds) = f (dx , dy , dz) = (dx ) + (dy ) + (dz ) .
2 2 2 2

(9)

Of course, the value of f here also would vary with the actual location (x, y, z) at which the change occurred -- and so, therefore, would ds.

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Color Vision Notes

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Day 2 Exercises 1. Suppose we have f (dx ,dy , dz) = aln( x) + bln( y) + cln( z) . f f f , , and . x y z These partial derivatives each show how f changes when only one of x, y, or z is changed slightly while the other two are held constant. 2. Consider a small change or horizontal run ds in the location of the point (x, y, z) such that (ds) = (dx ) + (dy) + (dz) . This actually tells us that for any function f(x, y, z) which depends on location in this space, the independent variables x, y, z, and s are related mutually so that dx/ds gives the slope or rate of change of location in the x direction, dy/ds gives the slope or rate of change of location in the y direction, and dz/ds gives the slope or rate of change of location in the z direction. Furthermore, for any small change ds in location, the dependent variable f is related to x, y, and z such that f/x gives the rate of change in f for a change of location in the x direction only, f/y gives the rate of change in f for a change of location in the y direction only, and f/z gives the rate of change in f for a change of location in the z direction only. Finally, we may wright df/ds to represent the total rate of change in f for a small change ds in any arbitrary direction. It seems reasonable, then, to apply the Pythagorean Theorem here to obtain
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

(10)

Use the "Short Table of Derivatives" to find

(11)

( ) (
df ds =
2

f dx x ds

) (
+
2

f dy y ds

) (
+

f dz z ds
2

(12)

In terms of differentials, then, (12) becomes f (df ) = dx x

2

f f f = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 . x y z

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f + dy y f + dz z
2

(13)

Assuming that this result is correct, use it to find an expression for (df)2 for the specific function f(x, y, z) given in (10) above. 3. Suppose df now to represent the greatest difference in two lights R, with R1 = f(x, y, z) and R2 = f(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) such that R1 and R2 cannot quite be discriminated under a given set of experimental conditions. Thus, df is a jnd. a. How are equation (10) above and the answer to eq. (13) above related in this contex? 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Take the answer for #2 above to be (df ) = a (dx / x) + b (dy / y) + c (dz/ z ) . How does this

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Color Vision Notes

17

relationship compare with that between Fechner's and Weber's laws? b. Suppose that in general a small change ds is given by (8) above. If ds is required to be exactly 0 for all allowable changes dx, dy, and dz, what (real) values might dx, dy, and dz assume? c. Suppose ds again is given by (8) above. If ds is allowed only to equal some constant k for all possible (real-valued) changes dx, dy and dz, how are dx, dy, and dz constrained geometrically? d. Suppose ds again is given by (8) above. If (ds)2 is constrained to equal some constant k and dx, dy, and dz are transformed to some new coordinate space so that dx' = (dx)2, dy' = (dy)2, and dz' = (dz)2, then how are dx', dy', and dz' constrained geometrically in this new space?

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18

The Nineteenth-Century Trichromatic Retina Lecture III:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 97 - 126, for Day 3 of the lectures.

1. On pp. 97 - 98, Helmholtz defines the fundamentals in terms of responses of classes of visual (neural) fibers at some level in the visual system. These classes correspond to the color channels of more modern theories. 2. Von Kries suggests that for visual-pigment classes A, B, C, D, . . . with action spectra AS, BS, CS, DS, . . . and spectral retinal illuminance ES, elementary visual response A = a A E d = a A elementary visual response B = b B E d = b B elementary visual response C = c C E d = c C (1)

elementary visual response D = d D E d = d D . . . etc. The numbers a, b, c, d, . . . in (1) are functions of time and represent the sensitivity of the retina with regard to the respective elementary visual response A, B, C, D, . . .. Now, because normal color vision is known to be trichromatic, there must exist exactly three orthogonal matching functions , , and involved when two lights are matched in color. If the colors are matched in a bipartite field discriminable. This means that, at match, = 1 2 = 2 1 and 1 = 2 regardless of whether or not (E1)S = (E2)S for any S. But, , , and are functions of A, B, C, D, . . .. Thus, at match, ( A 1 , B1 , C 1 , D 1 , ...) = ( A 2 , B2 , C 2 , D 2 , ...) 1 2 1 ( A 1 , B1 , C 1 , D 1 , ...) = 2 ( A 2 , B2 , C 2 , D 2 , ...) and 1 ( A 1 , B1 , C 1 , D 1 , ...) = 2 ( A 2 , B 2 , C 2 , D 2 , ...) , which may be rewritten as (a A 1 ,b B 1 , ...) = (a A 2 , b B2 , ...) 1 2 1 (a A 1 ,b B 1 , ...) = 2 (a A 2 ,b B2 , ...) and 1 (a A 1 ,b B 1 , ...) = 2 (a A 2 , b B2 , ...) . Assuming that there are only three distince visual pigments and (at some level) only three corresponding elementary responses A, B, and C, it then follows that, at match, A 1 = A 2 , B 1 = B2 , and C 1 = C 2 . (5) (4) (3) , then, at match, the lights must not be

(2)

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19

Von Kries' point is that if there were, say, four elementary responses, an assumption which may be contrasted with the idea of "central connections" of Guild on pp. 204 - 207, the three matching functions could remain equal for numerous arbitrary values of A1, A2, B1, B2, and C1, C2. For example, A1 = A2 might be possible at match. So, a match would be a fortuitous occurrence depending strongly, in particular, upon the precise values of a, b, and c, as in eq. (4), which prevailed. However, matches empirically are found to persist despite changes in retinal adaptation (= sensitivity-): Therefore, three and only three elementary visual responses are likely to exist. In this connection, Von Kries goes on to discuss the effects of adapting different subregions of the retina to different lights. 3. Von Kries' "invariable points" on the color chart also may be called copunctal points. The coordinates (x, y) of such points are invariant under projective transformation. Day 3 Exercises 1. A completely randomized two-way ANOVA (ANalysis Of VAriance) assumes sources of variance A, B, AB, and S/AB (S = sum of squares within cells = "subjects within AB"). For a random-effects model with very large sample size n, the ANOVA table takes the form Source A B AB S/AB Total df p-1 q-1 (p - 1)(q - 1) (n - 1)pq npq - 1 Effect j k jk (ijk) T SS [A] - [x] [B] - [x] [AB] - [A] - [B] - [x] [SAB] - [AB] [SAB] - [x] (6)

The math model for this design may be written

SABi jk = j + k + jk + (ijk) ,

(7)

and the corresponding sums of squares will add as SST = SSA + SSB + SSAB + SSe . (8) These "sums of squares" refer to values obtained of f(A, B, S), the dependent variables in the ANOVA. Assuming no interaction AB, which is to say that SSAB = 0, and assuming a continuous variable f, suppose that the SS equation (8) were rewritten in differential form: df =

( ) ( ) ( )

f f f dA + dB + de . A B e

(9)

(a) If f(A, B, S) is found experimentally not to depend on A for small, nonzero changes dA, rewrite equation (9) to reflect this finding. (b) Suppose that neither A nor B could be shown experimentally to depend on the error term e under any circumstances. Divide both sides of (9) by de to obtain an expression df/de

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

20

for the dependance of small changes in f upon small errors. Notice that if neither A nor B depend on e, as supposed, then dA/de and dB/de both must equal 0. (c) Suppose that B in equation (9) above cannot be shown to depend on e (viz. dB/de = 0). Then (9) may be reduced to df = de or, df =

( )( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
f A dA de + f e de de f f dA + de . A e

(10) (11)

The differential form (11) of this "ANOVA" thus suggests some such expression as (variance in dependent variable f) = (A effect) * var(A) + (error effect) * var(e) . (12) 2. Linear Independence: By definition, if A, B, and C are linearly independent variables, then for any choice of coefficients c1, c2, and c3, c1A + c2B + c3C = 0 if and only if c1 = c2 = c3 = 0. Otherwise, the three of A, B, and C are linearly dependent. (a) Suppose A, B, and C are linearly independent. Also suppose that A + 2B + 3C + kD = 0 (13) holds among these variables. What is the only value that kD can assume which will make A, B, and C become linearly dependent? (b) Solve equation (13) for D. -- Answer: D = A 2B 3C . k k k (14)

(c) Which three coefficients r, g, and b respectively of A, B, and C in equation (14) make D A equal to ( r g b ) B ? C

()

-- Answer:

1 2 3 r = ; g = ; b = . k k k

(d) In equation (14) above, if D happened "momentarily" to assume the value 0, then A, B, and C would become linearly dependent under whatever conditions made D = 0. However, what value of k is absolutely forbidden mathematically in equation (14)? (e) Suppose k approached 0 in an orderly fashion in equation (13) above. What would happen to the dependence/independence of A, B, and C? (f) Suppose k approached 0 in an orderly fashion in equation (14). How would D have to be changed in order to keep the equation true?

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

21

Color Photography Lecture IV:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 127 - 133, for Day 4 of the lectures.

1. F. E. Ives refers to Maxwell's diagram (as on Text p. 68). The corner (= primary) colors of the triangle in that diagram locate the dominant wavelengths of the respective light-mixture curves (= color-mixture curves) of Figure 6 on his p. 128. 2. Ives' photographic films respond to lights to become his color records. 3. Ives' color records, correctly chosen, will reproduce the color of white light if exposed to white light and then properly projected. 4. The Ives color records are made with bandpass color-curve filters. The lights used to project the resulting colored image must be spectrally pure ("homogeneous") so that adequate saturation is available in the mixture. 5. Pigments used in printing colored photographs are chosen by shadowing the corresponding projecting lights and matching the light reflected from the pigments to the light of the shadowed areas. For example, a spectrally pure green light at 527 nm (527 nanometers in wavelength) would be regorded in the green record but not in the red or blue records. If projected, the green record would be transparent, while the red and blue records would be opaque; therefore, the projected image would be seen as green. If printed, the red-shadowed pigment would be laid down, the green-shadowed pigment would not be laid down, and the blue-shadowed pigment would be laid down; therefore, in white light the printed image would match a mixture of spectral (red + green) added to spectral (green + blue), causing a result of one part red, two parts green, and one part blue, which would be seen as a desaturated green.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

22

Day 4 Exercises 1. Euclidean insights. A three-dimensional coordinate system divides Euclidean R3 into 8 octants. We shall be concerned only with the I octant in which the coordinates all are positive. (a) The plane x + y + z = 1 intersects the coordinate axes at three points. Mark the locations of these three points on the axes drawn here: (b) If two planes intersect, and they are distinct, they must do so along straight lines. Therefore, connect the three points you marked in (a) with straight lines. These lines will show the intersections of the plane x + y + z = 1 with the three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 and will form a triangle in a new plane. (c) Any three points in R3 can define a triangle. Draw a dotted line L which passes through the origin O: (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) and also passes through the center P of the triangle which you drew in (b) above; this line L is perpendicular the the plane of the triangle. (d) What are the R3 coordinates of the point P? (e) What is the distance from O (center of the coordinate axes) to P? (f) Now, inscribe or sketch a circle in the triangle of (c) above. Under proper conditions, an arc of this circle could correspond to the spectral locus of all lights of luminance proportional to the distance |OP| and exciting the eye in the various amounts || = x, || = y, and || = z. Here, , , and would be the orthogonal matching functions derived for a given set of three primaries; your circle thus would define the eye's response to the lights of the spectrum as matched by mixture of the three chosen primaries. All points of the circle would be equidistant from O and therefore would represent equal brightness responses operationally best defined as equal luminances. If Helmholtz's "color pyramid" (or Schroedinger's "spectral bag") were inscribed in the triangle, and if the axes were not scaled in equal luminance units, Figure 8 of the Text would result. The "cross section" shown in Figure 8 also could correspond to a planar equal-scaling of spectral-light luminances.

J. M. Williams

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23

2. Color centroids. For each of the following figures, sketch a vertical line passing through the centroid (center-of-gravity) of the function drawn:

3. The dominant wavelength of a light is given by =

P V d P V d

(1)

and corresponds to the centroid of its luminous flux density as a function of wavelength. Draw a vertical line through the approximate dominant wavelength of the following distributions of luminous flux, and make a guess as to what would be the color displayed by the corresponding light.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

24

4. Draw a color circle (such as Helmholtz's on p. 96) and mark two points representing the effect of the two different lights on the visual system as follows: Put one point somewhere on the spectral locus (arc of the circle) to indicate a saturated color; put the second point somewhere else. Construct a solution for the color of the mixture of your two lights. How would the computational operations leading to the solution be expressed in terms of dominant wavelengths? 5. Vectors may be transformed to other vectors by multiplying them by matrices of numbers. For example, if = ( y1, y2, y3) , and y x = ( x1, x2, x3 ), then a 3 x 3 matrix A , written as a 11 a 12 a 13 A = a 21 a 22 a 23 a 31 a 32 a 33

(2)

may be used to compute , given , by the y x transformed vector = A . y x Here, A is called the matrix of the transformation. Given specific values for the components x1, x2, and x3 of , and for the nine entries in A, x is computed as follows: y y1 = a 11 x1 + a 12 x 2 + a13 x 3 y2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + a23 x 3 y 2 = a 31 x 1 + a 32 x 2 + a33 x3 . Questions for topic (5): 1 0 0 (a) If we have A = 0 1 0 , what is = A when y x 0 0 1 (4) (3)

( )

x = (1,1,1) ?

x (b) With A as in question (a), find when = (1,2,3) . y x (c) With A as in question (a), find when = (2,2,2) . y (d) If 1 1 1 x A = 0 0 0 , find when = (1,1,1) . y 0 0 0

( )

(e) With A as in question (d), find when = (1,2,3) . x y 0 0 0 x (f) If we have A = 1 1 1 , find when = (1,1,1) . y 0 0 0 x (g) With A as in question (f), find when = (1,2,3) . y

( )

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

25

6. Cramer's rule may be used to solve systems of simultaneous linear equations. Although the procedure may seem overcomplicated, each step is simple, thus greatly reduce typing or computing errors. To use Cramer's rule to solve three simultaneous equations in three unknowns x1, x2, and x3, follow this procedure: (a) Rewrite the equations in the form of (4) above. = ( y1, y2, y3) will be replaced by the y constant terms (if any) in the equations; the coefficients of the unknowns (x's) will become the respective entries in the matrix A of (2) above. (b) Compute the determinant |A| of the matrix A as follows:

A = a 11(a 22 a 33 a 23 a 32) a 12(a 21 a 33 a 23 a31) + a 13 (a21 a32 a22 a31 )

The determinant of a matrix is a number, not a matrix, and it will equal 0 if the three equations (4) of our matrix are not independent. (c) Now use the matrix A to form three new matrices A1, A2, and A3. as follows, by replacing the columns of A one-at-a-time with ( y1, y2, y3 ): y1 a 12 a 13 A 1 = y2 a22 a 23 y3 a32 a33

(5)

This may be done

) (

a11 y1 a 13 , A = a 21 y2 a 23 a 31 y3 a 33

) (

a11 a 12 y1 , A = a 21 a 22 y2 a 31 a 32 y3

(6), (7), and (8)

(d) Now find the determinants |A1|, |A2|, and |A3| by using the procedure of Step (b) above. For example, to form the determinant of A1, wherever an a *1 appears in the matrix (2), replace it with a y* of that value:

A 1 =

y1 (a 22 a 33 a 23 a 32) a 12 ( y2 a33 a 23 y3 ) + a13 ( y2 a 32 a 22 y 3) ,

(9)

and correspondingly for |A2|, and |A3|. (e) The solutions to the three simultaneous equations now have been found, because the four determinants yield, x1 =

A1 ,
A

x2 =

A2 ,
A

x3 =

A3 .
A

(10)

Schroedinger uses Cramer's rule on pp. 147 ff. Questions for topic (6):
1 0 0 (f) Solve for using Cramer's rule if = A , = (0,0,0), and A = 0 1 0 . y x y x 0 0 1

( )

1 1 1 (g) If possible, solve for if = A , = (0,0,0) , and A = 1 2 1 . y x y x 0 0 0

( )

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

26

1 1 1 (h) If possible, solve for if = A , = (0,0,0) , and A = 2 2 2 . y x y x 0 1 1 1 0 0 (i) Solve for if = A , = (1,2, 3) , and A = 0 1 2 . y x y x 0 2 1 7. Affine geometry. If the original matrix A in (2) above contains no x's (values of x), the transformation which is defined by A will be linear. An affine transformation is a linear transformation used in place of some nonlinear transformation in order to simplify computations. Affine geometry is a study of invariances under various (or all possible) affine transformations in Rn.

( )

( )

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

27

Basic Color Operations Lecture V:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 134 - 154, for Day 5 of the lectures.

1. Schroedinger's gore (first used as "gores" on p. 140) evidently is a plane triangular sector with sharpness corner at the origin. 2. Discussion of p. 145. Schroedinger refers to areas such that for the given choice of primaries, area = thus, at this step in the exegesis, 1 unit of

(spectrum)

x1 ()d =

(spectrum)

x2 ()d =

(spectrum)

x3 ()d ; (1)

x 1 + 1 unit of x 2 + 1 unit of x 3 = 3 units of white .

(2)

The match of a mixture of three lights on the left with one light on the right of (2) requires a color match by a trichromatic observer. With this in mind, consider small wavelength intervals d in the spectrum. For any such choice of , we have x 1( ) , x 2( ) , and x 3 () as in (1) above; we also have, for a standard white light with irradiant flux () , a ratio of the flux f () of any visible light to f () the flux of white in any small interval d . This ratio specifies the spectral radiant () flux in intervals d just as well as f () alone does. The given light with flux f () therefore may be entered into the color-mixing equations by the components f () f ( ) f () x 1 (), x 2 () , x () ; () () () 3 or, in vector notation, by f () () . x () The color coordinates of the light f () thus may be expressed by this vector in R3: f () x ()d , () f ( ) f () (4) (3)

{spectrum}

(5)

which represents the three numbers

() x 1 ()d , () x 2 () d , () x3 ()d

f ()

(6)

The source radiance of each of the three components of x () mentioned in (2) above then may be adjusted so that the three numbers in (6) above become equal (numerically). Then, the units in (2) each may be renamed as "1", so that they are equal when the three components in (6) are equal.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

28

So, the final color coordinates of the light with flux x () will be in ratios

x ()d original (white) units of x ()d

renamed units of

(7)

which, in effect, were obtained by a scaling change of the results of (2) to conform with (5). 3. Concerning pp. 147 - 148, Schroedinger's equation (8) may be written in vector notation as the scalar product ("dot product") F = F , x which is exactly the same as F = x1 F 1 + x 2 F 2 + x 3 F 3 . Schroedinger's equation (9) may be rewritten as (8)

() (
which yields or,

a 1 a2 a 3 F 1 A B = b1 b2 b3 F 2 C c1 c2 c3 F 3

)( )

F1 = (what we shall call matrix K ) F 2 . F3

()

(9)

So, Schroedinger's equation (10) becomes F = (A , B , C) , y

( A , B , C ) = F from (8) above; y x

(10)

( K F ) = F from (9) above. y x

T

Therefore, it follows that K = , which, transposing the K vector, is the same as y x K = , y x (11) in which Cramer's rule may be used to solve for y and thus obtain Schroedinger's equation (15). 4. Discussion of p. 149. The development here may become clearer if seen as follows: Suppose

() (

a 1 a2 a 3 F 1 A B = b1 b2 b3 F 2 C c 1 c 2 c3 F 3

)( )

F1 = (what we shall call matrix K ') F . (12) 2 F3

()

Now, recalling that Schroedinger's W represents the color of the undispersed light at some luminosity, the assumption that A + B + C = F1 + F2 + F3 = W requires that, in terms of 1 x 3 matrices, (13)

J. M. Williams

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29

F1 A (1 1 1) B =(1 1 1) F 2 . C F3

()

()

(14)

Premultiplying (12) by (1 1 1) and substituting (14) yields F1 F1 (1 1 1) F 2 =(1 1 1) K ' F 2 , F3 F3 or, (1 1 1) = (1 1 1) K ' . Rewriting (16) in terms of simultaneous equations, we obtain the final result, a 1 + b1 + c1 =1 a 2 + b2 + c2 =1 a 3 + b3 + c3 =1 , which is Schroedinger's (18). (17) (16)

()

()

(15)

J. M. Williams

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Introduction to the Line Element Lecture VI:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 155 - 167, for Day 6 of the lectures.

1. An affine transformation of the color-mixture coordinates cannot be used as a measure of relative brightness, saturation, etc. because of the Fechner (Weber) relation, which is not linear. As Schroedinger points out, for a difference A between two lights, it is possible that an equality such as | A (1 + )A | = |10 A (10 + )A | (1) might hold arithmetically; however, the difference on the left may be discriminable while that on the right may be not. Therefore, the Euclidean color-space difference A does not measure discriminability, and this is exactly why a line element is needed. 2. To expand further on the point just made above (and on p. 156 of the text), call s a discriminability function (dissimilarity function) which is at a relative minimum whenever two lights and are at their least discriminable. We can write, x y s = s( ) = s (x 1, x 2, x3 ; y1, y2, y3 ) . xy If and are not much different, then we have x y = + y x dx in vector notation; or, y1 = x 1 + d x 1 y2 = x 2 + d x 2 y3 = x 3 + d x 3 in simultaneous-equation notation. If s is a continuous, differentiable function, there are any number of polynomial infinite series which might be used to express s (and likewise its differential ds). Schroedinger follows Helmholtz here in choosing to take only the quadratic and lower terms of such a series when it 2 2 is used to express (ds) . Therefore, (ds) will be considered to be equal to a quadratic polynomial such that
(ds) = ai k dx i dx k , a i k = a k i
2

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

in tensor notation (see below) -- which is the same as (ds) =

2

i = 1 k =1

a ik dx i dx k ,

ai k = aki

(6)

in more explicit summation notation.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

31

Here, (6) may be expanded as (ds) = a 11 d x 1 + a 2 1 d x 2 d x 1 + a 3 1 d x 3 d x 1 + a 12 d x 1 d x 2 + a2 2 d x2 + a 32 d x 3 d x 2 + a 1 3 d x 1 d x 3 + a 23 d x 2 d x 3 + a3 3 d x 3 ; or, (ds) =(1 1 1) a d x d x + a d x 2 + a d x d x . 12 1 2 22 2 32 3 2 a 1 3 d x 1 d x 3 + a 2 3 d x 2 d x3 + a 3 3 d x 3

2 2 2 2 2 2

(7)

a 1 1 d x 1 + a2 1 d x 2 d x 1 + a3 1 d x 3 d x 1

(8)

Notice that the column vector (or 1 x 3 matrix) on the right side of (8) can not be obtained from any possible matrix of constant coefficients a ' i k . In other words, a '11 a '12 a '13 (ds) (1 1 1) a ' 2 1 a ' 2 2 a ' 2 3 a '31 a '32 a '33
2

)( )
dx 1 dx 2 dx 3

(9)

for any matrix of constant a ' i k . Thus, the transformation of dx defined by (8) can not be linear and must be written as

a11d x1 a12d x1 a13d x1 a21d x2 a22d x2 a23d x2 a31d x3 a32d x3 a33 d x3

)( )

dx 1 dx 2 . dx 3

(10)

The line element developed below will be based on the assumption that all ds are equal for just-discriminable lights; so, therefore, the color mixture coordinates based on any chosen set of primaries may be scaled to express ds in equal measure in all small regions of colormatching space. This equal measure is the metric referred to by Schroedinger. 3. On p. 157, the dx i are invariant, but the a i k will change under transformation. 4. Concerning p. 158, recall that ds is a differential of s. To measure the dissimilarity, which is the same as to obtain s for any two lights and , we may write x y
y

s = min ds .
{ , } x y x

(11)

In particular, if and are just barely discriminable, x y s =

y x

ds = 1 , by definition.

(12)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

32

5. Concerning p. 160, Schroedinger's equation (2) means that

i = 1 k =1

ai k dx i dx k

= constant ,

(13)

consistent with (6) above. The summation convention of tensor calculus is that all summation signs should be omitted whenever subscripts are repeated. Two examples of the summation convention are as follows: (a) " ai k x i " means (b) ai k x i xl means =

ai k x i
i

, which would be a vector in Rk .

(14) (15) (16)

a i l x i xk a i k xi xl a 1 k x1 xl

, k ,l = 1,2, 3 ; kl ,

i =1

a i l x i xk +

; or , a 1l x1 a 2 l x 2 a3 l x 3

i =1

a 2 k x 2 xl

a 3 k x 3 xl

xk xk xk for k = 1,2,3 ; l = 1,2,3 ; but kl ,

(17)

which last describes six simultaneous equations. 6. On page 161, Schroedinger's equation (4) represents a line integral which will be evaluated along a path consisting of straight lines between the three points, (k, l, m) = (1, 2, 3), (k, l, m) = (2, 3, 1) and (k, l, m) = (3, 1, 2), all of which lie in the plane k + l + m = 6. If this line integral in fact equals 0, then (a) the equal-brightness function will be analytic, (b) Schroedinger's equation (3) will be integrable, and (c) "brightness" will be meaningful as a psychological response allowing of a color metric. 7. Concerning p. 162, Schroedinger's brightness convention is that not only do color matches remain matches when luminances are varied proportionally, but also that the brightnesses of the (two) matched colors also will remain equal. Only when matched-brightness and matched-color are operationally defined differently is this convention meaningful. This point is discussed later by Guild. 8. To make Schroedinger's p. 163 math more explicit, here is what he is doing: If h = a i k xi xk , then ln(h) = ln(a i k xi x k) . So, ln(h) = [ln(ai k x i x k )] . xl xl (20) (18) (19)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

33

x But (18) above holds for ( ) = chosen as a constant multiplied. Therefore, (20) becomes,

ln(h) = [ln() + ln(a i k xi x k )] xl xl = = ln() + [ln(a i k xi xk )] xl xl 0 + [ln(ai k x i x k)] xl

(21) (22) (23)

Applying a generalized form of formula #6 of the "Short Table of Derivatives" to (23), ln(h) 1 (a x x ) . = ik i k xl a ik x i x k xl

( (

) )

(24)

Recalling the summation convention and expanding the remaining partial derivatives on the right in (24), ln(h) 1 = xl a ik x i x k xl

a1 1 x 1 + a2 1 x 1 x 2 + a 3 1 x 1 x 3 + a 12 x 1 x 2 + a 2 2 x 2 + a 3 2 x 2 x 3 + a 13 x1 x3 + a2 3 x2 x3 + a3 3 x 3
2 2

(25)

For l = 1, the partial derivative on the right side of (25) becomes ( ) = 2 a1 1 x 1 + a 21 x2 + a 3 1 x 3 + a1 2 x 2 + a 13 x3 ; x1 for l = 2, it becomes ( ) = a 2 1 x 1 + a 1 2 x 1 + 2a 2 2 x 2 + a 3 2 x 3 + a 23 x3 ; x1 and for l = 3, it becomes ( ) = a 3 1 x 1 + a 3 2 x 2 + a 13 x1 + a 2 3 x 2 + 2 a 3 3 x 3 . x1 (28) (27) (26)

Inspecting (26), (27), and (28) and recalling that a i k = a k i , it becomes evident that any of (26), (27), or (28) can be written in the form ( ) = x1

2a i l x i .
i=1

(29)

Given this, we see that (25) above may be written ln(h) 1 = xl a i k xi x k

( )
3 i=1

2 a il xi , for l = 1, 2, 3 .

(30)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

34

According to the summation convention, (30) is the same as ln(h) = xl 2 ai l x i

3 i=1 3 3

(31)

k =1 i = 1

ai k x i xk

and, dividing both sides of (31) while recalling formula #2 of the "Short Table" yields ln(h xl
1 /2

ai l xi
=
i

ai k xi xk
i k

, for l = 1 , 2, 3 .

(32)
1 /2

This is the same as Schroedinger's equation (6) except that it appears in terms of h instead of h alone. As Schroedinger explains on p. 165, this is because if h = (some constant) is to "split up the color[-matching] space in the manner of onion shells" (p. 162), the x l = ( 2 ) l must be squared to produce spherical surfaces. Recall that the actual calculations were done on the right side of (32): So, the measure actually used must be the square of the h appearing on the left of (32). Therefore, in terms of the units in Schroedinger's line element, equation (32) should be rewritten as ln(h) = xl

ai l xi
i

ai k xi xk
i k

, l = 1 , 2, 3 ,

(33)

which is identical to Schroedinger's equation (6). 9. Concerning p. 163 - 164, we recall that Helmholtz's line element comes from (5) above, with a i k = 0 , ik , and ai i = or, (ds) = ai k dx i dx k = a i i dx i dx i = dx 2 dx 3 1 dx 1 + 2 + 2 2 3 x1 x2 x3
2

1 x x ; 3 i i

(34)

(35)

= Schroedinger's equation (8), corrected. 10. On p. 164, still referring to Helmholtz's line element, Schroedinger notes that for a brightness function h, using (33) above, ln(h) 1 xl 1 = = , l = 1, 2, 3 . 2 xl 3 xl 3 xl (36)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

35

Now, a total differential d [ln(h)] may be written in the form, d [ln (h)] = so, substituting (36) and integrating, ln (h) = = or, h = const(x 1 x 2 x 3) as on Schroedinger's p. 164. 11. Some rationale for p. 165: Here, Schroedinger decides to replace Helmholtz's line element with his own, which latter will be derived at the outset from the postulate that brightnesses must be additive. Putting this into vector notation, two lights and ' x x would have additive brightnesses when h( ) + h( ' ) = h( + ' ) . x x x x To use more explicit notation, (41) above becomes Schroedinger's equation (9): h( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) + h( x ' 1 , x ' 2 , x ' 3 ) = h(x 1 + x ' 1 , x 2 + x ' 2 , x 3 + x ' 3) . (41') (41)
1/3

ln (h) ln(h) ln (h) dx 1 + dx 2 + dx 3 ; x1 x2 x3

(37)

( )

1 1 1 dx 1 + dx 2 + dx 3 + const. 3 x1 3 x2 3 x3

( )

( )

(38) (39)

1 1 1 ln (x 1 ) + ln( x 2) + ln(x 3) + const. ; 3 3 3 ,

(40)

Schroedinger treats the two different lights and ' by partial differentiation in x x order to express small differences one-at-a-time along each of the three coordinate axes: Thus, equation (41) above requires that h( ) x = x1 h( ' ) x = x '1 h( + ' ) x x x1 h( + ' ) x x . x'1 (42)

in the same way that it requires, from the point of view of the other light, that (43)

x Because the h' s will be linear functions of the ' s (coordinates of the lights), h( )/ x 1 always must be equal to some constant for each value of l in this color-matching x space, recalling formula #2 of the "Short Table" above. Therefore, we may write,
h = a 1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 ;

(44) (45) (46)

or, in vector notation,

h = ; a x

or, using the tensor summation convention, h = a l x l .

x Each value of h thus defines a plane in small regions containing the light ; if a light with different coordinates is chosen, even if the brightness remains a constant h, the value of

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

36

a i also will change.

Because a light is specified in terms (a) of a plane of constant brightness and (b) of a vector perpendicular to that plane in small regions around , small but discriminable x x x changes in brightness will be in the direction of . Thus, the following is required so that additivity of brightness can be guaranteed: d x 1 : dx 2 : dx 3 = x 1 : x2 : x 3 . To extend this affinte additivity to the entire color-matching space, Schroedinger suggests therefore that a transformation 1 = (a 1 x 1 ) 2 = (a 2 x 2 ) 3 = (a 3 x 3 )
1/ 2 1/ 2 1 /2 1 /2

(47)

(48)

be performed. Then, for constant brightness h

= a1 x 1 ,
2 2 2

h = constant = 1 + 2 + 3 . So, the total differential d will be of the form d = or, d = Using (48) above, d l = 1 1 /2 (a l x l ) a l dx l ; 2 1 a l (dx l ) . xl 4
2

(49)

dx 1 + dx 2 + dx ; x1 x2 x3 3 l xl

(50)

dx l , l = 1, 2, 3 .

(51)

(52)

so, recalling the summation convention, (d ) l

2

1 = (a l x l)1 /2 a l 2 dx l2 = 4

(53)

Thus, Schroedinger's Euclidean line element will be in terms of

(ds) = 4[(d 1 ) + (d 2 ) + (d 3) ]
2 2 2

= a1

(d x 1) x1

+ a2

(d x 2 ) x2

+ a3

(d x 3) x3

(54)

and this satisfies the additivity-of-brightness requirement because it was derived to do so. 12. Going on to p. 166, we see now how Fechner's law will be satisfied: The luminance-based Weber fraction would not be constant, given (54) above. Schroedinger corrects this by transforming the family of spheres of (49) above into unit spheres, for any given light x

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

37

(corresponding to the point F of Figure 12 of the text). This transformation in space is the 2 x same as dividing (ds) by a = a 1 x 1 + a2 x2 + a 3 x 3 in space : This transformation x makes the line element of (54) become, finally, (ds)2 = (d x 1) (d x 2 ) (d x 3) 1 [a 1 + a2 + a3 ] a1 x 1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 x1 x2 x3
2 2 2

(55)

as given in equation (12) of the text. Applying the summation convention, (55) becomes 1 ak (dx k) (ds) = ai x i xk
2

, i , k = 1, 2, 3 .

(56)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

38

The Line Element Lecture VII:

Reading assignment is Text pp. 167 - 182, for Day 7 of the lectures.

1. On p. 167 and following, a match will be made for two lights, and = + , for x y x dx all lie on the spectral locus of Schroedinger's figure 8. An error in which , , and dx x y brightness x i may exist (recall p. 156), so, at match, one light may have coordinates (1 +) x i , while the other light may have coordinates x i + dx i . Here, dx i (or ) reflects dx a response of the observer; x i (= ) reflects an error in brightness matching. In an actual x matching experiment, dx i may happen to equal x i , but only by chance. 2. Consider equation (13) on p. 167: Recall the first mathematical expression on p. 166; in that case, if is such that h + h yields a barely-discriminable change, this would be the same as saying that dh = h is a barely discriminable change in h at the prevailing level of h. Therefore, if
dh = h ,

(1)

then

dh = h

()
k

1 dh = d[ln(h)] . h
2

(2)

Now, returning to the problem, we may treat (ds) Let (ds) = SS differences =
2

as a sum of squares: (3) (4)

ai k ( x i dx i)( x k dx k) .
i

For fixed i and k, this is an error in brightness minus an error in setting;

and this is the corresponding error in setting minus the error in brightness.

So, using (2) above, (ds) =

2

ai k (x i d (ln h) dx i)( x k d(ln h) dx k )

i k

(5) dx k xk

= Using (2) above, = =

ai k ( x i x k )
i k i k

xi xi

d(lnh)

dx i xi

)(

xk xk

d(lnh)

(6)

a i k xi xk ( d ln(h) d ln( xi ) )( d ln(h) d ln(x k ) ) ai k x i x k

i k

or, (ds) = a i k x i x k d ln Which is Schroedinger's equation (13).

[ ( ) ][ ( ) ] [ ( )][ ( )]
d ln h xi d ln h xk xi h d ln xk h ,

(7)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

1/2

39

3. The result in equation (7) above then is used by letting 1 = (a 1 x 1 ) , etc., as in (48) of the preceding lecture above, and this allows Schroedinger's equation (14) to be obtained for the standard wavelength discrimination experiment. 4. Concerning pp. 167 - 170, Schroedinger's equation (15) may be written

ds =

a 1 x 1 dx 1 1 dh 1 h d x1 d h

a x dx 2 1 dh 1 + 2 2 h d x2 d h

a x dx 3 1 dh 1 + 3 3 h d x3 d h

]
2

1 2

d ;

(8)

or, ds = dx 1 d

[( )(
a1 x 1 h

dx 1 a x dh + 2 2 x1 h h

) ( )(

dx 2 a3 x3 dh + x2 h h

) ( )(

dx 3 dh x3 h

)]

1 2

(9)

Because expresses

and

dh are functions of in (8) above, Schroedinger's equation (15) d ds = f ( ) d , (10)

which makes ds a function of for the given primaries ( x1, x 2, x 3) and the transformation matrix of a i k . Equation (10) above therefore stands for Schroedinger's equation (15) and may be used to convert experimentally observed errors d in wavelength discrimination into color-matching errors (dx / x )i and vice-versa, a result made possible by the line element. 5. Comment on Schroedinger's equation (24) on p. 171: To scale the unit sphere, we must have [(dr ) + r (d ) ] (ds) = 4 = 4 r2
2 2 2 2

[( )
dr r

+ (d )2 ;

(11)

or,
(ds) = 4 [(d ln(r)) + (d ) ] .
2 2 2

(12)

But (12) is in the form of the Pythagorean theorem; so, the space must be Euclidean and the geodesics must be straight lines.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

40

6. On p. 172, to evaluate
Z

s( , ) = y z

ds
Y

(13)

the domain of the line integral (= the geodesic line) must be found first. Then, the measure of dissimilarity s (see p. 156) may be computed by integrating (13) along the geodesic. 7. Concerning pp. 173 - 174, geodesics in space lie on planes through the origin; these x planes become cones in space . Planes of constant brightness h are of the form x l = const ; or, in more explicit notation, x 1 + x 2 + x 3 = const. (15) (14)

The coordinate axes trace the chromaticity diagram on the planes of (14) or (15), and l this is a triangular diagram in the transformed space described by Schroedinger. The quadratic form (1) of page 157 makes the value = 1 trace an ellipse around each x in the plane of the chromaticity diagram. All geodesics therefore are segments of ellipses; and, so, the integral of (13) above will be evaluated along a segment of an ellipse inscribed in z the chromaticity diagram and intersecting the points = Y and = Z . y 8. Continuing on p. 175: But, there are two such ellipses in general; and, the shorter one of the two will not be tangent to the chromaticity diagram.
Z

Therefore,

ds
Y

will be evaluated along this nontangent path.

In particular, this means that = ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) will not have a zero component in the domain of integration; and, so, neither will x = (x 1 + x 2 + x3 ) -- nor will the algebraic-product functions g( ) = 1 2 3 or r ( ) = (x 1 x 2 x 3) . x Note that these last two may be used to test for the correct geodesic. 9. Concerning p. 176, on a geodesic line as in (12) above, we have d ln(r) = kd , in which k, a constant of proportionality, is specific to the geodesic between Y = and Z = . y z 10. Also on p. 176, only under one or both of the following conditions can the elliptical geodesics degenerate into straight lines in x-color-matching space: (a) Y ( = ) and Z ( = ) differ only in luminance; or, y z (b) Y and Z represent complementary colors. (17) (16)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

41

11. On p. 179, Schroedinger suggests a use for the line element in defining a "constant hue" for colors obtained by varying the purity of a spectral light. 12. Concerning p. 180, and relevant to p. 179, it should be noted that Schroedinger's line element does not predict the Bezold-Brucke effect in which a large change in luminance can cause a change in hue. Day 7 Exercises The first one of these two exercises is based on some preliminary calculation in part assuming that the reader can access one of the figures in the textbook by Grahan (1965) referenced in the Preface above, or can access some other reference containing "MacAdam ellipses". The second exercise provides everything necessary from the textbook. Both exercised may be read simply to strengthen understanding of the mathematics of these Notes. 1. For dh = 0 (i. e., for constant h), equation (8) above reduces to ds =

[ ( )
a1 x1 dx 1 1 h d x1 a1 dx 1 x1 d

a 2 x 2 dx 2 1 + h d x2

a 3 x 3 dx 3 1 + h d x3

)]
2

1 2

d.

(18)

For just-discriminable lights, ds by assumption is the same throughout all of colormatching space. Therefore, we may set ds = 1 and allow the constant h to be expressed in terms of the coefficients a i . Solving (18) for d then yields d =

[ ( )

a2 dx 2 x2 d

( )

a 3 dx 3 x3 d

( )]
2

1 2

(19)

To obtain a wavelength-discrimination function using equation (19), we first note that on a plane of constant luminance, x 1 , x 2 , and x3 are not independent but must be related by x 1 + x 2 + x 3 = const = c . Therefore, from (20), x3 = c x1 x2 ; and, differentiating (21), d x3 d = d x1 d x2 dc d d d d x1 d d x2 d . (22) (21) (20)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

42

Substituting (21) and (22) into (19) then yields

d =

[ [

a1 a3 + x1 (c x 1 x2 ) +

a2 a3 + x2 (c x 1 x2 )

2 a3 (c x 1 x2 )

)( ) )( ) ) ( )( )
dx 1 d d x2 d
2

d x1 d

d x2 d

] ]

1 2

(23)

We now have formulated d in terms of four constants a1, a2, a3, and c, as well as in terms of the (x1, x2) coordinates of a chromaticity diagram and its spectral locus. dx 2 , dx 1 while small changes in wavelength d will be related to small changes dx 1 in x1 and small changes dx 2 in x2. The four constants will depend on the primaries chosen and on other characteristics of the transformation yielding the particular chromaticity diagram being used. Along this spectral locus, the slopes of tangent lines will be expressible in terms of In the present example, we shall use the graphical plot of the XYZ chromaticity diagram of Graham (1965), figure 13.15, p. 391. The same graph may be found in Wyszecki and Stiles (1982, Figure 2 (5.4.1), p. 308) and in other reference works. The figure is labelled "MacAdam Ellipses of 1942", but we shall not be concerned with the construction by MacAdam for these exercises. The table at the end of this chapter contains a few sample data points drawn from this figure. The abscissa in the MacAdam figure corresponds to x1 in (23) above; the ordinate (y axis) corresponds to x2. To simplify computations at the expense of accuracy, let us begin by fixing
a 1 = a2 = a 3 = c = 1 ;

equation (23) above then becomes

1 1 + x1 (1 x 1 x 2 )

d =

1 1 + x2 (1 x 1 x 2)

2 (1 x1 x 2)

)( ) )( ) ) ( )( )
dx 1 d d x2 d
2

1 2

(24)

d x1 d

d x2 d

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

43

It is now convenient to find d , the error in wavelength discrimination, as a function of (a) Choose some particular on the spectral locus.

(b) Read off the coordinates x1 and x2 (= x and y) of that point on the spectral locus, using the abscissa and ordinate of Graham's Figure 13.15. (c) Estimate d x 1 / d (= d x / d ) by using a small interval near along the spectral locus. On the abscissa, read off how much x changes (= x ) in this interval. For example, choose = 475 nm; let = 10 nm, which means 5 nm in each direction along the spectral locus, starting from 480 nm. The spectral locus of course is not parallel to the abscissa. Doing this, I obtained a change in x equal to 0.04 (= .10 at = 475 nm minus .06 at = 485 nm.). I wrote this change as "-0.04" because x is decreasing whenever is increasing in this region of the spectral locus. Given this, I calculated

( )
d x1 d d x2 d

= approx.

( )
x 2

x 1

0.04 = 0.004 . 10

(25)

(d) Now estimate d x 2 / d (= d y / d ) by using the same small interval , but measuring on the ordinate to obtain x 2 (= y ) for the given change in along the spectral locus. Doing this, I obtained x 2 = 0.12 at = 480 nm. Therefore, I calculated

( )

= approx.

( )

0.12 10

= 0.012 .

(26)

(e) Use your copy of the XYZ chromaticity diagram to repeat steps (a) - (d) for as many values of as desired. After that, compute d using (24) above and graph the result. 2. Using the procedure of the previous exercise 1, I have prepared three sets of estimates of the human wavelength-discrimination function (2o field) in the table below. In that table, in the four columns just to the right of the leftmost column, I have entered values read from Graham's 1965 "MacAdam ellipse" (Figure 13.15). I obtained these values by the procedure just described in Exercise 1 above. My estimates from the procedure in Exercise 1 are subject to errors which particularly affect the squared terms in (24) above, so I also am supplying more exact estimates from Wyszecki and Stiles (1967, Table 3.2, p. 240, the x and y rows only. In the 1982 edition, the relevant data are in Table II (3.3.1) on pp. 736 - 737). These data are indicated by the asterisked-labelled entries in the middle of the table below. In the rightmost three columns of the table below, I have given (a) the rough approximation (a 1 = a 2 = a3 = c = 1) computed directly from equation (24) above; (b) a "better" approximation using eq. (23) with c = 1, and new ai computed from known data as described below; and, finally, (c) a "best" approximation using equation (23), c = 1, the ai as in (b), and tabulated chromaticity data from Wyszecki and Stiles (1965, Table 3.2).

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

44

My ai were computed as follows: As mentioned in Graham (1965, p. 385), the ai of the RGB system are in ratios 1 : 4.5907 : 0.0601. I therefore converted them to the XYZ system units so that they would conform to Graham's Figure 13.15:

() (
a1 a2 a3 =
XYZ

1.2750 0.277 0.0028 1.0000 4.5907 1.7392 2.7671 0.0279 0.7431 0.1409 1.6022 0.0601

)( )

(27)

RGB

as in Graham( 1965, equation 13.43). My result was that, in the XYZ system of primaries,
a 1 = .00013, a 2 = 10.96205, a2 = .0002 .

(28)

With c = 1, these were the values used in equation (23) to compute the final, rightmost, two columns of the table below. These values should be compared with Schroedinger's results on p. 169 of the text. It might be interesting to graph the last three columns of the table below to see how dependent is Schroedinger's line element upon computational accuracy.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

45

Table of Exercise 2 Results

Coordinates Change in Coords on XYZ with Change in Spectral Locus along the XYZ ( * = .001 ) Spectral Locus ( * = .001 ) d = Average Error in Wavelength Discrimination (arbitrary units) a1 = a2 = a3 =c=1
{a i } for XYZ

460 470 480 490 500 510 520 540 560 570 580 600 620 640

x1
.13 .144* .12 .124*

x2
.03 .030* .06 .058*

d x1 d
-.0015 -.0016* -.003 -.00026* -.004 -.0041* -.004 -.0045* -.002 -.0020* .004 .0035* .007 .0075* .007 .0073* .007 .0071* .0075 .0070* .007 .0066* .007 .0045* .007 .0021* .007 .0009*

d x2 d
.002 .0017* .005 .0047* .012 .0114* .022 .0212* .024 .0242* .015 .0157* .002 .0014* -.0055 -.0057* -.007 -.0069* -.007 -.0069* -.007 -.0066* -.007 -.0045* -.007 -.0020* -.007 -.0009*

system, c = 1 c=1 [ using graph + eq. [ using graph + eq. [ using tabulated (23) ] data & eq. (23) ] (24) ]

{a i } for XYZ*,

77.80 41.90 24.76 18.09 18.35 24.80 32.36 11.13 5.04 6.86 7.11 7.10 7.10 7.10

26.16 14.80 9.08 7.46 9.25 17.44 137.69 47.55 34.10 31.99 30.20 26.24 23.63 22.83

30.77 15.48 9.65 7.74 9.15 16.66 197.37 46.02 34.57 32.54 31.99 41.05 84.05 181.06

.08 .13 .913* .1327* .04 .295 .0454* .295* .01 .54 .0082* .538* .02 .75 .0139* .750* .07 .83 .0743* .834* .23 .230* .37 .373* .44 .444* .50 .514* .62 .628* .68 .692* .71 .719* .75 .754* .625 .625* .55 .555* .49 .487* .37 .373* .30 .309* .28 .291*

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

46

Schroedinger Summary, Colorimetry, & Psychophysics Lectures VIII & IX:

Read Text pp. 183 - 245, for Days 8 & 9.

1. On p. 184, Schroedinger recommends using subjects as their own controls; he describes a procedure based upon a psychophysical method of limits as well as one based upon a method of average error. 2. On p. 189, Schroedinger's equation (4), reminiscant of equation (28) on p. 173, gives a specific evaluation of the integral; this evaluation becomes simpler if the lights being matched either have equal luminances or differ only in luminance. 3. On p. 190, the "Figure 17" mentioned here by Schroedinger has been omitted from the MacAdam text, but probably it was similar to Figure 13. 4. On p. 192, we find that Schroedinger's expression for saturation is derived by substituting x ' = (1,1,1) into his equation (5) on p. 189. Thus,

s =

ds

= 2 Arccos

= 2 Arccos

[ [

(x 1 x ' 1 ) + ( x2 x ' 2) + (x 3 x ' 3) (h h' )

1 2 1 2 1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

(1)

( x1 ) + ( x 2) + (x 3) [( + + ) h]
1 2

1 2

(2)

This ends commentary on the Schroedinger line element; we pick up here with J. Guild's more recent elaboration. 5. Concerning p. 194, around 1930, Guild and W. D. Wright gathered data on color matching which has been accepted ever since, with very minor changes, as the standard for a 2o artificial-pupil matching fields. 6. On p. 198, it should be mentioned that action spectra could be measured at any of the four levels of the "reception system" described. 7. On pp. 201 and following, we find that an operational definition of trichromatic vision would be in terms of the three control knobs on the apparatus, which three always would suffice to make a color match. Guild is assembling an associationistic theory of color perception. 8. On pp. 218 and following, Guild is using the word "color" to refer more specifically to the hue (and possibly saturation) of a light. This is ordinary usage, especially when the user is examining the semantics of color names such as red, green, blue, etc.

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

47

9. On p. 223, Guild suggests that A may be affected by simultaneous color contrast in relation to the adjacent half-field: Therefore, if EA A = E B B , the standard radiance EA must establish a match governed also by a contrast-affected ratio describable as B / A : This means, E
A

(3)

( )

B E A

(4)

in which EA represents the standard radiance being matched, EB represents the matching radiance being manipulated, and B / A represents a "brightness factor". This expression may be rewritten as, E for N some number. 10. On pp. 227 - 228, Guild carefully distinguishes the operational definition which yields the relation versus the abstracted definition which, for example, might be written for a dictionary. The values of NB, NC, . . ., etc. all must be constant in order to enable luminance to be additive; and, the luminance, to be a useful quantity, must be proportional to the radiance of a light. The constancy of N occurs if and only if V (the modern variable representing a "luminosity curve") is of invariant shape. Therefore, color matches cannot be predicted in mesopic ranges using additive luminances; for this reason, V may not be used validly to describe a photometric stimulus being presented at such levels. [Luminous efficiency at mesopic and scotopic levels is referenced in Wyszechi and Stiles, 1982, section 5.7.2 (part viii), p. 406 and section 4.3.2, p. 256, respectively; and elsewhere.] 11. On p. 230, Guild describes the color-matching response by the integral, A=a A E d , (recall Von Kries on chromatic adaptation, pp. 109 ff.), but not by a differential such as illuminance E = (dF /dA) . Thus, a matching field must not be imaged at only one point on the retina of the eye. 12. On p. 233, Guild's analogy, color : brightness :: shape : size, should be ignored. Three radiances suffice if subtractive mixing (that is, adding light of one of the primaries to the standard half-field as in the mixing field illustrated with (9) above) is feasible in the given apparatus.
A

= N B EB ,

(5)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

48

If, at match, for sources A, B, C, and D, left half-field = right half-field such that
E
A

N A + E B NB + E

NC = E D N D ,

(6)

then the field radiances E must be related at match to the numbered indicators n in the colorimeter by the field-luminance factors N' as follows: n
A

N ' A + n B N ' B + n C N 'C = n D N ' D ,

(7)

which, of course, comes from matching-equation (6) just above. In (7), the total adjustment nD in the illuminance of the standard is given by nD =

( )

1 ( n A N ' A + n B N ' B + nC N ' C ) , N 'D

(8)

in which N'D is the luminance factor of the standard light. 13. To explain p. 234 in further detail: Because equation (7) above holds at a colorimetric match, it also expresses a fixed relation among the lights A, B, C, and D. So, light D now is replaced with a standard light S (which also happens to fix the distance of the color-matching plane from the origin in color-matching space). Then, each term on the left in equation (7) becomes at match exactly one unit U of luminance, for use in all subsequent operations. Therefore, for the standard-light match, equation (7) is replaced by U A + U B + UC = 3 US . (9)

Because three units of luminance on the left of (9) by definition now match three units on the right, (9) now may be rewritten as m A N ' A + mB N ' B + mC N ' C = mS N ' S , (10)

which corresponds to equation (7) above. But, both (7) and (10) express matches, so the relation of the light D to the standard S may be expressed in terms of the colorimeter settings for these matches, as follows:

( )
nA mA nA mA

UA +

( )
nB mB nB

UB +

( )
nC mC =

U C = nD N ' D .

(11)

Furthermore, the instrumental factor nD for light D may be eliminated; this, because, if equation (9) holds, then we must have

( ) ( ) ( )
+ mB + nC mC

nD 1

= nD .

(12)

Using this relation, equation (11) may be rewritten as

( )
nA mAnD

UA +

( )
nB mB n D

UB +

( )
nC mC n D

U C = UD ;

(13)

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

49
+ = UD ,

or,

which corresponds to Guild's equation (9) on p. 235 and is a typical datum ("trichromatic unit") obtained during colorimetry, using a given instrument or other specific piece of equipment. 14. Continuing on p. 235, the , , and of Guild's equation (9) specify a line in colormatching space passing through a point with coordinates (, , ) and also through the origin. All points with coordinates in ratios x 1 : x 2 : x 3 = : : lie on this line and represent lights differing only in luminance. Because of the scaling in equation (9) above, luminance is lost as a degree of freedom; whence the two independent variables remaining and mentioned by Guild. Therefore, the resulting chromaticity diagram lies in a plane which may be subjected to any sort of projective transformation in color-matching space. 15. Explanation of p. 236: To mix two colors using a given colorimeter, call one light D and the other Q. Then, for the trichromatic unit UD in equation (13) above, a similar unit UQ also may be found by following the given procedure with the same standard light S. Now, as a specific, typical example, let us assume that one light (Q) has twice the illuminance of the other: Therefore, we assume that the mixture of one UD-luminance unit of light D with two UD-luminance units of light Q would mean that only half of the luminance of Q would be needed to match D. So, the mixture would be obtained as in the following: 1 nA 1 nA 1 nB 1 nB + UA + + UB 2 mAnD 2 m A nQ 2 mB n D 2 mB nQ 1 nC 1 nC + + U C = ' U A + ' U B + ' U C 2 mC n D 2 mC nB

(14)

From this last and the orthogonality of the primaries, it follows that ' , ' , and ' are in these proportions:

' =

( ( (

n A nQ +

1 n A nD 2 1 nB n D 2 1 nC n D 2

) ) )

mA n B nQ +

nA 1 nQ + n D mA 2

)
. (15)

' =

mB nC n Q +

nB 1 nQ + n D mB 2

( (

) )

' =

mC

nC 1 nQ + n D mC 2

And so, any light with coordinates x 1 : x 2 : x 3 = ' : ' : ' in color-matching space x would fail to match the mixture in (15) above by a luminance factor and by nothing else. Adjusting the luminance of one side of the bipartite matching field then would give exactly x the same color as the mixture in (15).

J. M. Williams

Color Vision Notes

50

16. On pp. 241 - 242, Richardson's mountain analogy appears to have rhetorical meaning, only.

And, this ends these Notes -- jmw