Chemistry Notes

Lecture 3 Alpha particle Beta particle Splitting of Principle Shells leading to Subshells

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The difficult to remember energy levels of subshells is: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f etc The easy to remember energy levels of subshells is: Orbitals (1) (3) (5) (7) 6s, 6p, 6d, etc 5s, 4s, 3s, 2s, 1s 5p, 5d, 5f, 4p, 4d, 4f 3p, 3d 2p

(do the 45o arrow thing)

Orbital Box Diagrams s= p = d =

f =

Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons of opposite spin. When drawing the electron configuration of an element or ion there are several rules to follow; Determine the number of electrons. For atoms this equals the atomic number. Draw an electron box diagram. Begin filling lower subshells. Do not pair electrons if unfilled equivalent orbitals exist. Paired electrons have opposite spins. Pg 137 revision for exam

Tabulated Representation of Allowable Combinations of Quantum Numbers Shell n 1 2 3 Subshell l 0 0 1 0 1 2 4 0 1 2 3 Subshell Notation 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f Orientation m 0 0 -1 0 +1 0 -1 0 +1 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 0 -1 0 +1 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 Number of Orbitals 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7

Ionisation how easy is it to lose Electronegativity electrons Some of the useful information found on Periodic Tables is ; Atomic Number:- The number of protons in the nucleus, determines the elements identity, equals the number of electrons in the neutral atom. Atomic Weight:- Average weight of the element as found in nature, or the most stable isotope of unnatural elements. Oxidation States:- The oxidation state/valency/charge of the element as commonly found in compounds. The most common is in bold. Electronegativity:- The atoms pull for gaining an additional electron. ie. X + e- XIonisation Energies:- The energy required to pull an electron off the atom. ie. X X+ + eElectron Configuration:- The ground state arrangement of electrons.

Depending on the structure of the atom and the capacity of the orbits: Low ionisation when the outmost shell isnt complete High ionisation (non metals more stable compounds)

Ionisation decreases as you go down, Metallic character increases as you go down the periodic table

The noble gases have the highest ionisation energy, less likely to lose electrons Generally across the table towards the right hand side the elements are less reactive because they are more stable. Electronegativity The noble gases

3/6/2012 11:03:00 PM Lecture 4 Ionic and Covalent Bonding When two dissimilar elements combine; e.g. sodium and chlorine, the strong non-metallic removes one or more electrons from the metal.

If two electrons are spinning in opposite directions they are allowed in the same region of space. Molecular Orbital: more that one electron

Total sharing Unequal towards the electronegative side Type of bonding: Polar covalent Covalent Ionic The elements tend to react by loosing electrons (Metals), gaining electrons (Non-Metals) or sharing electrons ( similar non-metals) so as to complete a stable outer shell configuration. The most stable is the s2p6 arrangement of the noble gases, group 8. E.g. Group 1 lose 1 electron. Group 2 lose 2 electrons. Groups 3 and 13 lose 3 electrons. Group 4 lose 4 electrons. Upper Group 14 share 4 electrons. (carbon) Lower Group 14 lose 2 or 4 electrons. (tin and lead) Upper Group 15 share 3 electrons. (nitrogen and phosphorus) Lower Group 15 lose 3 or 5 electrons. Upper Group 16 gain or share 2 electrons. Group 17 gain or share 1 electron. Group 18 are unreactive.

CHEMICAL BONDING Metals lose electrons easily, when it loses an electron it becomes a cation 1+ Metals The metals that we have daily contact with have the following propertiesDense and incompressible, Crystalline and generally have high melting points. (Mercury is an obvious exemption) Close contact, strong attractive forces within the metallic solid. Are good conductors of electricity and heat e.g. long power lines conduct electrical current as a "flow" of electrons. implies- freely mobile electrons within a fixed array of metallic cations. Attractive electrostatic forces between the cations and floating electrons hold the solid together. Ionic Solids eg . Sodium chloride, NaCl Ionic solids have the properties of-Crystalline, High Melting points, - strong forces of attraction within the ionic solid. Incompressible close contact. Are non-electrical conductors as solids, - no mobile electrons or ions. Dissolve in water to give cations and anions in solution, Electrical conducting as melts or dissolved in water. in solutions or in a molten state, the ions are mobile and available to conduct electricity. Ionic solids consist of regular (ordered) +'ve and -'ve ions in an infinite array eg Na+ClNa looses an outer electron to obtain the Ne noble gas

electron configuration. Cl gains an electron to obtain the Ar noble gas configuration. Infinite array of oppositely charged ions, there are no discrete molecules. The formula represents the ratio of +'ve to -'ve ions. Strong electrostatic attractions holds the crystalline structure together.

ie to break the solid up requires separating ions that are mutually attracted. The energy needed to do this is quite high. The process of melting then vapourising NaCl is the breaking up of the mutual attraction. NaCl melting point = 801oC boiling point = 1413oC We can also understand the properties of a series of ionic solids based upon the difference in electronegativities, eg Diff. in Electroneg. Melting Point. AlF3 2.5 1291oC AlCl3 AlBr3 2.0 1.3 190oC 97oC

Explanation- The reduced ionic character of the compounds also reduces the attraction between aluminium and the halogens. This leads to a lower temperature requirement to melt the solids. Common +'ve ions, Cations (all the metallic elements minus one or more electrons, hydrogen ion and ammonium) eg. H+, NH4+, Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Ag+, Al3+, Pb2+, Pb4+ Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal. Group 1, 2 & 3A metals form only one cation charge, 1+, 2+ & 3+ respectively. Many of the transition (d block) metals can form more than one charge, eg. iron, the charge is best indicated by roman numerals after the name. eg. Fe2+ iron (ii), old name, ferrous; Fe3+ iron (iii), old name, ferric. Common -,ve ions, Anions cf. Solubility Table. eg. F-, Fluoride O2-, Oxide PO43-, Phosphate Cl-, Chloride S2-, Sulphide Br-, Bromide CO32-, Carbonate I-, Iodide SO42-, Sulphate OH, Hydroxide SO32-, Sulphite HCO3-, Hydrogen carbonate

NO3-, Nitrate CH3CO2-, Acetate The names of anions from non-metallic elements that have gained electrons to complete an outer shell are the truncated element followed by ide. eg O2- is oxide. When an anion gains H+ to be a new anion, then hydro or hydrogen is added to the beginning of the name. eg -OH is hydroxide and HCO3- is hydrogencarbonate. Composite ions, eg. NH4+, CO32-, SO42- are best viewed as having internal molecular bonds, and the unit has an overall net charge. eg (NH4)2SO4

2H H N H
+

O H O S O O H

H N H
+

Formula of Ionic Compounds The names of ionic compounds are the cation name (and charge where necessary) followed by the anion. The formula of ionic compounds, such as those given earlier, show the ratio of cations and anions present in the compound. These ratios always balance out overall charge, the compounds as a whole are electrically neutral. eg. Calcium chloride, Calcium cation is Ca2+ and Chloride anion is Cl2+ needs 2-, ie 2 x 12+ therefore: Ca needs 2 x ClThe formula is: CaCl2

No subscript for Calcium implies only one, and the 2 subscript for Chloride implies two there of. Note, the charges on the ions are not shown in the formula. To balance ionic formula, the simplest approach is to cross multiple the charges. eg. Magnesium phosphate

Mg2+

and

PO43-

Mg3(PO4)2 (3 x 2+ balances 2 x 3-) If the above step produces a numbers having a common fraction, simplify. Eg. Titanium (iv) carbonate is: Ti(CO3)2 not Ti2(CO3)4 Provide the formula of: Sodium phosphate Na+ & PO43- Na3PO4 Magnesium sulphide Mg2+ & S2- MgS AlI3

Aluminum iodide Al3+ & IIron (iii) oxide 8 electron rule

Fe3+ & O2- Fe2O3

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