Wastewater management

Looking at the present situation of village Tintoda, as it has been already stated, village has 25 % drainage facility of what is actually required. Wastewater from the drainage is discharged in to a small lake situated in the downtown area. No treatment is being carried out before discharging the wastewater in to the lake. For such a condition, waste stabilization ponds can be a cost effective solution. Suitability: Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large, shallow basins in which raw sewage is treated entirely by natural processes involving both algae and bacteria. They are used for sewage treatment in temperate and tropical climates, and represent one of the most cost-effective, reliable and easilyoperated methods for treating domestic and industrial wastewater. Waste stabilization ponds are very effective in the removal of faecal coliform bacteria. Sunlight energy is the only requirement for its operation. Further, it requires minimum supervision for daily operation, by simply cleaning the outlets and inlet works. The temperature and duration of sunlight in tropical countries offer an excellent opportunity for high efficiency and satisfactory performance for this type of water-cleaning system. They are well-suited for low-income tropical countries where conventional wastewater treatment cannot be achieved due to the lack of a reliable energy source. Further, the advantage of these systems, in terms of removal of pathogens, is one of the most important reasons for its use. Components of WSP system: WSP systems comprise a single string of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in series, or several such series in parallel. In essence, anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for removal of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and maturation ponds for pathogen removal, although some BOD removal also occurs in maturation ponds and some pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds.

Anaerobic ponds Anaerobic ponds are commonly 2 5 m deep and receive wastewater with high organic loads (i.e., usually greater than 100 g BOD/m3.day, equivalent to more than 3000 kg/ha.day for a depth of 3 m). They normally do not contain dissolved oxygen or algae. In anaerobic ponds, BOD removal is achieved by sedimentation of solids, and subsequent anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge. The process of anaerobic digestion is more intense at

temperatures above 15o C. The anaerobic bacteria are usually sensitive to pH <6.2. Thus, acidic wastewater must be neutralized prior to its treatment in anaerobic ponds. A properly-designed anaerobic pond will achieve about a 40% removal of BOD at 10o C, and more than 60% at 20o C. A shorter retention time of 1.0 - 1.5 days is commonly used. Facultative ponds Facultative ponds (1-2 m deep) are of two types: Primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater, and secondary facultative ponds that receive particle-free wastewater (usually from anaerobic ponds, septic tanks, primary facultative ponds, and shallow sewerage systems). The process of oxidation of organic matter by aerobic bacteria is usually dominant in primary facultative ponds or secondary facultative ponds. The processes in anaerobic and secondary facultative ponds occur simultaneously in primary facultative ponds, as shown in Figure 2.1. It is estimated that about 30% of the influent BOD leaves the primary facultative pond in the form of methane (Marais 1970). A high proportion of the BOD that does not leave the pond as methane ends up in algae. This process requires more time, more land area, and possibly 2 -3 weeks water retention time, rather than 2 -3 days in the anaerobic pond. In the secondary facultative pond (and the upper layers of primary facultative ponds), sewage BOD is converted into Algal BOD, and has implications for effluent quality requirements. About 70 90% of the BOD of the final effluent from a series of well-designed WSPs is related to the algae they contain.

In secondary facultative ponds that receive particle-free sewage (anaerobic effluent), the remaining non-settleable BOD is oxidised by heterotrophic bacteria (Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Archromobacter and Alcaligenes spp). The oxygen required for oxidation of BOD is obtained from

photosynthetic activity of the micro-algae that grow naturally and profusely in facultative ponds Facultative ponds are designed for BOD removal on the basis of a relatively low surface loading (100 400 kg BOD/ha.day), in order to allow for the development of a healthy algal population, since the oxygen for BOD removal by the pond bacteria is generated primarily via algal photosynthesis. The facultative pond relies on naturally-growing algae. The facultative ponds are usually dark-green in colour because of the algae they contain. Motile algae (Chlamydomonas and Euglena) tend to predominate the turbid water in facultative ponds, compared to none-motile algae (Chlorella). The algal concentration in the pond depends on nutrient loading, temperature and sunlight, but is usually in the range of 500 - 2000 g chlorophyll-a/liter (Mara, 1987). Because of the photosynthetic activities of pond algae, there is a diurnal variation in the dissolved oxygen concentration. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the water gradually rises after sunrise, in response to photosynthetic activity, to a maximum level in the mid-afternoon, after which it falls to a minimum during the night, when photosynthesis ceases and respiratory activities consume oxygen. At peak algal activity, carbonate and bicarbonate ions react to provide more carbon dioxide for the algae, leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions. As a result, the pH of the water can rise to above 9, which can kill faecal coliform. Good water mixing, which is usually facilitated by wind within the upper water layer, ensures a uniform distribution of BOD, dissolved oxygen, bacteria and algae, thereby leading to a better degree of waste stabilization. Maturation Ponds The maturation ponds, usually 1-1.5 m deep, receive the effluent from the facultative ponds. Their primary function is to remove excreted pathogens. Although maturation ponds achieve only a small degree of BOD removal, their contribution to nutrient removal also can be significant. Maturation ponds usually show less vertical biological and physicochemical stratification, and are well-oxygenated throughout the day. The algal population in maturation ponds is much more diverse than that of the facultative ponds, with non-motile genera tending to be more common. The algal diversity generally increases from pond to pond along the series (Mara, 1989). Although faecal bacteria are partially removed in the facultative ponds, the size and numbers of the maturation ponds especially determine the numbers of faecal bacteria in the final effluent. There is some removal of solids-associated bacteria in anaerobic ponds, principally

by sedimentation. The principal mechanisms for faecal bacterial removal in facultative and maturation ponds are now known to be: (a) Time and temperature; (b) High pH (> 9); and (c) High light intensity, combined with high dissolved oxygen concentration. Time and temperature are the two principal parameters used in designing maturation ponds. Faecal bacterial die-off in ponds increases with both time and temperature (Feachem et al., 1983). High pH values (above 9) occur in ponds, due to rapid photosynthesis by pond algae, which consumes CO2 faster than it can be replaced by bacterial respiration. As a result, carbonate and bicarbonate ions dissociate, as follows: 2 HCO3- CO32 + H2O + CO2 (2.9) CO32- + H2O2 2 OH- + CO2 (2.10) The resulting CO2 is fixed by the algae, and the hydroxyl ions accumulate, often raising the pH to values above 10. Faecal bacteria (with the notable exception of Vibrio cholerae) die very quickly at pH values higher than 9 (Pearson et al., 1987c). The role of high light intensity and high dissolved oxygen concentration has recently been elucidated (Curtis et al., 1992). Light of wavelengths between 425 700 nm can damage faecal bacteria by being absorbed by the humic substances ubiquitous in wastewater. They remain in an excited state sufficiently long to damage the cell. Lightmediated die-off is completely dependent on the presence of oxygen, as well as being enhanced at high pH values. Thus, the sun plays a three-fold role in directly promoting faecal bacterial removal in WSP, and in increasing the pond temperature, and more indirectly by providing the energy for rapid algal photosynthesis. This not only raises the pond pH value above 9, but also results in high dissolved oxygen concentrations, which are necessary for its third role; namely, promoting photo-oxidative damage. Design of the component units of WSP system: Design parameters There are four important design parameters for WSP, including temperature, net evaporation, flow and BOD. The climate also is important inasmuch as the processes responsible for BOD5 and fecal bacterial removal are temperature-dependent. Further, algal photosynthesis depends on solar insulation, itself a function of latitude and cloud cover. Cloud cover periods are seldom a problem because the solar insulation during the day in tropical and sub-tropical regions generally greatly exceeds the saturation

light intensity of the algae in the ponds. The design temperature usually is the mean air temperature in the coolest month (or quarter). The pond water is usually 2-3o C warmer than the air temperature in the cool season, with the reverse also being true. Because the bacteria responsible for treatment are mesophilic, high temperatures are not a problem. However, low temperatures can be since they slow down the treatment process. In the case of the methanogenic bacteria (crucial to anaerobic digestion), methane production virtually ceases below temperatures of 150 C. Thus, in areas where the pond temperature remains below 150 C for more than a couple of months of the year, careful consideration should be given to deciding whether or not anaerobic units are needed. Net evaporation (evaporation minus rainfall) must be taken into account during the design of facultative and maturation ponds, but not for anaerobic ponds (Arthur, 1976). Anaerobic ponds generally have a scum layer, which effectively prevents significant evaporation. Total nitrogen and free ammonia (NH3, rather than NH+4 + NH3) are important in the design of wastewater-fed fishponds. Typical concentrations of total nitrogen in raw domestic wastewater are 20-70 mg N/l, and total ammonia (NH4+ + NH3) concentrations are 15 40 mg N/l. Faecal coliform numbers are important if the pond effluent is to be used for unrestricted crop irrigation or for fishpond fertilization. Grab samples of the wastewater may be used to measure the faecal coliform concentration if wastewater exists. Geometry of ponds:

To avoid sludge banks forming near the inlet, generally, anaerobic and primary facultative ponds should be rectangular, with length-tobreadth ratios of 2-3 to 1. The geometry of secondary facultative and maturation ponds can have up to 10 to 1 length-to-breadth ratios to better approximate plug flow conditions. Avoid the use of multi-inlet and/or outlet. The inlet should not discharge centrally in the pond as this maximizes hydraulic shortcircuiting. A single inlet and outlet should be located in diagonally opposite corners of the pond. To facilitate wind-induced mixing of the pond surface layers and maximize the settlement of solids, the pond should be oriented so

that its longest dimension (diagonal) lies in the direction of the prevailing wind.

Although pond depth recommendations have been given, the depth will need to be related to the site conditions such as whether there are rock strata, or the height of the water table. Pond width should be kept less than 24 m because of the reach limitations of excavator and desludging machinery. When designing the pond geometry, it is necessary to take into account the possibilities for the access of machinery used for desludging and emptying both sides of the ponds. Baffles should only be used with caution. In facultative ponds, when baffles are needed because the site geometry is such that it is not possible to locate the inlet and outlet in diagonally opposite corners, care must be taken in locating the baffle(s) to avoid too high a BOD loading in the inlet zone (and consequent possible risk of odor release). In maturation ponds baffling is advantageous as it helps to maintain the surface zone of high pH, which facilitates the removal of faecal bacteria. A 50 cm freeboard should be provided in the design. For ponds between 1 ha and 3 ha, the freeboard should be 0.5-1 m.

The topography may necessitate subdividing ponds into a series of two or more parallel ponds. Furthermore, for population more than 10,000, this subdivision is even recommended so as to increase operational flexibility. The effluent quality and the performance of secondary facultative ponds are independent of pond geometry, at least within the range of length to breadth ratios of 1 to 6 and within the depth range of 1 to 2 m (Mara et al 2001).

A. Estimation of water flows and BOD concentrations : Li = 1000B/q Where, Li is wastewater BOD (mg/l), B is BOD contribution (g/capita.day),

q is wastewater flow (L/ capita.day). Derived values: B= 40 g/capita. day, q= 100 litres/capita. day Li = 100040/100 = 400 mg/l B. Design of WSP Units: Anaerobic Pond: Volume of the anaerobic pond: The anaerobic ponds are designed on the basis of volumetric loading (v, g/m3/d), which is given by: v,= LiQ/Va Where, Li is influent BOD (mg/l), Q is flow rate (m3/day), Va is anaerobic pond volume (m3). Considering, volumetric loading as 350 g/m3/d, (Temp > 25 C) Li = 400 mg/l = (400 1/1000 g ) (1/1000 m3) = 400 g/m3 Q = (100/1000) 7000 = 700 m3/d Va = (400 700)/350 = 800 m3 Hence, volume of the anaerobic pond is determined as 800 m3 Hydraulic Retention Time: a = Va/Q a = 800/700 = 1.15 days Area of the anaerobic pond Assuming depth as 2.5 m, Aa= 800/2.5 = 320 m2 Facultative pond: Facultative pond area : Af = 10LiQ/s

Where S is design surface loading kg BOD/ha day at 30 C temperature. s = 350 (1.107-0.002T)T-25 = 581 kg BOD/ha day Af = (10 120-700)/516.7 = 1445.78 m2 Hydraulic Retention time: f = 2AfD/(2Qi 0.001Afe) f = 21625.71.5/(2700 0.0011625.75) = 3.11 days Hence, considering 4 days of retention time., The cumulative filtered BOD removal in the anaerobic and facultative ponds is 90% for T > 20 C, so the facultative pond effluent has a filtered BOD of (0.1 400), i.e. 40 mg/l, which is not suitable for river discharge but can be discharged on land for irrigation purpose. Maturation Pond: Hydraulic Retention time: m = {[Ni/Ne(1 + kTa)(1 + kTf)]1/n 1}/kT Ni = Influent faecal coliform per 100 ml = 5 107 Ne = Effluent faecal coliform per 100 ml = 1000 kT = first order rate constant for FC removal, d-1 kT = 2.6 (1.19)T-20 a, f = HRT for anaerobic pond and facultative pond n= Number of maturation ponds m = {[Ni/Ne(1 + kTa)(1 + kTf)]1/n 1}/kT = 4.6 days = 5 days Area of the maturation pond: Qi = Q 0.001 Af e = 700 - .0011445.785 = 692.8 m3/day Am = 2Qim / (2D + 0.001em) = 2290.24 m2 considering D=1.5 m Design considerations: Finney and Middlebrooks (1980) stated that consistent prediction of pond performance by any design method without accurate projections of hydraulic residence time is impossible. Shilton (2001) presented an extensive study on the hydraulics of stabilization ponds. Twenty experimental configurations were tested in the laboratory and ten of these experimental cases were mathematically modeled and had good

agreement with the experimental work. Shilton and Harrison (2003) then introduced broad and informative guidelines for hydraulic design of WSP to "help fill the knowledge gap in the pond hydraulics area". Although engineering judgment is always required, and the current understanding of ponds hydraulics is still limited, the following observations were proven to be useful for the purpose of improving WSP hydraulics, and consequently ameliorating WSP design, performance and efficiency:

Short-circuiting (when water enters and leaves the pond in a very short time) shall be avoided as it results in a large reduction in the discharge quality. Influent should be mixed into the main body of the pond to avoid localized overloading, taking into consideration not to create shortcircuiting. The solids deposition within the pond occurs as a result of the flow, rather than the flow being redirected as a result of the solids. Inlet position and type has a significant impact on treatment efficiency in ponds. Dropping inlets from horizontal pipes above the water have similar behavior as submerged horizontal inlets. For high-load wastewaters, horizontal inlets may be needed to mix wastewater into the pond. Consider baffles and outlet positioning to avoid short-circuiting problems. For low-load wastewaters, consider a manifold or baffled vertical inlet but only after consideration of wind influences. Inlet positioning has a major influence on the flow pattern. Designers need to consider the effect of inlet position in conjunction with outlet position and pond shape/baffles. A pond should maintain a similar and reasonably well defined flow pattern through a range of different flow rates. Outlets should be placed out of the main flow path of the incoming wastewater (close into a corner). Final outlet positioning can be selected after the inlet position/type and pond/ baffling have been designed. Outlet manifolds are not recommended.

Long evenly spaced baffles improve pond performance. Baffles of 70% width gave superior performance compared with 50% and 90% width. Horizontal baffles were found to be more efficient than vertical baffles. Longitudinal baffling was found to be no more efficient than transverse baffling. Localizing baffles close to horizontal (but not other types!) inlets is generally effective. A minimum of two baffles in a pond is recommended. A further improvement was achieved using four baffles and this extra cost may be warranted in some cases. Based on Shilton and Harrison study (2003), more than four baffles would not be recommended. Traditional thinking that, in a long narrow pond, the influent simply flows slowly from one end to the other is not necessarily correct except at very high length to width ratio. Baffles that shield the outlet are beneficial. A diversion channel should be build around the pond (the topside) to divert storm water runoff coming from adjacent areas. PVC pipe, of at least 100 mm diameter is recommended for carrying effluent to the pond and between ponds. All ponds should be surrounded by a fence for public safety and health protection.

Standards: Note It is sometimes asked what is the lowest concentration of BOD at which WSP can operate. Generally speaking, WSP can operate satisfactorily at any level of BOD, although it is worth noting the following three points: (a) as noted in section anaerobic ponds should have a minimum retention time of 1 day; however, if the resulting volumetric BOD loading is <30

g/m3d, then anaerobic ponds should not be used as there is essentially no experience of their satisfactory performance at lower loadings; (b) Facultative ponds should have a minimum retention time of 4 days at design temperatures above 20C and 5 days at lower temperatures; the resulting BOD loading may be much less than that permitted by equation if the wastewater BOD is very low, but this does not matter the algal population will adjust accordingly and the nominally facultative pond will function algologically more as a maturation pond, but treatment efficiency will not be seriously impeded; and (c) if the wastewater BOD is below, or only slightly above, the CPCB effluent discharge standard of 30 mg/l (which might be due to excessive infiltration in the sewer system, for example), then probably no treatment would be required.

Geometry of the pond