1.

(a + b)(a b) = a2 b2

2. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)

3. (a b)2 = a2 + b2 2ab

4. (a + b + c + d)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + 2(ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd)

5. (a b)3 = a3 b3 3ab(a b)

6. (a b)(a2 + b2 m ab) = a3 b3

7. (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 -ab bc ca) = a3 + b3 + c3 3abc =

1/2 (a + b + c)[(a - b)2 + (b - c)2 + (c - a)2]

8. when a + b + c = 0, a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

9. (x + a)(x + b) (x + c) = x3 + (a + b + c) x2 + (ab + bc + ac)x + abc

10. (x a)(x b) (x c) = x3 (a + b + c) x2 + (ab + bc + ac)x abc

11. a4 + a2b2 + b4 = (a2 + ab + b2)( a2 ab + b2)

12. a4 + b4 = (a2 2ab + b2)( a2 + 2ab + b2)

13. an + bn = (a + b) (a b n-1)

n-1

n-2

b+ a

n-3

b2 a

n-4

b3 +.. +

(valid only if n is odd) 14. an bn = (a b) (a b n-1)

n-1

+a

n-2

b+ a

n-3

b2 + a

n-4

b3 + +

{where n N) 15. (a b)2n is always positive while -(a b)2n is always negative, for any real values of a and b

16. (a b)2n = (b a)2 and (a b)2n+1 = (b a)2n+1

17. if and are the roots of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, roots of cx + bx + a = 0 are 1/ and 1/. if and are the roots of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, roots of ax2 bx + c = 0 are - and -.

18. n(n + l)(2n + 1) is always divisible by 6.

32n leaves remainder = 1 when divided by 8

n3 + (n + 1 )3 + (n + 2 )3 is always divisible by 9

102n

+ 1

+ 1 is always divisible by 11

n(n2- 1) is always divisible by 6

n2+ n is always even

23n-1 is always divisible by 7

152n-1 +l is always divisible by 16

n3 + 2n is always divisible by 3

34n 4

3n

is always divisible by 17

n! + 1 is not divisible by any number between 2 and n

(where n! = n (n l)(n 2)(n 3).3.2.1) for eg 5! = 5.4.3.2.1 = 120 and similarly 10! = 10.9.8.2.1= 3628800

19. Product of n consecutive numbers is always divisible by n!.

20. If n is a positive integer and p is a prime, then np n is divisible by p.

21. |x| = x if x 0 and |x| = x if x 0.

22. Minimum value of a2.sec2 + b2.cosec2 is (a + b)2; (0 < < 90)

for eg. minimum value of 49 sec2 + 64.cosec2 is (7 + 8)2 = 225. 23. among all shapes with the same perimeter a circle has the largest area.

24. if one diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects the other, then it also bisects the quadrilateral.

25. sum of all the angles of a convex quadrilateral = (n 2)180

26. number of diagonals in a convex quadrilateral = 0.5n(n 3)

27. let P, Q are the midpoints of the nonparallel sides BC and AD of a trapezium ABCD.Then, APD = CQB.

Modulation

Modulation is an important step of communication system. Modulation is defined as the process whereby some characteristic (line amplitude, frequency, phase of a high frequency signal wave (carrier wave) is varied in accordance with instantaneous value intensity of low frequency signal wave (modulating wave.) Need for modulation : (i) To separate signal from different transmitters :Audio frequencies are within the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Without modulation all signals at same frequencies from different transmitters would be mixed up. There by giving impossible situation to tune to any one of them. In order to separate the various signals, radio stations must broadcast at different frequencies. Each radio station must be given its own frequency band. This is achieved by frequency translation as a result of modulation process. (ii) Size of the antenna : For efficient transmission the transmitting antennas should have length at least equal to a quarter of the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted. For an electromagnetic wave of frequency 15 kHz, the wavelength is 20 km and one-quarter of this will be equal to 5 km. Obviously, a vertical antenna of this size is impractible. On the other hand, for a frequency of 1 MHz, this height is reduced to 75m. Also, the power radiated by an antenna of length l is proportional to (l/)2. This shows that for the same antenna length, power radiated is large for shorter wavelength. Thus, our signal which is of low frequency must be translated to the high frequency spectrum of the electromagnetic wave. This is achieved by the process of modulation.

Types of modulation :A sinusoidal carrier wave can be expressed as

ec = Ec cos(c t + )

Its three distinct characteristics are (i) Amplitude (Ec) (ii) angular frequency (c) (iii) phase angle ().

Either of these three characteristics can be varied in accordance with the modulating signal. These result in three types of modulation. (i) Amplitude modulation (AM) (ii) Frequency modulation (FM) (iii) Phase modulation (PM)