CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A.

Background of the Study It is an evitable fact that English language is the most widely used language around the world. In current situation, four big countries in the world use English language as their national language that are United Kingdom, United States, Canada and Australia. Besides, all commonwealth countries also speak English as their second language. English is also used as one of the formal languages in United Nation. From the facts, we can imagine how big the influence of English language in current global situation. Indonesia government absolutely realizes with this situation, so that, they decide English language as a compulsory subject to learn in formal school. Even, since 1994, English has been decided as one of local-content subject at the elementary school in the fourth, fifth and sixth year.1 In line with GBPP (GarisGaris Besar Pedoman Pengajaran/ The General Instruction of Teaching), the teaching-learning process of English language concentrates on the four skills, that are; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. One of the four skills above which plays a significant role in mastering English is speaking. As a skill, speaking is the most used skill by people rather than the three other skills. According to Jack C. Richards, .Learners consequently often evaluate their success in language learning as well as the effectiveness of their English course on the basis of how well they feel they have improved in their spoken proficiency2.. From the statement, writer can say that most language learners study English in order to develop proficiency in speaking. Besides, many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication. Even, one of current models in literary of language education stated that language is a communication, not only a set of rule. It means that government and school with the model of language competences should prepare learners to communicate with the language in order to participate in the target language community itself. Competence Based-Curriculum or 2004 curriculum as current curriculum applied by Indonesian Government becomes such a bridge to achieve communicative competence (CC) especially speaking skill. Canale and Swain, as cited in Mariane Celce-Murcia, proposes that the ability to communicate in a language comprises four dimension namely Grammatical Competence (Including rules of phonology, orthography, vocabulary, word formation and sentences formation), Sociolinguistic Competence (rules for the expression and understanding of appropriate social meanings and grammatical forms in different context), Discourse Competence (rules of both cohesion-how sentences elements are tied together in repetition, synonymy, etc-and coherence-how texts are constructed), and finally, Strategic Competence (a repertoire of compensatory strategies that help with a variety of communication difficulties)3. This four competences show the abilities underlying speaking proficiency and it is also really important elements in the process of developing speaking ability. In line

with CC, one of the learning objectives of English language in 2004 curriculum is to improve CC including spoken communication. That objective is stated as follows: .Mengembangkan kemampuan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris, dalam bentuk lisan atau tulisan. Kemampuan berkomunikasi ini meliputi mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca dan menulis.4.
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(Developing the ability to communicate in English in the form of spoken or written. The ability involves the four skills that are listening, speaking, reading and writing). Even though one of learning objectives of English language above is directed to improve student speaking skill, but it has been put into effect in the classroom teaching learning process. It can be seen by the low levels student.s speaking skill. It can be seen from the writer.s experience when teaching Practice at SMAN 1 Ciputat. Only few students can speak English well, some of students can.t speak English well and even some others can.t speak English at all. There are many factors that make student speaking skill is low. It could be caused by internal factors and external factors. Motivation, interest, and intelligence are the examples of internal factors. Meanwhile, economic background, learning materials and teachers. performance including their teaching methods are the example of external factors. Method used by teacher in the classroom teaching is often assumed as the factor that causes the student.s speaking problem. The method used by the teacher has often been said to be the cause of success or failure in language learning for it is ultimately the method that determines .the what. and .the how. of language instructions5. Based on the writer experience when doing teaching practice at SMAN 1 Ciputat, the writer assumed that Audio-Lingual Method is the method used by the teacher. It could be seen from several teaching technique implemented in classroom teaching. The teacher often applied the drill technique in presenting speaking material before practicing the conversation on English text book Also, the students were encouraged to memorize the dialogue in pair and then they performed it in front of the class. Besides, the teacher seems to be the central in teaching learning process and students just received what the teacher taught. From that matter of facts, it is clearly seen that the method used by the teacher, in this case is Audio Lingual Methods, became the causes of students speaking problem. Eventough this assumption needs to be approved through this research, actually it.s not easy to teach language especially speaking without using suitable method because a large number of methods are based on ideas of how languages are learned. Therefore, the research is done in order to know the effectiveness of the method in teaching speaking. There are many methods of language teaching that may be selected for teaching speaking skill. One of them that is appropriate in developing speaking skill is Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL). According to Johnson: CTL is an educational process that aims to help student see meaning in the academic subject with the context of their daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated learning,

collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using authentic assessments6 From the statement, the writer says that CTL is the method that helps students relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires. In such an environment, student will discover meaningful relationship between abstract ideas and practical applications in the context of the real world. Concept is internalized through process of discovering, reinforcing and relating. In other word, this method is regarded as the effective method in teaching speaking. In teaching learning theory, this method is based on constructivism ideology. In teaching and learning model, students construct their own knowledge by testing ideas based on prior knowledge and experience, applying these ideas to a new situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with preexisting. Constructivism calls for active participation in problem solving and critical thinking regarding an authentic learning activity that students find relevant and engaging intellectual constructs. Even though CTL and ALM are regarded as the appropriate methods in teaching speaking skill, both methods have its advantages and disadvantages as the method used for achieving communicative skill including speaking ability. Therefore, in this paper, the writer would like to use Contextual Teaching and Learning in teaching speaking in order to know the effectiveness in developing student speaking ability as to compare with Audio Lingual Method. B. The Limitation and the Formulation of Problem 1. The Limitation of Problem In this paper, the writer limits the subject matters to discuss the effectiveness of teaching speaking through Contextual Teaching and Learning as to compare with Audio-Lingual Method at the first year students of SMAN (Stated Senior High School) 1 Ciputat 2. The Formulation of Problem To make this research more focus, the writer formulates research question as follows: .Does the use of Contextual Teaching and Learning in teaching speaking improve student speaking ability rather than Audio Lingual Method at the first grade student of SMAN 1 Ciputat?. C. The Objective of Study This study aims to know the influence of optimizing of Contextual Teaching and Learning in student speaking improvement. The writer hopes this research may become supporting material to get a better way of language teaching D. The Method of Research This research will be done by using experimental method. The writer will do field research by teaching two different classes using two different methods. In the beginning and in the end of the experiment, the students. speaking ability is tested using the same instruments of speaking test. Then, the data will be analyzed by using product moment theory. E. The Organization of Writing

This paper consists of four chapters that are: The first chapter is introduction which describes the background of study, the limitation and formulation of problem, the objective of study, the method of research and the organization of writing. The second chapter is theoretical frame-work which explains three matters. First, it explains the Understanding of speaking, the functions of speaking, the kinds of speaking activity, Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability and the assessment grading scale of speaking. Second, it explains the understanding of Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL), characteristics of CTL, the application of CTL in the classroom teaching and the procedure of CTL in classroom teaching. Third, it explains the understanding of Audio Lingual Method (ALM), the characteristics of ALM and the procedure of ALM in classroom teaching. The Third chapter is the discussion about research methodology and findings. Methodology of research explains the purpose of research, place and time of research, techniques of sample taking, techniques of data collecting, techniques of data analysis and procedure of research. Finding of research explains the description of data, the analysis of data, the test of hypothesis, the interpretation and discussion of data. Finally, the fourth chapter is conclusion and suggestion CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK. A. Speaking 1. The Understanding of Speaking Speaking is significant to an individual.s living processes and experiences as are the ability of seeing and walking. Speaking is also the most natural way to communicate. Without speaking, people must remain in almost total isolation from any kind of society. For most people, the ability to speak a language is the same with knowing a language since the speech is the most basic means of human communication. When we speak, a great deal more than just mouth is involved such as nose, pharynx, epiglottis, trachea, lungs and more. But, speaking isn.t just making sound. Birds, animals, babies make sound and though it may be communication of sorts, it.s not speaking.1 Actually, what is the meaning of speaking? In the process of writing this paper, the writer has tried to find out the meaning of speaking as one of skills in English language. He has finally found several resources that explain speaking as follows. According to Noah Webster, speaking has a variety of meanings: a. To tell, to say, to make known or as by speaking, to declare; to announce b. To proclaim; to celebrate c. To use or be able to use (a given language) in speaking d. To address2 In addition, Oxford Dictionary states that "speaking is to make use of language in an ordinary, not singing, to state view, wishes etc or an act of spokesman3.. Meanwhile, Henry G. Tarigan defines that, ..speaking is a skill of conveying words or sounds of articulation to express or to deliver ideas, opinions, or feelings4..

Don Bryne states that, .oral communication (or speaking) is a two way process between speaker and listener and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding5.. Based on the previous four definitions, it can be synthesized that speaking is the process of sharing with another person, or with other persons, one.s knowledge, interests, attitudes, opinions or ideas. Delivery of ideas, opinions, or feelings is some important aspects of the process of speaking which a speaker.s idea become real to him and his listeners. Meanwhile, in the process of writing this paper, writer has found some different terms that are associated with .speaking. from several resources that are .talk., .speech., .oral communication., .oral language. and .spoken language.. That is why the writer sometimes used that one of those five terms when explaining speaking theory in this chapter. Basically, all the four terms have similar meaning with term .speaking.. 2. The Functions of Speaking Several language experts have attempted to categorize the functions of speaking in human interaction. According to Brown and Yule, as quoted by Jack C. Richards, .The functions of speaking are classified into three; they are talk as interaction, talk as transaction and talk as performance. Each of these speech activities is quite distinct in term of form and function and requires different teaching approaches6.. Below are the explanations of the functions of speaking: a. Talk as Interaction Being able to interact in a language is essential. In fact, much of our daily communication remains interactional. This refers to what we normally mean by .conversation.. The primary intention in talk as interaction is to maintain social relationship. Meanwhile, talk as interaction has several main features as follows: Has a primarily social function Reflects role relationships Reflects speaker.s identity May be formal or casual Uses conversational conventions reflects degrees of politeness Employs many generic words Uses conversational register Some of the skills (involved in using talk as interaction) are: Opening and closing conversation Choosing topics Making small-talk Recounting personal incidents and experiences Turn-taking Using adjacency pairs Interrupting Reacting to others7 Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all learners. In talk as interaction, the ability to speak in natural way is required in order to create a good communication. That is why some students sometimes avoid this kind of situation because they often lose for words and feel difficulty in

presenting a good image of them selves. This can be a disadvantage for some learners where the ability to use talk as interaction can be important. b. Talk as Transaction This type of talk or speaking refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The message is the central focus here and making oneself understood clearly and accurately, rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each other8. In transaction, talk is associated with other activities. For example, student may be engaged in hand-on activities (e.g. in language lesson) to explore concept associated with tenses and derivations. Anne Burns, as cited in Jack C. Richards, distinguishes talk as transaction into two different types. One is a situation where the focus is on giving and receiving information and where the participants focus primarily on what is said or achieved. Accuracy may not be a priority as long as information is successfully communicated or understood. The second type is transactions which focus on obtaining goods or services, such as checking into a hotel9. In this type of spoken language, students and teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way to understanding. Meanwhile, talk as transaction has several main features as follows: It has a primarily information focus The main focus is the message and not the participants Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks There may be negotiation and digression Linguistic accuracy is not always important Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are : explaining a need or intention describing something Asking questioning Confirming information Justifying an opinion Making suggestions Clarifying understanding Making comparisons10 Compared with talk as interaction, talk as transaction is easier for some student because it only focuses on messages delivered to the others. Also, talk as interaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are a rich resource of group activities, information-gap activities and role plays. It can provide a source for practicing how to use talk fro sharing and obtaining information as well as for carrying out the real-world transactions. C. Talk as Performance This refers to public talk or public speaking, that is, talk which transmits information before an audience such as morning talks, public announcements, and speeches. Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog. Often follows a recognizable format and is closer to written language than conversational language. Similarly it is often evaluated according to its effectiveness or impact on the listener, something which is unlikely to happen

with talk as interaction or transaction. Examples of talk as performance are giving a class report about a school trip, conducting a class debate, making a sales presentation, and giving a lecture. The main features of talk as performance are: There is a focus on both message and audience It reflects organization and sequencing Form and accuracy is important Language is more like written language It is often monologic Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are: Using an appropriate format Presenting information in an appropriate sequence Maintaining audience engagement Using correct pronunciation and grammar Creating an effect on the audience Using appropriate vocabulary Using appropriate opening and closing11 It is clearly seen from the features and skill involved in using talk as performance that initially talk as performance needs to be prepared in much the same way as written text. Therefore, this kind of talk requires a different teaching strategy. This involves providing examples or models of speeches or oral
11Jack

C Richards, Developing Classroom., p.6

presentation. Therefore, question such as the following are needed in order to guide this process: What is the speaker purpose? Who is the audience? What kind of information does the audience expect Is any special language used? 3. The Kinds of Speaking Activities To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, there are some activities are used in the classroom to promote the development of speaking skills in our learners. The discussions below centers on the major types of speaking activities that can be implemented as follows: a) Discussion Discussion is probably the most commonly used in the speaking skills classroom activity12. It is a common fact that discussion really useful activity for the teacher in order to activate and involve student in classroom teaching. Typically, student are introduced to a topic via reading, listening passage, or a video tape and are then asked to get into pairs or groups to discuss a related topic in order to come up with a solution, a response, or the like. Normally, people need time to assemble their thought before any discussion and that is something needs to consider. So, Teacher must take care in planning and setting up a discussion activity. According to Marianne Celce-Murcia, there are several steps that should be done by the teacher before starting the discussion activity, that are: first, planned (versus random) grouping or pairing of students may be necessary to ensure a successful discussion outcome. Second, students need to be reminded that each person should have a specific responsibility in the discussion, whether it is kept on time, take note or report results. And finally, students need to be clear

about what they are to discuss, why they are discussing it, and what outcome is expected.13 In order to manage a good discussion activity, the writer concludes that the steps above are really important to do because most teachers hope that they will be able to organize discussion session in their classroom, particularly if the exchanges of opinions provoke spontaneous fluent language use. b) Information gap/problem solving One type of speaking activity involves the so-called .information gap.where two speakers have different parts of information making up a whole. Because they have different information, there is a .gap. between them14. In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need. An example of an information gap principle is using the .jigsaw. material . Jo McDonough and Christoper Shaw said that, In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same conversation.15 From the statement above, the writer can say that information gap and jigsaw activity are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language and they can exchange information each others because of the gap between them.
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c) Speeches Another common activity in the oral skills class is the prepared speech. Topics for speeches will vary depending on the level of the students and the focus of the class, but in any case, students should be given some leeway in determining the content of their talks16. In order words, the teacher can provide the structure for the speech-its theoretical genre and its time restrictions. For example asking students to .tell us about an unforgettable experience you had.. Allow them to talk about something that is personally meaningful while at the same time encourages narration and description. Speeches can be frightening for the speaker and after while boring for the listeners, so it is a good idea to assign the listeners some responsibilities during the speeches. It is an excellent time to require peer evaluation of classmate.s speech. d) Role plays One way of getting student to speak in different social context and to assume varied social roles is to use role-play activities in the classroom. Role plays can be performed from prepared scripts, created from a set of prompt and expression or written using and consolidation knowledge gained from instruction or discussion of the speech act and its variations prior to the role plays themselves17. Because sociocultural are so crucial in the production of speech

acts, it is suggested that discourse rating task, in which students rate dialogues or scenarios on various continua of formality and the like, can raise awareness about language and can help transfer this knowledge to production activities such as role plays. Besides, the social interaction activities, on the others hand, also requires the learner to pay more attention to the establishment and maintenance of social relationships. Meanwhile, two things can be added to this description. Firstly, the teacher could make the role-play a whole-class activity by having all the students act out a public meeting with many speakers. Secondly, not all role-play a party situation, for example, all you might need to do is set the party scene and then tell student to go either as themselves or as a living or dead person they would like to be18. Role play is more than just play-acting. It offers chances for rehearsal and engagement that some others activities fail to give. e) Conversations One of the recent trends in oral skills pedagogy is the emphasis on having students analyze and evaluate the language that they or others produce. In other word, it is not adequate to have students produce lots of language; they must become more metalinguistically aware of many features of language in order to become competent speakers and interlocutors in English. One speaking activity which is particularly suited to this kind of analysis is conversation, the most fundamental form of oral communication19. One way to approach this activity is to assign students to find a native speaker (or near-native speaker) they know and arrange to tape-record a 20-30 minutes interaction with this person. Of course, not all of the discourse that results from this encounter will be truly .natural conversation-the native may fall into the role of .interviewer and ask all questions while the non-native merely responds; therefore the instructor may want to encourage the learner beforehand to come up with a few questions to ask native speaker. In any case, the resulting interaction will provide a sample of spontaneous from (and for) the learner to analyze. In a variation of the conversation, learners are required to tape-record an interview with native speaker on a topic of their choices and then repot the result to the class . 4. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability According to Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Reynanda, there are four factors that affect student oral communication ability that are age or maturational constraints, aural medium, socio-cultural factors and affective factors. Below are the explanations of the four factors that affect student speaking skill. a) Age or Maturational Constraints Age is one of the most commonly cited determinant factors of success or failure in foreign language learning. Several experts such as Krashen and Scarcella argue that acquires who begin learning a second language in early childhood through natural exposure achieves higher proficiency than those beginning as adults. Many adults fail to reach native-like proficiency in a second language. Their progress seems to level off at certain stage. This fact shows that the aging process itself may affect or limit adult learner.s ability to pronounce the target language fluently with native-like pronunciation20. b) Aural Medium The central role of listening comprehension in foreign language

acquisition process in now largely accepted. It means that Listening plays an extremely important role in the development of speaking abilities. Speaking feeds listening, which precede it. So, speaking is closely related to or interwoven with listening which is the basic mechanism through which the rules of language are internalized21. c) Socio-cultural Factors Many cultural characteristics of a language also affect foreign language learning. From a pragmatic perspective, language is a form of social action because linguistic communication occurs in the context of structured interpersonal exchange and meaning is thus socially regulated. Thus, to speak a language, one must know how language is used in a social context. It is well known that each language has its own rules of usage as to when, how, and what degree a speaker may impose a given verbal behavior of their conversational partner. In addition, oral communication involves a very powerful nonverbal communication system which sometimes contradicts the messages provided through the verbal listening channel. Because of a lack of familiarity with nonverbal communication system of target language, EFL learners usually do not know how to pick up nonverbal cues. So, it is an important point to understand that sociocultural factor is another aspect that great affect oral communication22. d) Affective Factors The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important influences on language learning success or failure. The affective factors related to foreign language learning emotions, self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude and motivation. Foreign language learning is a complex task that is supectible to human anxiety which is associated with feeling of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and apprehension. Speaking a foreign language in public, especially in front of native speakers, is often anxietyprovoking23. These four factors play an important role in determining the success and the failure of student in learning speaking. Learning to speak a foreign language requires more that knowing its grammatical and semantic rules. Factors affecting Adult EFL learners oral communication is the thing that need to be consider by EFL teacher in order to provide guidance in developing competent speaker of English. Once the EFL teachers are aware of these things, he will teach in more appropriate way and it will help them to develop student speaking skill. 5. The Assessment Grading Scale of Speaking As most people say that testing speaking is the most complex to assess with precision. Many of teachers often feel uncomfortable when handling speaking test since it is often difficult to be objective and consistent when testing a large number of students. But it doesn.t mean that speaking test can.t be measured in correct way. Writer has found several resources that explain about the way to assess speaking test and its technique. Hughes, as quoted by Endang Fauziati, listed three general formats for testing speaking ability that are interview, interaction with peers and responses to tape recording24. Interaction with peers is the technique that will be used by writer to assess speaking ability. In the interaction with peers, two or more students may be asked to discuss a topic. The problem with this format is that the performance of one student may be affected

by that of others. One student might dominate the conversation. Therefore, Heaton said that it is important to make pair students with similar level of language proficiency. Meanwhile, determining the rating scale used is the next step to do in assessing speaking skill. Writer found various books that presented the sample of an oral English rating scale. J.B. Heaton in his book, Writing English Language Test, examined rating scale of six-point range. In addition, Ingram and Elaine Wylie, in their article .Assessing Speaking Proficiency in the International English Language Testing System examined rating scale of nine-point range. Besides, Harris in his book Testing English as a Second Language examined rating scales of five-point range. In this paper, the writer quoted the one that used by Harris as it is the most applicable to our speaking class rating system, since we would have 1-10 or 10100 range of point as stated in the guidelines of scoring speaking skill in 2004 curriculum. According to Harris, speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous use of different ability which often develops at different rates. Five components are generally recognized in analyses of speech process that are pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency (the ease and speed of the flow of the speech) and comprehension (an understanding of what both the tester and the testee are talking about or the ability to respond to speech as well as to initiate it)25. Harris presented the sample of an oral English rating scale that used 1-5 points. Below is the frame of Harris.s oral English rating scale
No Criteria Rating Scores Comments 1. Pronunciation 5 Has few traces of foreign language 4 Always intelligible, thought one is conscious of a definite accent 3 Pronunciation problem necessities concentrated listening and occasionally lead to misunderstanding 2 Very hard to understand because of pronunciation problem, most frequently be asked to repeat 1 Pronunciation problem to serve as to make speech virtually unintelligible 2. Grammar 5 Make few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar and word order 4 Occasionally makes grammatical and or word orders errors that do not, however obscure meaning 3 Make frequent errors of grammar and word order, which occasionally obscure meaning 2 grammar and word order errors make comprehension difficult, must often rephrases sentence and or rest rich himself to basic pattern 1 Errors in grammar and word order, so, severe as to make speech virtually unintelligible 3. Vocabulary 5 Use of vocabulary and idioms is virtually that of native speaker 4 Sometimes uses inappropriate terms and must rephrases ideas because of lexical and equities 3 Frequently uses the wrong words conversation somewhat limited because of inadequate vocabulary 2 Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary makes comprehension quite difficult 1 Vocabulary limitation so extreme as to make

conversation virtually impossible 4. Fluency 5 Speech as fluent and efforts less as that of native speaker 4 Speed of speech seems to be slightly affected by language problem 3 Speed and fluency are rather strongly affected by language problem 2 Usually hesitant, often farced into silence by language limitation 1 Speech is so halting and fragmentary as to make conversation virtually impossible 5. Comprehension 5 Appears to understand everything without difficulty 4 Understand nearly everything at normal speed although occasionally repetition may be necessary 3 Understand most of what is said at slower than normal speed without repetition 2 Has great difficulty following what is said can comprehend only .social conversation. spoken slowly and with frequent repetition 1 Can not be said to understand even simple conversational English

The oral ability test divided into five elements; pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Each element.s characteristics are then defined into five short behavioral statements as stated in the frames above. This helps to make the test reliable, since it avoids subjectivity because it provides clear, precise and mutually exclusive behavioral statements for each point of the scale. The writer will objectively see the characteristics of each student.s speaking ability whether they achieve 1,2,3,4 or 5 score. Then, it can easily calculate the score. The amount of maximum scores gained is 25. It is gained from the five elements of speaking as stated above. This amount of score can be described as follows: Pronunciation : 5 Grammar : 5 Vocabulary : 5 Fluency : 5 Comprehension : 5 25 Since our speaking class rating system is used the range of point 1-10 or 1100, then, to make it easier to calculate, the score is converted into 100 point scale by multiplying it with 4. The rating system used here is based on the rounding off system. It is also in line with the statement from Hazell. Hazell, as cited in Endang Fauziati article, stated that teachers could modify the range point scale based on their need. So, it is clearly seen that the writer modify the range score because the need of the scoring system as stated in the previous page. According to the rounding off system, writer concludes that 100 point is the highest score gained by a student and 20 point is the lowest score gained by a student. 6. Teaching speaking in KTSP (Kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan) Speaking is one of skills that taught in english language material. KTSP is curret curriculum applied by indonesian government. KTSP is similar with KBK

or curriculum-based competence in several ways. The differentiates are that KTSP give more space to the school to determine basic competency (kompetensi dasar) and indikator (indikator) based on the situation of the school. So, the government only determined the standar of competency and then it is interpreted by each school. A. The Standard Competence To implement KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan,) the local government now has right to improve more how to implement it in school level. It is obviously stated on the government decree number 19 year 2005 about National Standard Education: Sekolah dan komite sekolah, atau madrasah dan komite madrasah, mengembangkan kaurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan dan silabusnya berdasarkan kerangka dasar kurikulum dan standar kompetensi lulusan di bawah supervisi Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten/Kota yang bertangung jawab terhadap pendidikan untuk SD, SMP, SMA, dan SMK, serta Departemen yang menangani urusan pemerintahan di bidang agama untuk MI, MTs, MA, dan MAK ( Pasal 17 Ayat 2) Perencanan proses pembelajaran meliputi silabus dan rencana pelaksanan pembelajaran yang memuat sekurang-kurangnya tujuan pembelajaran, materi ajar, metode pengajaran, sumber belajar, dan penilaian hasil belajar (Pasal 20) So it is understood that school could explore and modify KTSP according to school.s need and its vision and mission. Furthermore, KTSP implementation is also stated on National Education Minister.s decree number 22 and 23 year 2006. In implementing KTSP, one of the points that need to be considered is how to develop the syllabus. In English subject, the syllabus is designed based on Standar Isi which is consist of subject, identity, competence standard and basic competence, main learning material, learning activity, and indicators, assesment, time alocation and learning resource. So, the goverment has defined standard competence for speaking in the first year grade (kelas sepuluh) at second semester of senior high school level as follows: 22 1. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional dan interpersonal dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari 2. Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks fungsional pendek dan monolog sederhana berbentuk narative, descriptif, dan news item dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari 2. The Basic Competence The basic competence is the minimum competence that needs to be mastered by the students in achieving reading skill; it is the modification of the standard competence. The basic competence for speaking skill in the second semester of first year grade student at SMAN 1 Ciputat are: 1. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional (to get things done) dan interpersonal (bersosialisasi) resmi dan tak resmi secara akurat, lancar berterimakasih dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan sederhana dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan melibatkan tindak

tutur:berterimakasih, memuji dan mengucapkan selamat. 2. Mengungkapkan makna dalam percakapan transaksional (to get things done) dan interpersonal (bersosialisasi) resmi dan tak resmi secara akurat, lancar berterimakasih dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan sederhana dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan melibatkan tindak tutur: menyatakan rasa terkejut, rasa tak percaya, serta menerima undangan, tawaran dan ajakan. 3. mempergunakan makna dalam bentuk teks lisan fungsional pendek (misalnya pengumuman, iklan, undangan dll) resmi dan tak resmi dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan sederhana dalam berbagai konteks kehidupan sehari-hari 4. mengungkapkan makna dalam teks monolog sederhana dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan secara akurat, lancar dan berterima dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dalam teks berbentuk:narative, descriptive dan news item. Further detailed of basic competence operational in speaking skill for senior high school in first year students (tenth year) at second semester will be explained in the indicator of learning out come. C. The Indicator The learning outcome or the indicator indicates some areas that need to be gained by the students in achieving speaking skills. Below are the learning outcome at second semester: 1. students are able to use and respond the expression of gratitude, praising, and congratulate to other 2. students are able to use and respond the expression of surprise, disbelieve annd offering 3. students are able to announce in the form of spoken language 4. students are able to deliver verbal invitation 5. students are able to act the monolog to advertise something 6. students are able to use oral language 7. students are able to use simple present tense in describing something or someone 8. students are able to do monolog to deliver an information and to describe something 9. students are able to tell the story in the form of oral language 10. students are able to be a reporter and story teller B. Contextual Teaching and learning (CTL) 1. The Understanding of CTL The philosophy of CTL was rooted from progressivisms of John Dewey26. John Dewey, an expert of classical education proposed the theory of curriculum and teaching methodology related to the student.s experience and interest Principally, the students will learn effectively if they can make a connection between what they are learning with the experience they had, and also they actively involve in learning process in the classroom. John Dewey, as quoted by Donald freeman, said that,. what an individual has learned in the way of knowledge and skills in one situation becomes an instrument of understanding and dealing effectively with the situation which follows. The process goes on as long as life and learning continue27.

The theory of Cognitivisme also influenced the philosophy of CTL. The students will learn so well if they actively involve in the classroom activities and have a chance to inquiry it by their selves. Students will show their learning achievement through the real things that they can do. Learning is regarded as an effort or intellectual activity for developing their idea through introspection activity28. Based on two theories above, the CTL philosophy was developed. CTL is a proven concept that incorporates much of the most recent research in cognitive science. It is also a reaction to the essentially behaviorist theory that have dominated American education for many decades. CTL is promoted as the alternative for the new learning strategy. CTL emphasize the learning process through .constructing. not memorizing and teaching is interpreted as an activity of inquiring process not only transferring knowledge to the students. In CTL, student are expected to develop their own understanding from their past experience or knowledge (assimilation). It is important because our brain or human mind functioned as the instrument for interpreting knowledge so that it will have a unique sense. Meanwhile, several attempts have been made to define the meaning of CTL method. In the process of searching the meaning of CTL, writer has found several definitions about it from different resources. Johnson defines CTL as follows: CTL is an educational process that aims to help student see meaning in the academic subject with the context of their daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated learning, collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using authentic assessments29 In addition, Berns and Errickson stated that, Contextual teaching and learning is a conception of teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivates students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires.30. Meanwhile, The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching and Learning, as cited in Nurhadi, formulate the definition of CTL as follows, Contextual teaching is teaching that enables students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic knowledge and skills in a variety of in-school and out-of school settings in order to solve the stimulated or real-world problems.31 Based on the previous four definitions, the writer concludes that CTL is the way or the concept of teaching that help teacher and students to relate subject matter to the real life situation and motivate student to connect and apply all aspect of learning into their role in real life. When we talked about context, most people say that it related to their social life. In the classroom teaching, CTL means teacher should present the student real world inside the classroom. 29 2. The Characteristics of CTL Johnson, as quoted by Nurhadi, characterizes CTL into eight important elements as follows:

1. Making Meaningful Connections Students can organize them selves as learners, who learn actively in improving their interest individually, person who can work individually or collectively in a group, and a person who can do learning by doing 2. Doing Significant Work Student can make relationship among schools and the various existing contexts in the real world as business maker and as a citizen 3. Self-Regulated Learning Students do the significant work; it has purpose, it has connection with others, it has connection with decision making and it has the concrete results or products 4. Collaborating Students are able to work together. The teacher helps students in order to work effectively in a group and teacher helps them to understand the way how to persuade and communicate each others. 5. Critical and Creative Thinking Students are able to apply higher level thinking critically and effectively. They are able to analyze, to synthesize, to tackle the problem, to make a decision and to think logically. 6. Nurturing the Individual Students carry on their selves, understand, give attention, posses high wishes, motivate and empower themselves. Students can.t get the success without the support from adult people. Students should respect their companion and adult person 7. Reaching High Standards Students know and reach the high standard. It identifies their purposes and motivates them to reach it. Teacher shows to students how to reach what called .excellent. 8. Using Authentic Assessments Students use academic knowledge in the real world context to the meaningful purposes. For example, students may describe the academic information that have learnt in subject of science, health, education, math, and English subject by designing a car, planning the school menu, or making the serving of human emotion or telling their experience32 These eight characteristics make CTL different from other methods. These Characteristics became the main components in applying CTL method. It is also clearly seen that these eight characteristics asks the students for actively involving in classroom activity. Collaborating, nurturing the individual and creative and critical Thinking ask the students to responsible for their own learning. The role of teacher in CTL is to facilitate student to find the fact or the meaning, concept, or principles for their selves. Once these eight characteristics applied in classroom, it will help both student and teachers in creating a good atmosphere where the learners have a great responsibility in achieving their success in leaning. 3. The Principle of CTL 1. Constructivism Constructivism is the foundation of CTL. The basic premise is that an individual learner must actively .build. knowledge and skills. However, all

advocates of constructivism agree that it is the individual.s processing of stimuli from the environment and the resulting cognitive structure that produce adaptive behavior rather than the stimuli themselves33. In the classroom teaching learning process, the application of constructivism are applied in five step of learning that are activating knowledge, acquiring knowledge, understanding knowledge, applying knowledge and reflecting on knowledge34. The constructivism paradigm has led us to understand how learning can be facilitated through certain types of engaging, constructive activities. This model of learning emphasizes meaningmaking through active participation in situated context socially, culturally, historically, and politically. 2. Inquiry Basically, inquiry is a complex idea that means many things to many people in any contexts. Inquiry is asking, asking something valuable that related to the topic discussed. Inquiry is defined as .a seeking for truth, information or knowledge.seeking information by questioning. in applying inquiry activity in the classroom teaching, there are several steps that should be followed that are formulating problem, collecting data through observation, analyzing and presenting data (through written form, picture, report and table) and finally, communicating and presenting the result of data to the readers, classmates, and the other audients 3. Questioning Questioning is the mother of contextual teaching and learning, the beginning of knowledge, the heart of knowledge and the important aspect of learning. Sadker and Sadker, as quoted by Nurhadi, mentioned the important of questioning technique in classroom teaching. They said, To question well is to teach well. In the skillful use of the question more than anything else lies fine art of teaching; for in it we have the guide to clear and vivid ideas, and the quick spur of imagination, the stimulus to thought, the incentive to action. What.s in a question, you ask? Everything. It is the way of evoking stimulating response or stultifying inquiry. It is in essence, the very core of teaching. The art of questioning is the art of guide learning35 Sometimes, the teacher asks to the students before, during and after the lesson. At other times, they are posed effectively by the students to focus their own lesson, keep them engaged and help them monitor their understanding of what was learned. In a productive teaching learning, questioning activity are useful for checking students comprehension, solving problem faced by students, stimulating responses to the students, measuring student.s curiosity, focusing student attention, and refreshing students prior knowledge. 4. Learning Community In learning community, the result of learning can be gotten from gathering others and also can be taken from sharing with friends, other groups, and between make out person and not. Actually, learning community has the meaning as follows: 1).Group of learning which communicate to share the idea and experience, 2).Working together to solve the problem and 3).The responsibility of each member of learning group It is sometimes forgotten that language classes operate as communities, each within its own collection of shared understandings that have been build up

over time. The overall character or each language class is created, developed, and maintained by everyone in room. Each class member has a specific role to play, even those with ostensibly low profile such as .onlooker. or .observer. (noticing what is going on), .knower. (being privy to shared class understanding) and follower (reacting in the same way as everyone else to certain teacher or student initiatives). 35 Nurhadi 5. Modeling Basically, modeling is verbalization of ideas, teacher demonstrates to students to study and acting what the teacher need to be implemented by students. Modeling activity can be summarized into demonstrates the teacher.s opinion and demonstrates how does the teacher want the student to learn 6. Reflections Reflection is the ways of thinking about what the students have learned and thinking about what the students have done in the past. Reflection is figuration of activity and knowledge that just have received. Teacher need to do the reflections in the end of teaching learning process. In the end of teaching learning process, teacher spends a little time and ask student to do the reflection. The realization of reflection can be done by giving direct statement about the information that acquired in the lesson, some notes or journal on student book, some impression and suggestion from students about the learning process and discussion. 7. Authentic Assessment Authentic assessment is a procedure of achievement in the CTL. Assessments of students. performance can come from the teacher and the students. Authentic assessment is the process of collecting the data that can give the description of student learning development. In the process of learning, not only the teacher that can be placed to provide accurate assessments of students. performance, but also students can be extremely effective at monitoring and judging their own language production. They frequently have a very clear idea of how well they are doing or have done, and if we help them to develop this awareness, we can greatly enhance learning36. Meanwhile, authentic assessment has some characteristics that are :(a) Involves real world experience, (b) Allows access to information, (c) Encourages the use of computer, dictionary and human resources, (d) Engages the students by relevance, (e) Uses open-ended format, (f) Includes self-assessment and reflection, (g) Warrant effort and practice, (h) Identifies strength to enable students to show what they can do and (i) Make assessment criteria clearer to students37 Essentially, the question that needs to answer by authentic assessment is .Does the students learn something?. not .What have they already known?. So, the students are assessed through many ways, not only assessed their examination test. 3. The Procedure of CTL in Teaching Speaking Seven main components of CTL that explained above are the main requirements in classroom teaching learning process. Below are the procedures how to apply CTL, including speaking class activity, in the classroom teaching learning process. 1. Improve the understanding that student will learn more effectively through self-learning, self-inquiring, and self-constructing using their own

knowledge and experience. First, Teacher need to encourage student to actively involve in learning process and use the student.s idea and experience to conduct the learning and whole learning unit 2. do the inquiring activity to achieved desired competences in speaking activity In this step, the teacher presents the speaking material (e.g in the form of certain pictures or visual aid that describes some activities) in which the student need to analyze it by their self. Try to challenge the students with their own ideas and conceptions to interpret it. Allow them to present their own idea and encourage them to apply their own ideas, experience and interest to direct learning process. 3. Create learning community or learning in groups This step will help student to improve their leadership and their cooperation among the student. In this step, the students discuss the material with their friends and then they present it in front of the class. To make the learning process more effective, teacher need to encourage the students to express their own ideas before the teacher did it. 4. Questioning as a learning tool. it is useful for improving student.s curiosity The teachers allow the students to ask something related to the material after the discussion and presentation session finished. It will give them more understanding in material discussed. 5. Do the reflection in the end of learning to make student feel that they have learned something. Provide enough time to reflect, analyze, and respect all ideas that are expressed by all students. Teacher need to engage the students in searching the information that can be applied in solving the problem in their own life. So, the learning process will give them many benefits in their real life. C. Audio-Lingual Method 1. The Understanding of Audio-Lingual Method The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical circumstances38. For its views on language, Audio-Lingualism drew on the work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of American linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. However, because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed. At the same time, Behaviorists psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behaviour (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-Lingual Method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. At that time, there was a need for people to learn foreign language rapidly for military purposes. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the Audio-Lingualism came to be known as the .Army Method.. This method also was developed as a reaction to the grammar-translation method of teaching foreign languages39. Grammar-translation had been used to

teach for thousands of years, but the method was perceived as taking too long for learners to be able to speak in the target language. The Audio-Lingual method set out to achieve quick communicative competence through innovative methods. Audio-Lingual Method which based on Behaviorism was also one of the basic contributions of linguistics to the teaching of modern foreign language in the 1940.s40. Modern linguistic science maintains that language is behavior. The Audio-Linguists maintain that only classroom procedures which include behavior in the classroom will develop the terminal behavior desired. Meanwhile, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia in internet, define AudioLingual Method as follows: The Audio-Lingual Method, or the Army Method or also the New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement.correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback41. Thus, it can be concluded that Audio-lingual method is followed behaviorists theory. This method is an interpretation of language learning in terms of stimuli and response, operant conditioning and reinforcement with emphasis on successful error-free learning. In this method, language is primarily spoken and only secondarily written. Therefore, it is assumed that speech has priority in language teaching. 2. The Characteristics of ALM Brown has summarized the Characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method as follows: 1. New material is presented in dialog form. 2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning. 3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time. 4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. 5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation. 6. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. 7. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. 8. Great importance is attached to pronunciation. 9. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. 10. Successful responses are immediately reinforced. 11. There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances. 12. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content42. This is useful for the teacher of speaking skills in the classroom to look at the characteristics of Audio-Lingual Method in order to present this method in the correct way. From the characteristics above, it can be seen that this method is primarily concern with the speaking skill. This method is really concerned about the pronunciation in producing words because it is important o prevent learners from making errors. It is also clearly seen that one of the language teacher.s major roles is a model of the target language. Teacher should provide students with a native-speaker-like model. By listening to how it is supposed to sound and

students should be able to mimic the model. 3. The Procedure of Audio-Lingual Method in teaching speaking Since Audio-Lingualism is primarily an oral approach to language teaching, it is not surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. As far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of native tongue is discouraged. Classes of ten or less are considered optimal, although larger classes are often the norm. Brooks, as cited in Richards and Rodgers, list the procedures that the teacher should adopt in using Audio-Lingual Method that are: Lesson begins with the modeling of the speaking material by the teacher and the students follow what the teacher said. Then, the students repeat each line of the dialogue, individually and in chorus. While the students are producing the dialogue, the teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation and fluency. If there is any mistake, the teacher needs to correct the mistakes directly and immediately. Then, the students memorize the dialogue gradually and line by line. After they have memorized it, the dialogue is read aloud in chorus, one half saying one speaker and the other half responding. The students are really not allowed to open their book or read the dialogue throughout this phase. After that, to make the learning process more interesting and effective, the dialogue is then adapted to the student.s interest or situation, through changing certain key words or phrases. This phase is acted out by students. The teacher may select certain key structures or sentences from the dialogue and use as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. The selection is based on the current speaking material that is being learned in class. Then, these are practiced in chorus and the individually. After all this process, the students should memorize certain key sentences or structure from the dialogue. Then, the last process of speaking activity is that the teacher divides the student into a group of two and asks them to practice all the dialogue from the text book in front the class.43 D. Thinking Framework The research is done in order to know the effectiveness of CTL in teaching speaking. The writer is interested in this topic because of several facts that found in classroom teaching when doing teaching practice at SMAN 1 Ciputat. The students speaking ability is still low and even there are some students who can.t speak English language at all. Ideally, the students of second year of Senior high school should have a good ability in English language or at least, they can speak in a simple conversation. As we know, that English has been decided as the compulsory subject to learn since 4th year.s grade of elementary school. It means that they have been learning English language for six years. One of the reason of that problem is because the majority of students in the schools are unable to make connections between what they are learning and how that knowledge will be used. This is because the way they process information and their motivation for learning are not touched by the traditional methods of classroom teaching. Audio-Lingual Method, which is often considered as the traditional method, plays a significant role in this matter. In ALM, the students are not fully involved in classroom teaching and they are just functioned as the receiver of knowledge transferred by the teacher. Many time, this situation made them feel boring in facing the English language subject. As a result, the students have a difficult time in understanding academic concepts of English language as

they are commonly taught (that is, using an abstract, lecture method), and they feel difficult to understand the concepts as they relate to the real live situation and to the larger society in which they will live and work. Traditionally, students have been expected to make these connections on their own live and outside the classroom. These facts make them difficult in developing their English language ability. The writer believes that Contextual Teaching and Learning can be a solution to tackle the problem in learning speaking. In a CTL learning environment, students can discover meaningful relationship between abstract ideas and practical applications in a real world context. Meanwhile, CTL also encourages teacher to design learning environment that incorporate many kind of experiences to achieve desired outcomes. The writer believes that the application of CTL in English language teaching will help student in developing their proficiency in speaking and also encourage them to learn well because they are held accountable in their learning process in classroom teaching. Generally, there are several reasons to choose CTL as follows: 1. Students accept more responsibility of their own learning 2. Students enjoy a positive interaction 3. CTL creates a team that enliven learning process 4. Students are encouraged to explore their potency 5. Student are the center of learning process E. Hypotheses This research is to answer the question about the significance different between teaching speaking using Contextual Teaching Learning and teaching speaking using Audio-Lingual Method. Therefore, writer proposed hypotheses as follows: Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): .There is a significant difference between the students. speaking scores taught by contextual Teaching Learning and taught by Audio-Lingual Method., Null Hypothesis (Ho): .There is no significant difference between the students. speaking scores taught by contextual Teaching Learning and taught by Audio-Lingual Method.