ModelingApproachto
A Finite-Element
TectonicStressand Earthquakes
Gravitational
LawrenceJohn Barrows
Departmentof Geographyand Geology
l l l i n o i sS t a t eU n i v e r s i t y
N o r m a l .l l l i n o i s6 1 7 9 0 - 4 4 0 0
ABS T RA CT
Finit e- eler nent n ro d e l i n g o f i n c o mp re s s i b l e vi s-
cous materials allorvs quantitative anall'-sis of dy-
namic gravitational tectonics. Students who
construct sr.rchmodels develop an intirnate appre-
ciation of stress, strain. and strain rate in geologic
p ro ces s es ,and t he re s u l ts c a n b e u s e d to d e m on'
strate basic gravitational tectonics in a manner
that can be easily understood by others. A modei
of a plate tectonic spreading center shows the
push from the ridge component of the plate tec-
to n i c dr iv ing f or ce a n d h o ri z o n ta l e x te n s ional
stress consistent with normal faulting and earth-
quakes. A modeled subduction zone shorvs the
pull from the trench component of the driving
force and stresses consistent with the distribution
of earthquake foci within some Benioff zones.
Keywords: Education - cornputer assisted; geo-
physics seismology; geophysics - solid earth;
structural geology.
IN TRO DUCT I O N
Concepts of stress, strain, and strain rate have a
va ri e ty of applic at i o n s i n th e g e o l o g i c a l s c i ences.
These include the development of metamorphic rock
fabric, the flow of glaciers. the forrnation of geologic
structures, the movement of tectonic plates, the ori-
gin of earthquakes. the nature of seismic q'aves, and
the engineering of earth materials. Because of this
wide appiicabiiity, geolory students need to develop
a sound working familiarity rvith these fundamental
co n ce pt s .
Geology students should also understand how tec-
tonic stress originates within the earth. Some, if not
most, of this stress must ultimately come from gravity
acting on the earth's complex density structures. The
importance of gravity follows from its ability to ex-
p l a i n m any t ec t oni c p ro c e s s e s a n d o u r fa i l u re to
identify alternative mechanisms that produce large
stre ss es t hat c an a c t th ro u g h l a rg e d i s p l a c e ments.
For example, tides produce stressesthat can act through
l a rg e d is plac em ent s , b u t th e i r i n te n s i ty i s l i mi ted,
while thermal expansion can produce large stresses,
but these are relieved by relatively small displace-
ments. At a global scale, the basic premise of gravita-
tional tectonics is that all mass displacements in the
earth must ultimatel-v' result from gravity (DeJong and
S c h o l t e n ,1 9 7 3 ,p . i x ) .
Gra v it at ional t ec to n i c s tre s s h a s b e e n u s e d to ex-
plain the ernplacement of salt diapirs (Nettleton,
1 9 3 4 ) a nd t he dev elo p m e n t o f th ru s tr' fo l d b e l ts o n the
fl a n ks of m or r nt aino r.rs rrp l i fts (l l e n n i s o n , 1 9 7 6 ; El l i ntt.
J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o n v, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 7
KevinMichaelPaul
LoomisLaboratory of Physics
University of lllinois
U r b a n al .l l i n o i6s18 0 1- 3 0 8 0
1976: Nlilici, 1975: Price, 197:l). To the extent that
broad epi rogeni c upl i fts and dow nw arps are isost at i-
cal l y compensated, these verti cal di spl acement s also
result from gravity (Stacy, 1969). Even global plate
tectonics is usually attributed to some form of ther-
mal convection involving the gravity-driven rise of
hot. l ow -densi ty materi al and compl ementary sink-
ing of cool, high-density material (Verhoogen, 1980;
W 1' l l i e, 1976). Jacoby (1973) descri bes a vari at ion of
this process involving the rise of hot material directly
within the spreading centers and the sinking of cool
lithosphere in the subduction zones. Some of these
gravitational tectonic processes are a little difficult to
understand, but in a general sense they can be dem-
onstrated and analyzed with finite-element computer
si mul ati ons.
In an effort to better understand gravity, stress, and
related phenomena, we have adapted finite-element
modeling to the anal.vsis of gravity-driven tectonic
processes.Although the models are simplifred repre-
sentations of complex geologic phenomena, they dem-
onstrate basic processes and provide some intriguing
insights into some of the subtleties. In this paper we
review the basic mathematics of stress, strain, and
strai n rate; descri be the fi ni te-el ement mo deling
technique; and present some of our generic models.
We also review the gravitational push associated
with a simple model of an oceanic spreading center
and the pull associated with a model of a subduction
zone. The orientation and magnitude of the modeled
gravitational tectonic stress are found to be consis-
tent with earthquakes within these environments.
BACKGROUND
C oordi nates, Tensors, and C oordi nate
Transformati ons
Stress refers to internal forces acting to deform a
material . Elastic strain refers to the recoverable elas-
tic deformation that results from stress. Strain rate
refers to the rate of development of permanent defor-
mati on and here i ncl udes al l of the pl asti c, v iscous,
and dislocation processes that change the shape of
geologic materials.
Stress, strain, and strain rate are physicai quan-
tities whose effects are independent of the coordinate
system being used to describe a particular problem
but w hose numeri c representati ons do depend on t he
coordi nate system. P hysi cal quanti ti es w hi ch p ossess
thi s general characteri sti c are referred to as tensor s.
Stress, strain, and strain rate are most easily handled
and understood i n thei r tensor representati on, so a
basi c understandi ng of tensors i s desi rabl e for t hose
wishing to work with these fields. They can be studied
through their orthogonal principal components or
 A Finite-Element
ModelingApproachto Gravitational
TectonicStressand Earthquakes
through the Nlohr-circle representationl hou'ever.
th e se appr oac hesa re i n h e re n tl y l i rn i te d . Stu d ents are ftrrce F = F,e',- 4J, * fi: on the matc'r'ial on the nega-
b e tte r s er v ed if t t re y a re i n i ti a l l y i n tro d u c e d to the ti ve si de rvhere .Fr. F:. F3 are the vector com ponent s
mo re' u' er s at ile t ens o r-l rl g e b ra l o rn ra t. f

and €,1. d1,d1 are uni t r-ectorsi n the X ,, X :. X3 coor di-

Tens or algebr a i s a g e r-re ra lc o n c e p t th a t can be ntrte directions.
a p p l i ed t o s c alar f i e l d s th a t re q r.ri rea s i n g l e ' u ' al uefor Stress is defined as the force per unit area. For this
th e i r c om plet e s pe c i fi c a ti o n (s u c h a s p re s s u re). vec- particulirr elemental area, the stress colnponents are:
to r fi elds t hat r equ i re th re e v a l u e s (s u c l -ra s d i spl ace-
ment or velocit-v), and higher-order fields that F,
.-_t
re q u i r e a m at r ix of v a l u e s (s u c h a s s tre s s , s tra i n, and lllll
. 'r --I1
- l /
rr r
L 1 -

stra i n r at e) . T hes e a re d e s i g n a te d a s z e ro th-order

te n sor s , f ir s t - or de r te n s o rs , a n d s e c o n d -rtrd er ten- ( t . - .F"
= -

so rs. r es pec t iv ely . Th e o rd e r o f a te n s o r i n d i c ates the llln \ r

I I .,' --L11
l t -

n u mber of s ubs c r i p ts th a t a re a p p e n d e d to i ts sym-

b o l i c r epr es ent at io n a n d to th e n u mb e r o f compo-
n e n ts r equir ed f o r i ts c o rn p l e te s p e c i f-rc a t i on.For
.,..= ,' n
e xa m ple:
S i mi l ar expressi ons can be rvri tten for the st r ess
components that are acti ng on el emental ar eas or i-
P(.r,r) fbr a pressuret-reld. ented perpendi cul ar to the X 1 and X 3 co or dinat e
- axes. The total stress tensor i s grven by u 3 by 3
u,(x.1)=.i1.2.3 fbr a r.'ectordisplacernentl'ield,and matri x of val ues
+ [i = 1.2.3
o ',l,( - r .r ) . . ( tbr a stresst-reld. Ior t o t : o r - ;
[,r = t.:.]
o,, = Il o i:o ::o :-t
Geologists colnmonly use rectangular coordinates to Lo r,l o ti o i l
describe a local site, cylindrical coordinates to describe
borehole logs, and spherical coordinates when working rvhere symmetry (o',; = cri) follorvs from the require-
with the whole earth. We need to be able to readiiy ment that internal torques be balanced.
transform tensor fields and relations from one coor- Components of the stress tensor located along the
dinate system into another. The relation that does main diagonal of this matrix descnbe forces that are
this transformation follows from the requirement normal to the elementai areas and parallel to the coor-
that the physical effect of a tensor quantity be invari- dinate axes. These components are tensions if they are
ant in a coordinate transformation. For a second- positive and compressions if they are negative. The
order tensor the coordinate transformation has the off-diagonal components represent forces acting paral-
form iel to the elemental areas and are called "shears."
For a symmetric second-order tensor, it can be
J
shown that there is a particular coordinate orientation
G, =II ci,c
1,6,, in which the absolute values of the components located

l'=l .r=1

where:
ors is the tensor in the original coordinate system,
,/
o,, is the tensor in the new coordinate system, and
F2
Conis a 3 by 3 square matrix whose elements are the
lengths of the unit vectors in the new coordinate sys-
tem projected onto the coordinate directions of the old
system. These are referred to as "direction ct.lsines."
lr
I'..
U s ing t ens or not a ti o n , p h y s i c a l q u a n ti ti e s such as J
stre ss and phy s ic al re l a ti o n s s u c h a s H o o k e ' s l arv of
l i n e a r elas t ic it y c a n b e e x p re s s e d i n g e n e ra l forms
th a t a r e independe n t o f a n y p a rti c u l a r c o o r di nate xl
syste m.

Fi gure 1. C omponentsof a force vector acti ng acr oss an

Th e St r es s T ens or el ementalarea w hi ch i s embedded w i thi n a mater ialand
ori ented perpendi cul arto the X z coordi nate axi s. St r ess
C ons ider a s m all d i s k -s h a p e de l e me n ta l a re a that i s
o4 i s defi ned as the force per uni t area w here t he f ir st
imbedded rvithin a matc.rial and oriented perpendicu-
subscri pt i ndi catesthe ori entati onof the el ement alar ea
l a r to t he X 2 c oor din a te a x i s (F i g u re 1 ). T h e materi al and the second subscri pt i ndi catesthe componentof t he
o n th e pos it iv e s ide u f tl ri .s e l c n rc n t,a i a re a e xerrs a f orce.
J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o n v, . 4 6 , 1 9 g 8 ,p . 8
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s sa n d E a r t h q u a k e s
along the nrain diagonal of' the nratr-ix have ntil.\r-
rnum or nrinimum magnitudes and the off-diugonal
c o m p o n e n t sa r e a l l z e r o s . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o o r d i - ii'(i+Airl'\ d,.+ J
n a te s v s t enl, t he s t r e .s ste n s o r c a n b e re p re s e l tt ed b1' :
,/ \'
i\
"ll
0 0 o '.'tr.
l r\ y\r;, \
o,, -l 0 0 I
y'o
O:: o int
i; \Ar' -Z_
0 G -1,, o ruin
I _>
r+Ar,
;) i \
i
-/->,),
u(r
Th e l ar ges t of t hes e d i a g o n a l c o mp o n e n ts i s re f erred
to a s t he r nax im unr p ri n c i p l e s tre s s , th e s m a l l e-sti s
th e mi nim um pr inc i p l e s tre s s , a n d th e o th e r is the
i n te rrn ediat e pr inc ip l e s tre s s .
Pressure refers to that part of the stress tensor that
is uniform in all directions. It is defined as minus the
a\/erage of the three components of the stress tensor
which are located along the main diagonal, or Figure 2. Relative deformation ar- between two points
w i thi n a materi afthat undergoes a conti nuous displace-
I
P-*J(o't*or' *oi3). ment fi el d speci fi ed by t(/:). The strai n tensor is devel-
oped from the gradi entof the di spl acementfi el d.
Pressure is an example of a tensor inr.ariant whose
numeric value is identical in all coordinate repre- ?u,
sentations. r/i, = -f/i
c -\'l
*9A,.. =i9^,.,
+f!-.r,.
c.r: c.Y3 -r-r,
Stra i n and S t r ain Ra te
This can be rewritten as
Strain refers to deformation rn'ithin a material. In
the geologic sciences, we often restrict our attention to rF / ^\/ - \l
recoverabie elastic deforrnations and permanent vis- I Y'
ilIIca, , ctti | | [ C,u, C ' U ;| |
/7
.r:t - /

?l
l- |
-

2 [\ . 6 rJ,r
- i - | - i _

e . r i/ 2[i.r,
^ | 1.1/'
cous deformation rates. Elastic deformations include a r:rr /-.1
./=l L
free component that balances both the body force,qand
j
surface tractions and a locked-in component that exists ,v \ )- r l q . -.o,rp,;
by virtue of the shape of the material. The locked-in -
n -
Lr:r
'/
L-/L
elastic defonnation (and its associated stress) would be
present even if all body forces and applied tractions
were removed from the body.
Strain rate refers to the rate at rvhich non-recoverable *here:=+[;-ff)
E,i
deformation develops. The ph-vsical nature of elastic

o/=+[tr
strain and non-recoverable strain rate are profoundly
different. However, they both develop in response to
the same stress tensor and, in linear isotropic materials,
they both can be represented by similar mathematical
expressions. The following development initially per-
*]
Tlre terms r11, r.22,EsBare the change in length per
tains to elastic strain but is subsequently transformed
to relate to strain rate. uni t l ength i n X 1, X r, X 3 di recti on-s, respect ively.
Consider a material that undergoes a non-uniform These are extensional strains. The terms rt2, ELB,E2s
deforrnation (Figure 2) specified by the displacement represent shear strains of the materiai rn'here e12is
field one-hal f the change i n the angl e betw een l i nes in t he
nraterial that initiall-v paralleled the X1 and X2 coor-
i ( V , / ) = u Q t * L t . t 0+: . u \ A 7. dinate directions. The terms a)12,o)l-1,(r)23are rigid
bod"vrotations which can be ignored because they do
not represent deformati on of the materi al .
The differential displacementbetrn'een
tn'o locations Noting that the off-diagonal terms are symmetric
that are locatedat 1si: - eli), it can be seen that the deforrnation of the
rnateri al i s compl etei y descri bed by si x i ndependent
iandi+Lrisdl= d € , 6+, d E: 0 : + d i : 0 : components.
[r,, sr: rr_r
For a smoothly varying. continuous displacement -_l^'^'-
,,
U1; = | t, 1. U l. C:.1
fi e l d a nd pr ox ir nal loc a ti o n s , th e X , c o m p o n e n t of the
d i ffe re n t ial dis plac en te n t c a n b e e x p re s s e da s
I t :_. € -i3
Lt i;

J o u r n a lo f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o r ,v . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . g
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c h t o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i c S t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s
Stra in ( c hange in l e n g th p e r u n i t l e n g th ) i s di rnen- oi, + i(DSt + 2u r,, (Equation l)
si o nles s . I t s phy s i c a l e ffe c t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o [ the co-
o rd i nat e s y s t em in w h i c h i t i s e x p re s s e d ;th u s, strai n rvhere:
i s a s ec ond- or dert e n s o r. L i k e th e s tre s s te rl s o r. there oi j i s the stress tensor,
exists one particular coordinate system in u'hich the ). is the first Lame coefllcient.
co mponent s of t h e s tra i n te n s o r l o c a te d a l ong the O i s the di l ati on,
ir
ma i n diagonal ar e m a x i m u m s o r m i n i m u m s and the I t.( - I
is the Kronecker deita,
off-diagonal components are zeros. In this particular 'l{)r=,
I

coordinate system
!r is the shear modulus (or second Lame
00 coefficient), and
[u
', I frn,"*
I 'U is the strain tensor.
u,;=l 0 t:: 0
lo 0 r:: I
loj',"'fLt'in .J
Y oung' s modul us and P oi sson' s rati o are aiso used
to describe the elastic properties of a material.
Young's rnodulus is defined as the proportionality
These are usually referred to as the principle strains. constant relating axial stress to axial strain in an
The change in volume per unit volume is called unconfined elastic rod. Poisson's ratio is defined as
dilation (or compression if the change is negative). minus the ratio of the radial-to-axial strains in an
D i l a tion c an be exp re s s e d a s O = rtl * Ez z* r s3.Li ke unconfined elastic rod. Stretching the rod should in-
pressure, the numeric value of dilation is the same in crease its volume so the dilation is greater than zero
all coordinate systems (a tensor invariant). For lin- and P oi sson' s rati o i s betw een zero and 0. 5. Rocks
ear elastic materials, pressure is related to dilation typi cal l y have P oi sson' s rati o of about 0.3.
through the bulk modulus B where p = -BO. There are only two truly independent elastic con-
We initially referred to u as a displacement field. stants; thus. the various elastic moduli are interre-
If this represents an elastic displacement field, then l ated. S ome of these rel ati ons are gi ven below.
e;; is the elastic strain tensor. However, in viscous or p(3i+2p;
\bung's !{odulus n
plastic materials, the displacement field can change L
l+p
lvith time, and its time derivative represents a spa-
tr
tially continuous deformation rate. A deformation- Bulk N{odulus IJ
rate field would be expressed as 3(l-}i)

E
Shearlt{odulus 'u
Au Au, ^ Au. ^ Au^ ^ :(l+u)
- = -ct -f -G.t -f -tr-!
.
t"
0t0t'et-et P o r s s o n 'R
satio t)
2(i+p1
..tr
The strain-rate tensor is developedin a manner FirstLanleCoeffrcient
.UL
L
analogous to the developmentof the elastic strain (ltuXl-2u)
tensor. One distinction is that the dilation rate.
W e need to devel op consti tuti ve equati ons which
+ OT
must be satisfied by the displacement field every-
where within an elastic material or the displacement
is normally assumed to be equal to zero. The corre- rate fi el d everyw here w i thi n a vi scous mat er ial.
sponding viscous bulk modulus is infinite. These constitutive equations let us formulate the
Aside: The assumption of negligible uiscous dilation analysis of gravity-loaded density structures as
may not be correct. If the uiscous bulk modulus is boundary-value problems which can be solved with
finite-element models. The initial development will
finite, then earth materials can adjust their internal
uolumetric shape in a manner that balances the erist- be for an elastic deformation freld. This will sub-
ing pressure enuironment. Rocks which solidify at sequently be transformed into the constitutive equa-
depth and are su.bsequently exposed at the surface tion for a viscous displacement rate field.
u,ould then contain u locked-in pressure that tends to S tati c equi l i bri um (that i s, a si tuati on u'her e
there is no acceleration) requires that the gradient of
force the material apart causing spalling, exfoliation,
and physical disintegration. Locked-in pressure stress be balanced bv bodv forces. or
tuould olso balance the lithostatic pressttre that acts t ,O ; (6 ;t C ' O'' :'
I r-o. =0,
e cro s s pot ent ial f a u l t s u rfa c e s . F o u l ti n g o t depth C',Y,
-^'51
( .rt a'-rl
would then not require ttnusual poreLuater pressure
I

(for example, see Huhbert and Ruby, 1959 ctnd deep- w'here: g, is the body tirrce per unit volume
fo cu s ear t hquak es w o u l d n o t re q u i re u n u s u al faul t Substituting Hooke'slaw for the stress tensor and
zone conditions (for example, see Bolt, 1993). the definitionsfor dilation and stressvields:
Stress,Strain,and the Constitutive
Equations :3
A variety of equationsrelate elasticstrain to \rr
'U ) l l ;/ . At .nL t. ( / " - r ,1 1'i ; l l t^.. r ri . . i g, = 0
stre ss . F or linear (H o o k e a n ) a n d i s o tro p i c m a t eri al s, !_/ .-
o{

L h e nr os t gener al e x p re s s i o n i s : A-l ll=l

J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o h v, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 0
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nMt o d e l i n gA p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s
where indices follou'ing a conrrna irnpll' partial differ-
e n ti a t ion.
Subs t it ut ing f o r th e fi rs t L a rn e c o e ffi c i e nt. the
shear rnodulus.and the bulk modulus vields:
r r ,
, , f1, , , ^ - i l . l - * . = 0 . (Equation 2)
l;i |
where: p is the shear modules.
io-
f/,, = - tt the mean pressurerunctlon'
-g is young's modulus a'd
, I
; = f to,, - is the nesatiye Dressure.
Tur-,
The displacement field a; and the mean pressure
function fi must satisfy this basic constitutive equa-
tion everywhere within an elastic solid. Including the
mean pressure function in the relation provides a
constitutive equation which is valid for both com-
pressible and fully incornpressible elastic materials
(Herrmann, 1965). For linear viscous materials, the
displacement rate field and the mean pressure func-
tion must also satisfy this constitutive equation. In
the viscous interpretation, p is the viscosity and for
fully incompressible materials, the viscous Young's
modulus relating stress to strain rate is 1.5 times the
viscosity.
Over extendedintervals of geologictime, earth ma-
terials maintain their approximate volumes but may
permanently deform into new configurations. The rate
of deformation increaseswith increasing shear stress.
On the shorter time scale of seismic waves, they be-
have elastically. The simplest rheologic model which is
reasonably consistentn'ith this behavior is viscoelastic-
ity with incompressible linear (Newtonian) viscosity
and compressible linear (Hookean) elasticity. The
density structures that are responsible for gravita-
tional tectonics persist for extended intervals oftime,
so our tectonic models are based on long-period in-
compressibleviscous flow. In these viscous models,
an elastic deformation is linked to, or follows, the
viscous deformation rate through the common stress
tensor. The models then apply to both Newtonian
viscous and Hookean elastic materials.
Boundary-Value Problems
and the Finite-ElementMethod
The solution to a genelal boundary-valueproblem
is one or more continuous fields u'hich simultane-
ously satisfy an appropriate constitutive equation
ever1,.wherewithin the material and the boundary
conditions on the external surfaces of the bodl'. Fr,rr
an isotropic linear-elasticproblem, Equation 2 is a
form of the constitutiveequation that must be satis-
fied by the displacementfield ui and mean pressure
function 1/. The boundaryconditionsare either speci-
fied displacements of the surface or prescribed trac-
tion on the surface of the bodl'. If the continuous
displacement field and mean pressure function can
be found. the strain tensor follows from:
Journal of Geoscience Education,v.46, 1998,p. 11
/^\
lI irr, (It' I
u i ; -
| | l .
(Equation 3)
" ]ltl'r' r '-lt 'i ' I
\ .i I
rnd the stress tensor follot's from
oij = 2!r(r-'HtJ,
+ eii) lEquation 4)
.\ viscous boundary value problem is similar to an
elastic problem except Poisson'sratio is 0.5 (incom-
pressibleflorv) and tie elastic shear modulus is re-
placed by the viscositv. The unknou'n fields in a
viscousproblem are the mean pressure function and
displacementrates and the boundary conditions are
either speci.fieddisplacement rates or prescribed
traction. With these substitutions, the strain rate
tensor and the stress tensor are as depictedin Equa-
tions 3 and 4 above.
For rnany problems ofint€rest, the displacementsor
displacement rates and the spatial rates of change of
the physical paramet€rs are much less in one coordi-
nate direction than they are in the other two directions.
These problems are analyzed with two-dimensional,
plane strain elastic models or plane strain rate vis-
cous models. In two-dimensional problems, the model
is a cross section through the bodl'and the displace-
ments or displacement rates lie *'ithin the plane of
the cross section.
An exact solution to a boundary-value problem
has an infinite number of unknowns because there
are an infinite number of locations within a continu-
ous material. The frnite-element method replaces the
continuously varying fields with continuous modeled
frelds whose values depend on a finite number of
unknown variables. The simplest modeled field (and
the one used in our programs) consists of an assem-
blage of triangular elements interconnected at a fi-
nite number ofnodal points (Figure 3). The unknown
fields are assumed to vary in a linear fashion be-
tween the three nodes of each triangular element.
With this linear interpolation model. t--hefield at any
location within a triangle equals the spatially
weighted average of the values of the field at the
three nodes of the triangle. The field is continuous,
but the gradient of the freld between adjacent trian-
gular elements is discontinuous. Once the area of a
plane-strain problem has been subdivided into trian-
gular elements, the solution to the boundary-value
problem is the values of the unknown fields at the
frnite number ofnodal points. It should be recognized
that the solution to a frnite-element model approaches
the exact solution to the boundary-value problem as
the number of nodal points becomes large and the
size ofthe elements becomes small. Introductory ref-
erence texts on the firnite-elementmethod include
Zienkiewicz(1971)and Desai and Abel (1972).
In addition to equilibrium among the forces,the
solution to an elastic boundary value problem mini-
mizes the stored internal energy and the solution to
a viscousproblem marimizes the rate of energy dis-
sipation.Theserequirements form the ph;'sicalbasis
for the finite-elementmethod.
 t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s
A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
trl' ,l ,t
/.tL:,rL r I i l re functi ons of the unknow ns.
Srrrfrcc
Tr:rction
{ Spccilied Displncemtnls rl' are the unknol vns at those nodes t o
\ \ lfire rertic;tlly.
t e l

8od1 lorces t .,'11

fircd horizontlllv) w hi ch the i ' th node i s connected.
{ l* IJ_
I

,f and (li are constants.

Displrcement :rnrl iit r.1',r.t!
'1 lI{ r.yz.t)
menn prtl.srrte fields
\
Theseequati ons (one for each model vari a ble) ar e
Fired Displacentettts arrarlged into a murtnx fbrmat
tAl{L'}= {Qi
r,vhere:
lA'l is the model stiffness matrix.
{Ll is the vector of all unknowns for all nodes in the
model, and
{8} is the vector of constants for all nodes in the
model.
Fi nal l y, Gauss el i mi nati on i s used to fi nd t he in-
verse of the model stiffness matrix [K-i] so that
Figure 3. A cross section through an elongatebody which
is subjectedto body forces, surface tractions,and specified
{Ui = t/( 1l{8}
d i sp l a c em ent s . T he s e c o n d fi g u re i s a fi n i te ' el ement w here: { U } i s the desi red answ er.
model of this body. ln the model, distributed body forces
a n d s ur f ac e t r ac t io n s a re re p re s e n te d b y e q u i val ent Once the appropriate programs have been written
forces acting at the nodes. and verifred, the challenging problems are model
ageneral
wefirstdeverop forthetotar ffiri'J*""1fiuy:J;ijll);,":tli#J,li"l|il|"","rtll::
exglession
energy' or rate of energy dissipation, ii"", r"a display. For fully incompressible materials,
Poisson's ratio equals 0.5 and the first Lame coefli-
/ 1 1 r \ 1 cient is infinite. Most publig-domain finite-element
pr-ograms areunstable for fullvincompressible mate-
l'= if f | -l-tI" o.. -in,,,,
u/-
lou- i[ Ii l t . "r,,,.1s.
,"'' r i a l s a n d c a n n o tb e u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i so f l a r g e .
J J J | ) -u 4 ' ! J)
rihr€ \ ,-r /=r i=l " l)" ' - qate i-t gravity-loaded density structures. Stable programs
require inclusion of some form of the pressure field,
such as Herrmann's (1965) mean pressure function,
where:
in the solution.
€,,rs the strarn or sf,rarnraf,ef,ensor,
6i.is the.stresstens^or, , GENERICMODELS
8'i rs the Dodylorce ltelo. A Fectangular Bidge
z; is the displacement or displacement-rate field, and
d,rr first generic cornputer model is a cross sec-
f, is the surfacetraction tion through a simple rectangular ridge (Figure 4).
In a finite-element model, stress and strain can be The objectives of this model are to demonstrate our
expressed as matrix equations involving the product modeling technique and show the format used to dis-
of arrays of constants and the vector of the nodal play the resulting deformation and stress. The base
point displacements and mean pressure function. of the modeled ridge is constrained vertically br:t is
The body forces and surface tractions are expressed free to move horizontally, whereas the right-hand
as vectors of nodal loads. The general expression for side is constrained horizontally but free to move ver-
the total energy, or rate ofenergy dissipation, is then tically. This boundary condition on the right-hand
a function of only the unknown frelds at the nodes, or side can be regarded as a plane of symmetry running
V = V(Ut, U2,...,Ui, where: U;i = 1,...J are the un- through a ridge which is twice as broad as the com-
known flreldsat the nodal points. puter rnodel, and this interpretation is employed in
Followingthe calculusofvariations, minimization our model displays.The material is fully incompress-
of the total energ'y, or maximization of the rate of ible and has a uniform density of 1.0 gm/cc. Lengths
energy dissipation, with respect to unknown fields are in kilometers and the viscosityequals 0.67 x 10tl
requires that Poise (dynes,'cm2-sec).The model has 48 tnangular
elementswith 32 nodes.
Finite-element analysis of this model solves for
the nodal point displacementrates. These are dis-
linearequations:i?""rtr|tt["fi1t;"]it.iT:iT-^l#".ri'Jirtt"Jt:ffil:
inaserorNsimultaneous
rhisresults
di spl acement (Fi gure 5). The l engths of the l ines ar e
i l ) = 4 , ,i = 1 , . . . . . \ '
f,(U,,',U
rvhere: :::f,ffi:.T.'l""JJil:
3ili.'ll?il:'rl',i[:,-*ll]:r,fi
J o u r n a lo f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o h v, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 2
 A Finite-ElementModeling Approach to Gravitational
Tectonic Stress and Earthquakes
planeof symmet y
\

initial shape

tjo*
gravitational
body force t,l t.
.Y l 4 time steps

t('
,'''a |t
E time steps
+--+
lenglh
20 km

Figure4. Finite-efementmoderof a cross sectionthrough

a gravity-loaded rectangurar
12 time steps
ridge.rne u-oundaiyconoi-
lol llgng the right-handside mik"" iriir ,-p-rJ,ie'or
sym-
metrythrougha ridgethatis twiceas broad'istt,emoder.

symmetry
<_ J> 16 time steps
-r- -l--
{-- 1
tt | | Figure6. Cummufativeviscous dispfacements
due to
4/tl gllvitv foadingof a recta-ngutar,
one vear
ridgei i;;; i;;e step of
of igm,'cc,itre materiii'vis"olity
i/ / | "nd porse.
is 0.67x 1011 ",i:lsity
///t
using the new distortedmodel.In theseviscous
i'/ ,/ | the duration of the time step is orruy"ur.---*
moders,
stress is constant within each or tn. triangurar
I elementsof the finite-elementmodel. It
/" 2 is iound by
l- first calculating the strain rate rvithin each
element
a.ndthen applying the appropriate ,t."..-rirain
tion to the modeledstrain. Stress is displayedrela_
parr of rntersectingperpendicularii"u.- as a
d i s p l a c e m e nrta t e tiuf are the
tyo plincipal
I fength stressesin the prane of the cross sec-
tion. The third intermediatestress is perpendicurar
J zorm
l___--;
t'
-/
s kml vear
to the plane of the crosssectionand is not'or.pra1,ed.
compressivestresshas simple -qtraightii"".,-u"d
tensionalstress.isindicated'byin.r,r?irg ex-
Figure5. Viscousdispracement ;;lih circles
rates(or instantaneousat the ends of the rines.The iengtnr oi"tr,.-iirru, u""
efasticdispracementsi dueto giavity-rdiaiiig
s oi a visco_ proportionar to. th.e ampritude Jf the .t".., at the
efasticrectangularridge. same scaleas the key below the displa-l
*
grq-it.i'-loaded Stressis traditionaily divided into i'fiessltre
u recrangular ridge com-
fl9.i:l' and.,of
Iapse spread under its own we-ight.cuirulative
to col_ ponent,rvhich acts to changethe
volum; ;i;" mate-
viscous deformation (Figure 6) ."n 1. fo""J riai. and a sh,earc.otnponenT, which u.t, to"f.nange the
by .se- internal.ang-lss.Another n.a5,.
displacing each nocralpoinr-ti-tn" dis- gra'itational to display s;;;;, is as
1y_entyally.
p r a c e r n e n tr a t e a n d t h e n r e r u ' n i n g tectonicstressivhich i.'[..u JuG."a
the anarvsis the total stress minus
t h e l i t h o s t a t i c o v e r h u r d".e n
Journal of GeoscienceEducatiof,,v. 46, 1g9g,
p. 13
 A Finite-ElementModeling Approach to GravitationalTectonic Stress and Earthquakes
di spl ay than the tradi ti onal di vi si on of to t al st r ess
F\rl i nto pressure and shear stress. Thi s format is used
i
1 4 - \ ' q h - l
I
e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e s u b s e q u e n tm o d e l s .

The lnternal Ridge

f-4-'\\.i
10,000bar stress
lenEh
compression
20 km
--+ extension
Figure 7. Gravitationaltectonic stress within the gravity'
loided rectangular ridge. Gravitationaltectonic stress is
here defined as the total stress minus the lithostaticover'
burden pressure at the point in question.
pressure. Figure 7 shows that for the rectangular
ridge, the gravitational tectonic stress is predomi-
nantly a horizontal ext'ension consistent with spreading
of the material. We have found that the gravitational
tectonic stress format provides a more informative
The next model i s a 2O-ki l ometer-hi g h densit y
ri dge ernbedded rvi thi n sol i d materi al . The object ive
of thi s model i s to demonstrate how i nterna l densit y
structures, such as the roots of mountai ns, can cr eat e
gravi ty-dri ven di spl acements. The model also dem -
onstrates that gravity-driven displacements are the
re-*ult of lateral (not vertical) density structures.
Figure 8 shows the model and its boundary condi-
tions. The base of the model is fixed, the left-hand
side is supported by a horizontal traction equal to the
lithostatic overburden pressure, and the right-hand
side is free in the vertical direction but flrxed horizon-
tally (that is, the right-hand side is a plane of sym-
metry). The materiai has a uniform viscosity and is
fully incompressible. By varying the material density
configuration, this frnite-element model will be used
to explore a variety of different situations.
For the first situation, the material above the in-
terface is assigned a density of 1.0 gnt/cc and the
material below the interface a density of 2.0 gm;'cc.
The internal ridge then has a positive density con-
trast. This density configuration contains gteater
gravitational potential enerry than would be present
if the same material were arranged in flat layers
with the less dense material on top. Because the con-
figuration is in a state of elevated gravitational po-
tenti al energy, gravi tati onal tectoni c str ess and

free surface

lit hos E at ic
pressure
x

---------)

rtN
ii.l'rJ
\\N^r,

fixed surface
Length
m
0 50 100

modelof an internaldensitystructure.The heavydark linerunningthroughthe middleot the

Figufe8. Finite-element
ligureseparatesmalerialswith ditterentdensilies'
J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o r ,v . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 4
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c h t o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s
free surface
)
Lithostatic
Pressure 1.0 gm/cc
--+
4>1
2.0 gm/cc
Length (km)
r------T------l
0 50 100
Figure 9, Oisplacemenlrates due to gravity loading of a positive densily structure. Gravity lends to flatten the ridge
and lower the net gravitationalpotential energy in the structure.
gravity-driven displacement rates are present. These
displacement rates are shown in Figure 9. Note that
if the density structure could be maintained by some
unspecifred process, the displacement rate would be
continuous and the ridge along with the less dense
overlying material would continuously sink into a
more dense underlying material. We will explore the
implications of this ohservation in a later model of a
plate tectonic subductionzone.
For the next situation. the relative densities were
reversed, with the upper material set at 2.0 gm/cc
and the lower material at 1.0 gnicc. This is a density
inversion whose deformation can be regarded as a
growing diapir, The gravity-driven displacement
rates were exactly identrcal to those rn Figure 9 ex-
cept their directions were reversed.
Th e f inal s it uat ion i s s i mi l a r to th e s e c o n d e xcept
that density everywhere increases with depth, and
the ridge is represented solely by a lateral density
v a ri a ti o n ( F igur e 10 ). T h e re s u l ta n t d i s p l a c e ment
rates were found to be exactly ident,ical to those of
t he se co nd s it uat ion. E q u a l i ty b e tw e e n th e d i s p l ace-
me n t ra t es in t hes e t w o mo d e l s d e mo n s tra te s th a t i n
in co mp res s ible v is c ou s ma te ri a l s th e g ra v i ta ti onal
t e cto n i c s t r es s and t h e re s u l ti n g d i s p i a c e m e n t rat.es
re su l t fr om lat er al ( n o t v e rti c a l ) d e n s i ty v a ri a ti o ns.
Vertical density inversions are ineffective because if
t he ma te r ials wer e arra n g e d i n e x a c tl y p l a n e l a ;' ers.
t he stres s would ev e ry w h e re e q u a l th e l i th o s tati c
overburden pressure and no shear deformation
J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o f ,v, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 5
would occur. Finally, note that if the lateral density
structure could be maintained by some unspecified
process,the displacement rates would be continuous
and a diapir of more dense material can rise up into
overlJing less dense material. We will explore sorne
implications of this observation in a lat€r model of a
plate tectonic spreading center.
Viscous Detormation of a Simple Fold
Our third generic model is a simple fold formed by
horizontal compression of a viscosity-stratified mate-
ri al . The model (Fi gure 11) has a 40-meter-t hick,
more-viscous layer sandwiched between two 80-meter-
thick softer layers. Nlaterials are fully incompress-
ible and the viscosity of the stiff layer is 100 times
that of the softer layers. The modeled stiff layer in-
itially has a slight bulge near the left side to initiate
the fold. Without some initial perturbation from ex-
actly plane la,vers, the computer model uniformly
compresses the rnateri al rvi thout devel opi ng a f old.
Nlaterial densities for this generic model were arbi-
trarily set at I gm/cc.
The base of the fol d model i s constrai ned ver t i-
cally but is free to move in the horizontal direction,
rvhereas the ri ght si de i s constrai ned hori zont ally
but free to move in the vertical direction. The left
si de i s moved 10 rneters to the ri ght duri ng each t im e
step. Fi gure 12 show s the resul tant deformat ion.
S ome observati ons are (1) a l ' i scosi ty contras t be-
tween the la1'ers is required for frrld formation and
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c h t o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s

length (kn)

oso r_00
Figure 10. Finite'elementmodel ot a lateraldensity structur€.The diplacementsare identicallo those
associatedwith
a negativedensity structure, showing that it is th; lateraldensity cdntrasts,not the vertical,ttrit creare
lion. the detorma-

,.,}.
vtg .
F rr2 '(
(l)q)
,,|'
E
(J
E
o'E .r' 'I". ,'l' ''
i |
sa 6a "l.t'

.2 u)
ob
Eq)
q)E
Xr{
IJr v

I .' I .* -^.--_
-
I Lengh(meters) A
(100: I viscosifycontrast, I gm/cc)
50 100

Flgure 11. Finile'element

modelof a vjscosity-stratified
layermaterial,Forceddisplaeements
modeldemonstratethe development ot the tett side ot the
ol an intarnallold.
(2) because..gravit"vcompressesthe model, the fold plate Tectonic Spreading Center
de"elops within the layered material without sub- -to
Plate tectonici refers the now wideh. accepted
stantial defurrnationof the upper free surface. theory that the earth'i ;;ir; i; subdivided into
Journal of Geoscience Education,v. 46, 1999, p. 16
 A Finite-Element
ModelingApproachto Gravitational
TectonicStressand Earthquakes

Spreadl.ng Cerrt.er

Initial Shape Ll c.Lrorptrcra

**-
__ tu

Fi gure 13. C onceptual model of an oceani c sp r eading

5 Time Steps
l0 Time Steps
15 Time Steps
100 : I viscosify confrast
timeter 1.0 gm/ cc
Fi g u re 12. P r ogr es s ive d e fo rma ti o n o f a fo l d w i t hi n a
viscosity-stratified layered material.
about a dozen reiatively rigid lithospheric plates that
move with respect to each other. The contacts be-
tw e e n plat es inc lud e (1 ) s p re a d i n g c e n te rs , al ong
wh i ch new oc ean f l o o r i s c re a te d . e ) s u b d ucti on
zones, along which ocean floor returns to the earth's
interior, and (3) transform faults. where plates slide
center. The tendency for the cooler, more-dense litho-
sphere to slide off the upward pointed wedge of hotter,
less-dense astenosphere constitutes the push from the
ri dge componentof the pl ate tectoni c dri vi ng for ce.
past each other. Spreading centers are associated u'ith
bathymetric ridges and subduction zones are usually
associated utth bathlrnetric trenches. Continents are
composed of'less dense material which is rafted along
with the plates but, because of their lighter densities,
do not subduct. Descriptive plate geometry and the
relative motions of the plates have been reasonably
rvell determined (for example, see Cox, 1973).
The dynamic driving mechanism behind the plate
motions is less rvell understood but probably involves
some form of thermal convection (for example. see
W1'llie, 1976). One potential mechanism is the gravity-
driven rise of hot. low-density material within the
spreading centers and the complementary sinking of
cool, high-density material in the subduction zones.
In this push from the ridge, pull from the trench
mechanism, the shape of the convection cells is de-
termined by the configuration of the plates. The re-
turn flow that completes the convection cycle rvould
occur in the low-r'iscosit;' asthenosphere that under-
lies the lithosphere. Jacoby (19?0) has shou'n that
the energetics of this process is physically consistent.
He also notes inconsistencies with alternative models
involving deep-seated convection cells that drag the
plates (Jacoby, 1973). The push from the ridge, pull
from the trench mechanism is the basis for our piate
tectonic models.
Our model of a spreading center (Figure 13) has a
smoothly thickening layer of lithosphere on an up-
ward pointed rvedge of the asthenosphere. Boundary
conditions and the finite-element structure are
shorvn in Figure 14. The upper surface of this model
is free, the base is fixed, and the sides are supported

Lithostatic
Lithostatic
Pre ss ur e
Pressure
-)
+
-->
<_-
_+
<.-_
-----l>
<-

3.OO gmlcc on 2.92 gm/cc

IOO lClometers (+0.O8 gmlcc contrast)

Figure14.Flnite-element modelol an oceanicspreadlngcenter.The lithosphereis 0.08gm/cc more densethan the

underlyingaslhenosphere.andthe ridge aris is 0.84km tbove the sea floor it the siOesotifri mooll. The sides ot the
model are supporled by a lithostatic overburdenpressure.
Journal ol Geoscience Education, v. 46, 1999,p. 1Z
 A Finite-ElementModeling Approach to GravitationafTectonic Stress and Earthquakes

100

-360 -240 -120 120 240 360

-120 0
Distance(km)

Flqure| 5. Displacemenlratesdue to gravityloadingot the spreadingcentermodel.The displacements al the sidesof

thE model shdw the push-trom-the-dge cdmponentof the ilate tectonic driving force, and the displacementsbelow
the ridge show the tendency of gEvity to move materialup into the ridge.
by lateral surface traction equal to the lithostatic over-
burden. The upper surface, or sea-floor bathymetry,
mimics the shape of the lithosphere-to-asthenosphere
contact. but its relief is too small to show on the scale
of Figure 14.
Initially the crest of the ridge at the center of the
model was two kilometers above the sea floor at the
sides and the increased weight of the ridge bathy-
metry was exactly balanced by the wedge of astheno-
sphere. This model was isostatically balanced so the
total lithostatic overburden across its base was con-
stant. With this configuration there was a tendency
for the ridge to subside vertically, reflecting the fact
th a t e x ac t is os t as y d o e s n o t c o m p e n s a te fo r ongoi ng
viscous deformation. We next adjusted the height of
the ridge until the surface defcrrmation rate was pre-
d o mi nat ely hor iz on ta l . T h i s re s u l te d i n a ri d g e that
wa s 0. 84 k ilom et er h i g h a t th e c re s t a n d w :rs i sostati -
ca l l y ov er c om pensa te d ,
The assumed density contrast between the litho-
sphere and asthenosphere is 0.08 gm/cc. Recall from
the previous model of an internal ridge that lateral,
not vertical, density variations determine the gravi-
tational tectonic stress and deformation rates. The
modeled displacement rates do not require a vertical
density inversion, although a vertical inversion of
about 0.05 grrlcc probably does exists between oce-
anic lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere
(for exampl e, see P ress, 1969).
Figure 15 shows the pattern of gravity induced
deformation rates within the total model and at a
larger scale for the materiai directly beneath the
ridge crest. On the totai model, the outward-directed
di spl acements of the i i thosphere at the si des of t he
model are the push-from-the-ri dge compone nt of t he
pl ate tectoni c dri vi ng force. The di spl aceme nt r at es
di rectl y beneath the ri dge show the tende ncy f or
deepc'r mirterial to rise up under the frrrce of gravity

J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o f ,v, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 8
 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i c S t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s

100 bar
* ---- -=-l-'
. tension G-{-_-r
G---i---r+-{- -- C--+.

o--;+-++-e
.- 3.-
compression

*f=- .*-a
.-a-t ets-F-r

-t-
!
t a

Figure 16. Gravitationaltectonic stress beneath the ridge crest. The maxi mum stress i s a hori zontalextensionequal
to 65 bar and a shear stress equal to 30 bar. This stress is consistent with both normal faulting and earthquakesalong
the ridge crest.

into the axis of the ridge. If the bathymetry and den-

sity structure of the ridge result from thermal con-
duction or cooling as suggested by Sclater and
Francheteau (1970), then the density structure is
self-maintained and the spreading process is indefr-
nitely continuous. For a viscosity of 1020 Poise, the
mo d e l e d half s pr ea d i n g ra te i s o n e c m/y e a r . The
spreading rate in the model is inversely proportional
to the assumed viscositv.
Figure 16 shows the gravitational tectonic stress
within the ridge crest. This display uses the same
format as the simple rectangular ridge (Figure 7),
but to avoid confusion, not all of the available data
were plotted. The gravitational tectonic stress shows
a ma xim um hor iz o n ta l e x te n s i o n a l o n g th e ri dge
crest of 65 bar. The corresponding shear stress is 30
bar, where shear stress equals one half the difference
between the maximum and minimum principle
stresses. The central areas of spreading centers typi-
cally show high-angle normal faulting or rifting con-
sistent with horizontal extensional stress (for example,
se e Isac k s , O liv er , a n d Sy k e s , 1 9 6 8 ).
Pl a te Tec t onic S ubd u c ti o n Z o n e
Our den-qitymodel for a subduction zone is similar
to that of a spreading center in that both involve a
1 O0 -kilom et er - t hic k l i th o s p h e re th a t i s 0 .0 8 gml cc
l a te ra lly r nor e dens e th a n th e s u rro u n d i n g mantl e.
Th e su bduc t ed lit ho s p h e re e x te n d s d o w ' n i n to the
ma n tl e at a 45o ang l e a s a s l o p i n g w e d g e . F i g u re 17
sh o w s t he c onc ept u a l m o d e l , a n d F i g u re 1 8 show s
the arrangement of finite elements and modeled
b o u n d a r y c ondit ions .
As init ially c onf - rg u re d ,th e u p p e r s u rfi rc e of' the
model, or sea-floor bathymetry, rvas flat. This model
Figure 17. Conceptual model of an oceanic subduction
zone. The tendency for the cooler, more dense lithosphere
to sink into the hotter underlying mantle constitutes the
pull-from-the-trench component of the plate-tectonic
dri vi ng force.
had a strong tendency for vertical subsidence over
the subducted wedge. The configuration of the upper
surface of the model was then adjusted until the sea
floor exhibited a predominantly horizontal displace-
ment rate. These adjustments, dictated by the dynamics
of the model, resulted in a two-kilometer-deep trench
at the location indicated on Figure 18. The implica-
tion is that trench bathymetry is a consequence of
the dynamics of gravitational tectonics.
The di spl acement rates i n the modei are plot t ed
in Figure 19. These shorv the tendency for the more-
dense subducted l i thosphere to si nk i nto the u nder ly-
ing material. The inward-directed displacements of the
lithosphere along the Ieft side of the model are the
pull-front-the-trench component of the plate-tectonic
driving force. For a model viscosity of 5 x 1022Poise,
the rate of subduction is one cm/year. This rate is in-
versell' proportional to the selected viscosity.

J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o h ,v . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 1 9
 t o d e l i n g A p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s sa n d E a r t h q u a k e s
A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM

ModeledTrench
{

Lithostatic
Pressure ---t

--------)

-)

€
3.00gm/ccon 2.92gm/cc
100kilometers
( +0.08gm/cccontrast)
Fioure 18. Finite element model of an oceanic subduction zone. The lilhosphere is 0.08 gm/cc laterally more dense
th;n the asthenosphere.Adiusting the bathymetry to remove vertical detormationol the sea lloor resulted in a
two-kilometer-deep trench at the indicated localion.

I
I

.l

1I

Dirnensionless (viscosity and the time unit are arbitrary)

FiEure19. Displacement ratesdue to gravityloadingof the subductionzonemodel.The displacements al lhe uPPer

lefr side of th; model show the pull.lrom-the-trenchcomponent ot the plate tectonic driving lorce. The down-diP
disolacements show the subduction.

Journal of GeoscienceEducatiof,,v. 46, 1998,p. 20

 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c ht o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s sa n d E a r t h q u a k e s

\
\
/"/ .

\
f

/-L
/t / ';7'
I
+
\' \ll ' | .{
I
,+ I.

-A--+- \
t7
-{)t-

1\-1--<{#
--' \
\\,
\t
\

Figure 20. Gravitationaltectonic stress within the subduction zone model. The
stress is a vertical compression in the upper part of the subducted plate and a
100 brr X horizontal extension in the lower part.

200brr X
4- tenllon
300 brr Y
n compresslon

f\. u,,
C
t-1., t..

\,\\

,d / ( . , , , r . r'.,
.,,,...\\9
\
'
i/ \\\,, ':
\.'"-.
'-..
.. \,-N(o
\_tz-'\t).o
- , ' ' \ "z, t \ir,:., \
t., -.--'
/ - '----\ '|n
u
J \'.
,// '-- _.-.

/ ///

Figure21. The magnitudeot the gravitational shearstresswithinthe subductionzonemodel.The stress distribution

comparesfavorablywith the disiribution ot earthquakesin the Benioft zone beneathHonshu,Japan (Figure 221,

The gravitational tectonic stress (Figure 20) stressexceeds100 bar and is contouredin Figure 21.
shows vertica-l compression within the upper side of This shear shess magnitude cor-respondsremarkably
the subducted plate and horizontal extension within rvell with the distribution of earthquake foci s'ithin
the lower side.The magnitude ofthe associatedshezLr some subductionzones.For example,compareFigure

Journal of GeoscienceEducatioh,v. 46. 1998,p. 21

 A F i n i t e - E l e m e nM
t o d e l i n gA p p r o a c h t o G r a v i t a t i o n aTl e c t o n i cS t r e s s a n d E a r t h q u a k e s
n ---
t---
I
I
(nL
I
r"
I
' , ry-o
I .t
; r00f
- l
;- $
rsoF
c strated,
l
200 t-
lOD km ./
Figure 22. Distribution of earthquakes within the Benioff
zo n e beneat h Hons h u , J a p a n (H a s e g a w a a n d others,
1978 form Bolt, 1982).VF is the volcanic front and TA is
the trench axis. The earthquake distribution compares
favorably with the modeled shear stress magnitudes con-
toured in Figure 21.
2L with Figure 22, which shows earthquake foci in
th e B eniof f s eis m i c z o n e b e n e a th H o n s h u , Japan
(Hasegawa and others, 1978 from Boit, 1982).
Again recall that in our models, gravitational tec-
tonic stress and deformation rates result from lateral
density contrasts. The modeled subduction process
does not require a vertical density inversion; thus, a
lithosphere which is less dense at the lorn'er pres-
sures that exist near the surface can sink into a more
dense, higher pressure environment. If the lateral
density structure results largely from the lower tem-
peratures within the subducted lithosphere, then the
subduction process would be indefrnitely continuous.
The stress drop associated with earthquakes re-
fers to the coseismic decrease in the component of
the shear stress which is acting parallel to the slip on
the fault surface. This parameter can be calculated
th ro u g h det ailed a n a l y s i s o f s e i s mo g ra ms a nd i s
commonly found to be in the range of 10 to 100 bar
(for example, see Kasahara, 1981). The magnitude of
the shear stress in both the spreading center and
subduction zone models is comparable to this range
indicating that gravitational tectonic stress is capa-
ble of providing essentially all of the stress drop as-
so ci a ted wit h ear t h q u a k e s i n th e s e e n v i ro n ments.
The simplest earthquake mechanism is to have the
potential faults fail in a direct response to the gral'ita-
tional tectonic stress. As shown in Barrows and Langer
(1981) and Barrows (in review), the energetics of thrs
process involves the release of gravitational potential
enerry from the stress-causing density structure and
an increase in stored elastic strain energy.
CONCLUSIONS
Th e pr ec eding m a te ri a l i s a p ro g re s s re p o rt of an
ongoing investigation. Obviously a broader famill' of
rn o d e ls and t he ef f e c ts o f v a ri a h l e v i s c n s i tv n e e d to he
J o u r n a l o f G e o s c i e n c eE d u c a t i o f lv, . 4 6 , 1 9 9 8 ,p . 2 2
careful l y i nvesti gated and documented. S ome t ent a-
t.{ ti ve concl u-si onsbased on the i ni ti al resul ts ar e:
Y
- .{, . fi ni te-el ement model i ng of densi ty struct ur es can
r
be used to i nvesti gate gravi tati onal tecton ic st r ess
io-:d,
rdS- '- it)
and the associ ated deformati ons,
. a useful definition of gravitational tectonic stress
-5- --s i s " total stress mi nus the l i thostati c overb ur den, "
!-i o gravitational tectonic stress is the result of lateral
.t(I)
(not vertical) density structures,
. the push-from-the-ridge, pull-from-the-trench
plate tectonic driving mechanism can be demon-
glavitational tectonic stress is consistent with nor-
mal faulting and earthquakes along plate spread-
i ng centers,
gravitational tectonic stress is consistent with the
distribution of earthquakes within some Benioff
zones. and
. the magnitude of the calculated gravitational tec-
tonic stress is comparable w-ith the stress drop
commonly associated with earthquakes in these
environments.
In some respects. these tectoni c model s are analo-
gous to the groundwater flow models used in geohydro-
logic investigations. Both are necessarily simplifications
of much more complex physical systems and both aie
more adept at dismissing unrealistic concepts than
they are at establishing unique solutions. The virtue of
these computer model simulations is that they provide
insighf into what is possible and suggest measure-
ments or analyses which w-ill better define the critical
parameters.
Questions, comments, and criticisms of our work
are eagerly solicited, as are the efforts of others who
wish to further develop these techniques. Copies of
our computer programs are available from the lead
author.
A cknow l edgments
The authors thank Dale Norem and Dayid Malone
for their heipful reviews and comments. We specifi-
cally acknowledge the Illinois State University Honors
Program for the financial support that made this
study possi bl e.
References
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About the Authors
Lany Barrows reeeived his PhD degree from
the Colorado School of Mines in 1978. He worked
as an environmental geophysicist until 1993 when
he joined Illinois State University as an assistant
professor of geolory and coordinator of a geohy-
drolory graduate progrqp:t. He cunently teaches
physical geolory, exploration geophysics, environ-
mental geology, and computer modeling of
gfoundwater s;rstems.
Kevin Paul was a sophomore physics student
when he took physical geolory and began working
on the finite-element-modeling pr{ect as part of
the I.S.U. Honors Program. He received hie BS
degree in 1996 and is currently a graduate phys-
ics student at the University of Illinois where his
academic focus is special relativity.

Food for Thought

Forallthetalkaboutthe menagerie of particleslockedinsidethe nucleiof atoms,the universe
we directlyexperience is generatedalmostentirelythroughthe playof electronsand photons,
a dancewhosestepsare laidout in oneof the supremeaccomplishments of twentieth-century
science,a theorycalledquantumelectrodynamics, or QED.The theoryignoresgravityand
stopsshortof the nuclearfrontier,but it is stunninghow muchis stillencompassed withinits
grasp.We are electromagnetic creaturesin an electromagnetic world,existingat the intersec-
tion betweenfightand electricity.. . . In the worldwherewe find ourselves,it is QED that
providesthe rulesof the game.
GeorgeJohnson,1996, Firein the mind- Scr'ence, faith,and the searchfor orden
NewYork,AlfredA. Knopf ,379 p. (fromp. 132-133)

v. 45, 1998,p. 23
Educatiotr,
Journalof Geoscience